Business Communication: communication used to promote a product, service, or organization;
relay information within the business; or deal with legal and similar issues. It is also a means of
relying between a supply chain, for example the consumer and manufacturer.
At its most basic level, the purpose of communication in the workplace is to provide employees
with the information they need to do their jobs.[1]
Business Communication encompasses a variety of topics, including Marketing, Branding,
Customer relations, Consumer behaviour, Advertising, Public relations, Corporate
communication, Community engagement, Research & Measurement, Reputation management,
Interpersonal communication, Employee engagement, Online communication, and Event
management. It is closely related to the fields of professional communication and technical
communication.
Business is conducted through various channels of communication, including the Internet, Print
(Publications), Radio, Television, Ambient media, Outdoor, and Word of mouth.
Business Communication can also refer to internal communication. A communications director
will typically manage internal communication and craft messages sent to employees. It is vital
that internal communications are managed properly because a poorly crafted or managed
message could foster distrust or hostility from employees.[2]
Business Communication is a common topic included in the curricula of Masters of Business
Administration (MBA) programs of many universities.
There are several methods of business communication, including:
Web-based communication - for better and improved communication, anytime anywhere
...
e-mails, which provide an instantaneous medium of written communication worldwide;
Reports - important in documenting the activities of any department;
Presentations - very popular method of communication in all types of organizations,
usually involving audiovisual material, like copies of reports, or material prepared in
Microsoft PowerPoint or Adobe Flash;
telephoned meetings, which allow for long distance speech;
forum boards, which allow people to instantly post information at a centralized location;
and
face to face meetings, which are personal and should be succeeded by a written followup.
Communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Communication (disambiguation).
Communication is a process of transferring information from one source to another.
Communication processes are sign-mediated interactions between at least two agents which
share a repertoire of signs and semiotic rules. Communication is commonly defined as "the
imparting or interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information by speech, writing, or signs".
Communication can be perceived as a two-way process in which there is an exchange and
progression of thoughts, feelings or ideas towards a mutually accepted[clarification needed] goal or
direction.
Communication as an academic discipline has a long history. [1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 Types of communication
o 2.1 Dialogue or verbal communication
o 2.2 Nonverbal communication
o 2.3 Visual communication
o 2.4 Other types of communication
3 Communication modelling
4 Non-human living organisms communication
o 4.1 Plants and fungi
5 Communication as academic discipline
6 References
7 See also
8 Further reading
9 External links
[edit] Overview
Communication is a process whereby information is encoded and imparted by sender to a
receiver via a channel/medium. The receiver then decodes the message and gives the sender a
feedback. Communication requires that all parties have an area of communicative commonality.
There are auditory means, such as speaking, singing and sometimes tone of voice, and nonverbal,
physical means, such as body language, sign language, paralanguage, touch, eye contact, by
using writing.
Communication is thus a process by which we assign and convey meaning in an attempt to create
shared understanding. This process requires a vast repertoire of skills in intrapersonal and
interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, and evaluating.
It is through communication that collaboration and cooperation occur.[2]
There are also many common barriers to successful communication, two of which are message
overload (when a person receives too many messages at the same time), and message
complexity.[3]
[edit] Types of communication
There are three major parts in human face to face communication which are body language,
voice tonality, and words. According to the research:[4]
55% of impact is determined by body language—postures, gestures, and eye contact,
38% by the tone of voice, and
7% by the content or the words used in the communication process.
Although the exact percentage of influence may differ from variables such as the listener and the
speaker, communication as a whole strives for the same goal and thus, in some cases, can be
universal. System of signals, such as voice sounds, intonations or pitch, gestures or written
symbols which communicate thoughts or feelings. If a language is about communicating with
signals, voice, sounds, gestures, or written symbols, can animal communications be considered
as a language? Animals do not have a written form of a language, but use a language to
communicate with each another. In that sense, an animal communication can be considered as a
separate language.
Human spoken and written languages can be described as a system of symbols (sometimes
known as lexemes) and the grammars (rules) by which the symbols are manipulated. The word
"language" is also used to refer to common properties of languages. Language learning is normal
in human childhood. Most human languages use patterns of sound or gesture for symbols which
enable communication with others around them. There are thousands of human languages, and
these seem to share certain properties, even though many shared properties have exceptions.
There is no defined line between a language and a dialect, but the linguist Max Weinreich is
credited as saying that "a language is a dialect with an army and a navy". Constructed languages
such as Esperanto, programming languages, and various mathematical formalisms are not
necessarily restricted to the properties shared by human languages.
[edit] Dialogue or verbal communication
A dialogue is a reciprocal conversation between two or more entities. The etymological origins
of the word (in Greek διά(diá,through) + λόγος(logos, word,speech) concepts like flowing-
through meaning) do not necessarily convey the way in which people have come to use the word,
with some confusion between the prefix διά-(diá-,through) and the prefix δι- (di-, two) leading to
the assumption that a dialogue is necessarily between only two parties.
[edit] Nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication is the process of communicating through sending and receiving
wordless messages. Such messages can be communicated through gesture, body language or
posture; facial expression and eye contact, object communication such as clothing, hairstyles or
even architecture, or symbols and infographics, as well as through an aggregate of the above,
such as behavioral communication. Nonverbal communication plays a key role in every person's
day to day life, from employment to romantic engagements.
Speech may also contain nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including voice quality,
emotion and speaking style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress.
Likewise, written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement
of words, or the use of emoticons.A portmanteau of the English words emotion (or emote) and
icon, an emoticon is a symbol or combination of symbols used to convey emotional content in
written or message form.
Other communication channels such as telegraphy fit into this category, whereby signals travel
from person to person by an alternative means. These signals can in themselves be representative
of words, objects or merely be state projections. Trials have shown that humans can
communicate directly in this way[5] without body language, voice tonality or words.
[edit] Visual communication
Visual communication as the name suggests is communication through visual aid. It is the
conveyance of ideas and information in forms that can be read or looked upon. Primarily
associated with two dimensional images, it includes: signs, typography, drawing, graphic design,
illustration, colour and electronic resources. It solely relies on vision. It is form of
communication with visual effect. It explores the idea that a visual message with text has a
greater power to inform, educate or persuade a person. It is communication by presenting
information through visual form.
The evaluation of a good visual design is based on measuring comprehension by the audience,
not on aesthetic or artistic preference. There are no universally agreed-upon principles of beauty
and ugliness. There exists a variety of ways to present information visually, like gestures, body
languages, video and TV. Here, focus is on the presentation of text, pictures, diagrams, photos, et
cetera, integrated on a computer display. The term visual presentation is used to refer to the
actual presentation of information. Recent research in the field has focused on web design and
graphically oriented usability. Graphic designers use methods of visual communication in their
professional practice.
[edit] Other types of communication
Other more specific types of communication are for example:
Facilitated communication
Graphic communication
Nonviolent Communication
Science communication
Strategic Communication
Superluminal communication
Technical communication
[edit] Communication modelling
Communication major dimensions scheme
Communication code scheme
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Content (what type of things
are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel
(through which medium), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and the purpose or
pragmatic aspect. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and
experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in
one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group
communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent
towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as
a corporation or group of beings).
Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of
semiotic rules:
1. Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),
2. pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and
3. semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent).
Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a
common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rules in some
sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self-
talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative
competences within social interactions.
In a simple model, information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some
form (as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. In
a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. A particular
instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender's personal filters and the receiver's
personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which
may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of "communication noise"
on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty,
and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode-
transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the
sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a code book, and that these two
code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is
implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many
conceptual difficulties.
Theories of coregulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process,
rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the
theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use
will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves
out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called 'Space
Binding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables
the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and
'Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority
generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their
society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
The Krishi Vigyan Kendra Kannur under Kerala Agricultural University has pioneered a new
branch of agricultural communication called Creative Extension.
[edit] Non-human living organisms communication
Communication in many of its facets is not limited to humans, or even to primates. Every
information exchange between living organisms — i.e. transmission of signals involving a living
sender and receiver — can be considered a form of communication. Thus, there is the broad field
of animal communication, which encompasses most of the issues in ethology. Also very
primitive animals such as corals are competent to communicate.[6] On a more basic level, there is
cell signaling, cellular communication, and chemical communication between primitive
organisms like bacteria,[7] and within the plant and fungal kingdoms. All of these communication
processes are sign-mediated interactions with a great variety of distinct coordinations.
Animal communication is any behaviour on the part of one animal that has an effect on the
current or future behavior of another animal. Of course, human communication can be subsumed
as a highly developed form of animal communication. The study of animal communication,
called zoosemiotics' (distinguishable from anthroposemiotics, the study of human
communication) has played an important part in the development of ethology, sociobiology, and
the study of animal cognition. This is quite evident as humans are able to communicate with
animals, especially dolphins and other animals used in circuses. However, these animals have to
learn a special means of communication. Animal communication, and indeed the understanding
of the animal world in general, is a rapidly growing field, and even in the 21st century so far,
many prior understandings related to diverse fields such as personal symbolic name use, animal
emotions, animal culture and learning, and even sexual conduct, long thought to be well
understood, have been revolutionized.
[edit] Plants and fungi
Among plants, communication is observed within the plant organism, i.e. within plant cells and
between plant cells, between plants of the same or related species, and between plants and non-
plant organisms, especially in the rootzone. Plant roots communicate in parallel with rhizobia
bacteria, with fungi and with insects in the soil. This parallel sign-mediated interactions which
are governed by syntactic, pragmatic and semantic rules are possible because of the decentralized
"nervous system" of plants. As recent research shows 99% of intraorganismic plant
communication processes are neuronal-like. Plants also communicate via volatiles in the case of
herbivory attack behavior to warn neighboring plants. In parallel they produce other volatiles
which attract parasites which attack these herbivores. In Stress situations plants can overwrite the
genetic code they inherited from their parents and revert to that of their grand- or great-
grandparents.[8]
Fungi communicate to coordinate and organize their own growth and development such as the
formation of mycelia and fruiting bodies. Additionally fungi communicate with same and related
species as well as with nonfungal organisms in a great variety of symbiotic interactions,
especially with bacteria, unicellular eukaryotes, plants and insects. The used semiochemicals are
of biotic origin and they trigger the fungal organism to react in a specific manner, in difference
while to even the same chemical molecules are not being a part of biotic messages doesn‘t
trigger to react the fungal organism. It means, fungal organisms are competent to identify the
difference of the same molecules being part of biotic messages or lack of these features. So far
five different primary signalling molecules are known that serve to coordinate very different
behavioral patterns such as filamentation, mating, growth, pathogenicity. Behavioral
coordination and the production of such substances can only be achieved through interpretation
processes: self or non-self, abiotic indicator, biotic message from similar, related, or non-related
species, or even ―noise‖, i.e., similar molecules without biotic content-[9]
[edit] Communication as academic discipline
Communication as an academic discipline, sometimes called "communicology,"[10] relates to all
the ways we communicate, so it embraces a large body of study and knowledge. The
communication discipline includes both verbal and nonverbal messages. A body of scholarship
all about communication is presented and explained in textbooks, electronic publications, and
academic journals. In the journals, researchers report the results of studies that are the basis for
an ever-expanding understanding of how we all communicate.
Communication happens at many levels (even for one single action), in many different ways, and
for most beings, as well as certain machines. Several, if not all, fields of study dedicate a portion
of attention to communication, so when speaking about communication it is very important to be
sure about what aspects of communication one is speaking about. Definitions of communication
range widely, some recognizing that animals can communicate with each other as well as human
beings, and some are more narrow, only including human beings within the parameters of human
symbolic interaction.
Behavioral communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Behavioral Communication is a psychological construct that addresses people's use of day-to-
day behaviors as a form of communication. Specifically, it refers to people's tendency to express
feelings, needs, and thoughts by means of indirect messages and behavioral impacts.
Basically, any behavior (or its absence when one is expected) may be judged as communicative
if it has the intent to convey a message. For example, an expressive hairstyle, a show of a certain
emotion (or emotional withdrawal), or simply doing (or not doing) the dishes all can be means
by which people may convey messages to each other.
The construct of behavioral communication is conceived as a variable of Individual differences.
This means that some people more than others tend to engage in behavioral communication in
spite of the plausible alternatives of using verbal communication.
A measure of the construct, The Behavioral Communication Questionnaire (M. Ivanov, 2008),
has been introduced at the Society for Personality Assessment conference in March, 2008.
The conceptual framework of the construct has been presented at Western Psychological
Association Conference in April, 2008
Autocommunication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Autocommunication is a term used in communication studies, semiotics and other cultural
studies to describe communication from and to oneself. This is distinguished from the more
traditionally studied form of communication where the sender and the receiver of the message
are separate. This can be called heterocommunication.
Where heterocommunication gives the receiver new information, autocommunication does not.
Instead it enchances and restructures the receiver's ego. Both forms of communication can be
found either in individuals or within organisations. When autocommunication is done by an
individual it can be called intrapersonal communication.
Autocommunication is typical for religious or artistic works. Prayers, mantras and diaries are
good examples. In organisations and corporations strategic plans and memos, for example, can
function like mantras. But any text (or work) can become autocommunicational if it is read many
times over.
Intrapersonal communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Intrapersonal communication is language use or thought internal to the communicator.
Intrapersonal communication is the active internal involvement of the individual in symbolic
processing of messages. The individual becomes his or her own sender and receiver, providing
feedback to him or herself in an ongoing internal process. It can be useful to envision
intrapersonal communication occurring in the mind of the individual in a model which contains a
sender, receiver, and feedback loop.
Although successful communication is generally defined as being between two or more
individuals, issues concerning the useful nature of communicating with oneself and problems
concerning communication with non-sentient entities such as computers have made some argue
that this definition is too narrow.
In Communication: The Social Matrix of Psychiatry, Jurgen Ruesch and Gregory Bateson argue
that intrapersonal communication is indeed a special case of interpersonal communication, as
"dialogue is the foundation for all discourse."
Intrapersonal communication can encompass:
Day-dreaming
Nocturnal dreaming, including and especially lucid dreaming
Speaking aloud (talking to oneself), reading aloud, repeating what one hears; the
additional activities of speaking and hearing (in the third case of hearing again) what one
thinks, reads or hears may increase concentration and retention. This is considered
normal, and the extent to which it occurs varies from person to person. The time when
there should be concern is when talking to oneself occurs outside of socially acceptable
situations.[1]
Writing (by hand, or with a wordprocessor, etc.) one's thoughts or observations: the
additional activities, on top of thinking, of writing and reading back may again increase
self-understanding ("How do I know what I mean until I see what I say?") and
concentration. It aids ordering one's thoughts; in addition it produces a record that can be
used later again. Copying text to aid memorizing also falls in this category.
Making gestures while thinking: the additional activity, on top of thinking, of body
motions, may again increase concentration, assist in problem solving, and assist memory.
Sense-making (see Karl Weick) e.g. interpreting maps, texts, signs, and symbols
Interpreting non-verbal communication (see Albert Mehrabian) e.g. gestures, eye contact
Communication between body parts; e.g. "My stomach is telling me it's time for lunch."
[edit] Intrapersonal communication in dreams
A particularly interesting example is that of a recently designed technique of 'interviewing' one's
dream characters, particularly during lucid dreaming. In the lucid state, the dreamer is aware that
he or she is dreaming, and can proceed to question, in-depth, each dream character, whom are
necessarily understood to be part of the 'self' in either a psychological sense or in the more
scientific sense of each aspect of one's dream arising from one's own brain processes.
Professional communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article may require copy-editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone or spelling. You
can assist by editing it now. (November 2007)
Thi
s
arti
cle
doe
s
not
cite
an
y
ref
ere
nce
s
or
sou
rce
s.
Ple
ase
hel
p
im
pro
ve
this
arti
cle
by
add
ing
cita
tio
ns
to
reli
abl
e
sou
rce
s.
Un
ver
ifia
ble
mat
eria
l
ma
y
be
cha
llen
ged
and
re
mo
ved
.
(No
ve
mb
er
200
7)
Thi
s
arti
cle
ma
y
con
tai
n
ori
gin
al
res
ear
ch
or
un
ver
ifie
d
clai
ms.
Ple
ase
im
pro
ve
the
arti
cle
by
add
ing
ref
ere
nce
s.
See
the
talk
pag
e
for
det
ails
.
(No
ve
mb
er
200
7)
Professional communication encompasses written, oral, and visual communication within a
workplace context. This discipline blends together pedagogical principles of rhetoric,
technology, and software to improve communication in a variety of settings ranging from
technical writing to usability and digital media design. It is a new discipline that focuses on the
study of information and the ways it is created, managed, distributed, and consumed. Since
communication in modern society is a rapidly changing area, the progress of technologies seems
to often outpace the number of expert practitioners available to administer them. This creates a
demand for skilled communicators which continues to exceed the supply of trained
professionals.
The field of professional communication is closely related to that of technical communication
though professional communication encompasses a wider variety of skills. Professional
communicators use strategies, theories, and technologies to more effectively communicate in the
business world.
Successful communication skills are critical to a business because all businesses, though to
varying degrees, involve the following: writing, reading, editing, speaking, listening, software
applications, computer graphics, and internet research. Job candidates with professional
communication backgrounds are more likely to bring to the organization sophisticated
perspectives on society, culture, science, and technology.[citation needed]
Co
nte
nts
[hi
de]
1
P
r
o
f
e
s
s
i
o
n
a
l
c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
t
h
e
o
r
y
2
P
r
o
f
e
s
s
i
o
n
a
l
c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
j
o
u
r
n
a
l
s
3
S
t
u
d
y
i
n
g
p
r
o
f
e
s
s
i
o
n
a
l
c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
4
O
r
g
a
n
i
z
a
t
i
o
n
s
5
S
e
e
a
l
s
o
6
N
o
t
e
s
7
R
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
s
[edit] Professional communication theory
Professional communication draws on theories from fields as different as rhetoric and science,
psychology and philosophy, sociology and linguistics.
Much of professional communication theory is a practical blend of traditional communication
theory, technical writing, rhetorical theory, and ethics. According to Carolyn Miller in What's
Practical about Technical Writing? she refers to professional communication as not simply
workplace activities but also to writing that concerns "human conduct in those activities that
maintain the life of a community." As Nancy Roundy Blyler discusses in her article Research as
Ideology in Professional Communication researchers seek to expand professional
communication theory to include concerns with praxis and social responsibility.
Regarding this social aspect, in "Postmodern Practice: Perspectives and Prospects," Richard C.
Freed defines Professional Communication as "A. discourse directed to a group, or to an
individual operating as a member of the group, with the intent of affecting the group's function,
and/or B. discourse directed from a group, or from an individual operating as a member of the
group, with the intent of affecting the group's function, where group means an entity
intentionally organized and/or run by its members to perform a certain function....Primarily
excluded from this definition of group would be families (who would qualify only if, for
example, their group affiliation were a family business), school classes (which would qualify
only if, for example, they had organized themselves to perform a function outside the classroom-
-for example, to complain about or praise a teacher to a school administrator), and unorganized
aggregates (i.e., masses of people). Primarily excluded from the definition of professional
communication would be diary entries (discourse directed toward the writer), personal
correspondence (discourse directed to one or more readers apart from their group affiliations),
reportage or belletristic discourse (novels, poems, occasional essays--discourse usually written
by individuals and directed to multiple readers not organized as a group), most intraclassroom
communications (for example, classroom discourse composed by students for teachers) and some
technical communications (for example, instructions--for changing a tire, assembling a product,
and the like; again, discourse directed toward readers or listeners apart from their group
affiliations)....Professional communication...would seem different from discourse involving a
single individual apart from a group affiliation communicating with another such person, or a
single individual communicating with a large unorganized aggregate of individuals as suggested
by the term mass communication " (Blyler and Thralls, Professional Communication: The Social
Perspective,[1] (pp. 197-198).
[edit] Professional communication journals
"IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication".
http://ewh.ieee.org/soc/pcs/?q=node/24.
The IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication is a refereed quarterly journal published
since 1957 by the Professional Communication Society of the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The readers represent engineers, technical communicators,
scientists, information designers, editors, linguists, translators, managers, business professionals
and others from around the globe who work as scholars, educators, and/or practitioners. The
readers share a common interest in effective communication in technical workplace and
academic contexts.
The journal's research falls into three main categories: (1) the communication practices of
technical professionals, such as engineers and scientists, (2) the practices of professional
communicators who work in technical or business environments, and (3) research-based methods
for teaching professional communication.
[edit] Studying professional communication
The study of professional communication includes:
the study of rhetoric which serves as a theoretical basis
the study of technical writing which serves as a form of professional communication
the study of visual communication which also uses rhetoric as a theoretical basis for
various aspects of creating visuals
the study of various research methods
Other areas of study include global and cross-cultural communication, marketing and public
relations, technical editing, digital literacy, composition theory, video production, corporate
communication, and publishing. A professional communication program may cater to a very
specialized interest or to several different interests. Professional communication can also be
closely tied to organizational communication.
Students who pursue graduate degrees in professional communication research discourse and
communicative practices in organized contexts, including business, academic, scientific,
technical, and non-profit settings to study how communicative practices shape and are shaped by
culture, technology, history, and theories of communication.
What professional communication encompasses is broad, embracing a diversity of rhetorical
contexts and situations. Areas of study range from the everyday writing of the workplace to
writing pedagogy of the nineteenth century, from the implications of new media on
communicative practices to the theory and design of online learning, and from oral presentations
to the production of websites.
Types of professional documents
Short Reports
Proposals
Case Studies
Lab Reports
Memos
Progress / Interim Reports
Writing for Electronic Media
Technical communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Technical communication is the process of conveying technical information through writing,
speech, and other mediums to a specific audience. Information is usable if the intended audience
can perform an action or make a decision based on it (Johnson-Sheehan 7). Technical
communicators often work collaboratively to create products (deliverables) for various media,
including paper, video, and the Internet. Deliverables include online help user manuals, technical
manuals, specifications, process and procedure manuals, reference cards, training, business
papers and reports.
Technical domains can be of any kind, including the soft and hard sciences, high technology
including computers and software, consumer electronics, and business processes and practices.
Technical communication jobs include the following:
Technical writer
Technical editor
Technical illustrator
Information architect
Usability expert
User interface designer
User experience designer
Technical trainer
Technical translator
Co
nte
nts
[hi
de]
1
H
i
s
t
o
r
y
2
C
o
n
t
e
n
t
c
r
e
a
t
i
o
n
o 2
.
1
D
e
t
e
r
m
i
n
i
n
g
p
u
r
p
o
s
e
a
n
d
a
u
d
i
e
n
c
e
o 2
.
2
C
o
l
l
e
c
t
i
n
g
i
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n
o 2
.
3
O
r
g
a
n
i
z
i
n
g
a
n
d
o
u
t
l
i
n
i
n
g
i
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n
o 2
.
4
W
r
i
t
i
n
g
t
h
e
f
i
r
s
t
d
r
a
f
t
o 2
.
5
R
e
v
i
s
i
n
g
a
n
d
e
d
i
t
i
n
g
2
.
5
.
1
A
d
j
u
s
t
i
n
g
a
n
d
r
e
o
r
g
a
n
i
z
i
n
g
c
o
n
t
e
n
t
2
.
5
.
2
E
d
i
t
i
n
g
f
o
r
s
t
y
l
e
2
.
5
.
3
E
d
i
t
i
n
g
f
o
r
g
r
a
m
m
a
r
2
.
5
.
4
E
d
i
t
f
o
r
c
o
n
t
e
x
t
3
C
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
e
d
l
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
s
4
R
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
s
5
J
o
u
r
n
a
l
s
6
A
s
s
o
c
i
a
t
i
o
n
s
7
S
e
e
a
l
s
o
8
E
x
t
e
r
n
a
l
l
i
n
k
s
[edit] History
The origin of technical communication has been variously attributed to Ancient Greece, The
Renaissance, and the mid 20th Century. However, a clear trend towards the professional field
can be seen from the First World War on, growing out of the need for technology-based
documentation in the military, manufacturing, electronic and aerospace industries. In 1953, two
organizations concerned with improving the practice of technical communication were founded
on the East Coast of the United States: the Society of Technical Writers, and the Association of
Technical Writers and Editors. These organizations merged in 1957 to form the Society of
Technical Writers and Editors, a predecessor of the current Society for Technical
Communication (STC).
[edit] Content creation
Technical communication is sometimes considered a professional task for which organizations
either hire specialized employees, or outsource their needs to communication firms. For
example, a professional writer may work with a company to produce a user manual. Other times,
technical communication is regarded as a responsibility that technical professionals employ on a
daily basis as they work to convey technical information to coworkers and clients. For example,
a computer scientist may need to provide software documentation to fellow programmers or
clients.
The process of developing information products in technical communication begins by ensuring
that the nature of the audience and their need for information is clearly identified. From there the
technical communicator researches and structures the content into a framework that can guide
the detailed development. As the information product is created, the paramount goal is ensuring
that the content can be clearly understood by the intended audience and provides the information
that the audience needs in the most appropriate format. This process, known as the 'Writing
Process', has been a central focus of writing theory since the 1970s, and some contemporary
textbook authors have applied it to technical communication.
Technical communication is important to engineers mainly for the purpose of being professional
and accurate. These reports supply specific information in a concise manner and are very clear in
their meaning if done correctly.
The technical writing process can be divided into five steps:
1. Determine purpose and audience
2. Collect information
3. Organize and outline information
4. Write the first draft
5. Revise and edit
[edit] Determining purpose and audience
All technical communication is done with a particular end in mind. The purpose is usually to
facilitate the communication of ideas and concepts to the audience, but may sometimes be used
to direct the audience in a particular course of action. The importance of the audience is in the
notion that meaning is derived from the audience's interpretation of a piece of work. The purpose
may be something as simple as having the audience understand the details of some technological
system, or to take a particular action using that system. For example, if the workers in a bank
were not properly posting deposits to accounts, someone would write the procedure so these
workers might have the correct procedure. Similarly, a sales manager might wonder which of
two sites would be a more appropriate choice for a new store, so he would ask someone to study
the market and write a report with the recommendations. The sales manager would distribute the
report to all parties involved in making that decision. In each of these instances, the person who
is writing is transferring knowledge from the person who knows to the person who needs to
know. This is the basic definition of technical communication.
The most commonly used form of technical communication is technical writing. Examples of
technical writing include: project proposals, persuasive memos, technical manuals, and users'
guides. Such materials should typically present an (informal) argument and be written
diplomatically. A user's guide for an electronic device typically includes diagrams along with
detailed textual explanations. The purpose should serve as a goal that the writer strives toward in
writing.
The identification of the audience affects many aspects of communication, from word selection
and graphics usage to style and organization. A non-technical audience might not understand, or
worse yet, even read a document that is heavy with jargon, while a technical audience might
crave extra detail because it is critical for their work. Busy audiences do not have time to read an
entire document, so content must be organized for ease of searching, for example by the frequent
inclusion of headers, white space and other cues that guide attention. Other requirements vary on
the needs of the particular audience.
Examples:
In Government:
Technical communication in the government is very particular and detailed. Depending on the
particular segment of the government (and not to mention the particular country), the
government component must follow distinct specifications. In the case of the US Army, the
MIL-spec (Military specification) is used. It is updated continuously and technical
communications (in the form of Technical Manuals, Interactive Electronic Technical Manuals,
Technical Bulletins, etc.) must be updated as well.
The Department of Defense utilizes Technical Manuals regularly and is a core part of the
agency's responsibilities. Although detail oriented in their requirements, the DoD has
deficiencies in technical communication. The following paper discusses those deficiencies and
identifies the major contributing factors.
Duffy, Thomas M.; and others. (1985). Technical Manual Production: An Examination of Four
Systems. CDC Technical Report No. 19. Carnegie- Mellon University, Pittsburg, PA.
http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/2f/2c/63.
pdf
[edit] Collecting information
The next step is to collect information needed for accomplishing the stated purpose. Information
may be collected through primary research, where the technical communicator conducts research
first-hand, and secondary research, where work published by another person is used as an
information source. The technical communicator must acknowledge all sources used to produce
his or her work. To ensure that this is done, the technical communicator should distinguish
quotations, paraphrases, and summaries when taking notes.
[edit] Organizing and outlining information
Before writing the initial draft, all the ideas are organized in a way that will make the document
flow nicely. A good way of doing this is to write all random thoughts down on a paper, and then
circle all main sections, connect the main sections to supporting ideas with lines, and delete all
irrelevant material.
Once each idea is organized, the writer can then organize the document as a whole. This can be
accomplished in various ways:
Chronological: This is used for documents that involve a linear process, such as a step-
by-step guide describing how to accomplish something.
Parts of an object: Used for documents which describe the parts of an object, such as a
graphic showing the parts of a computer (keyboard, monitor, mouse, etc.)
Simple to Complex (or vice versa): Starts with the easy-to-understand ideas, and
gradually goes deeper into complex ideas.
Specific to General: Starts with many ideas, and then organizes the ideas into sub-
categories.
General to Specific: Starts with a few categories of ideas, and then goes deeper.
Once the whole document is organized, it's a good idea to create a final outline, which will show
all the ideas in an easy-to-understand document. Creating an outline makes the entire writing
process much easier and will save the author time.
[edit] Writing the first draft
After the outline is completed, the next step is to write the first draft. The goal is to write down
ideas from the outline as quickly as possible. Setting aside blocks of one hour or more, in a place
free of distractions, will help the writer maintain a flow. Also, the writer should wait until the
draft is complete to do any revising; stopping to revise at this stage will break the writer's flow.
The writer should start with the section that is easiest for them, and write the summary only after
the body is drafted.
The ABC (Abstract, Body, and Conclusion) format can be used when writing a first draft. The
Abstract describes the subject to be written about, so that the reader knows what he or she is
going to be told in the document. The Body is the majority of the paper, in which the topics are
covered in depth. Lastly, the Conclusion section restates the main topics of the paper.
The ABC format can also be applied to individual paragraphs, beginning with a topic sentence
that clearly states the paragraph's topic. This is followed by the topic, and finally, the paragraph
closes with a concluding sentence.
[edit] Revising and editing
Once the initial draft is laid out, editing and revising can be done to fine-tune the draft into a
final copy. Four tasks transform the early draft into its final form, suggested by Pfeiffer and
Boogard:
[edit] Adjusting and reorganizing content
During this step, the draft is revisited to 1) focus or elaborate on certain topics which deserve
more attention, 2) shorten other sections, and 3) shift around certain paragraphs, sentences, or
entire topics.
[edit] Editing for style
Good style makes the writing more interesting, appealing, or readable. Some changes are made
by choice, not for correctness, and may include:
shortening paragraphs
rearranging paragraphs
changing passive-voice sentences to an active voice
shortening sentences
defining terminology
adding headings, lists, graphics
[edit] Editing for grammar
At this point, the document can be checked for grammatical errors, such as comma usage and
common word confusions (for example, there/their/they're).
[edit] Edit for context
Determining the necessary amount of context is important. There needs to be a balance between
exuberance, which may lead the audience to take unintended additional meaning from the text,
and terseness, which may leave the audience unable to interpret meaning because of lack of
context.
[edit] Controlled languages
In environments where readability and (automated) translatability are of primary concern,
authors may be using a controlled language, i.e. a subset of natural languages whose grammars
and dictionaries have been restricted. An example of a widely used controlled language is
Simplified English, which was originally developed for aerospace industry maintenance
manuals.
Organizational communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Thi
s
arti
cle
ma
y
req
uir
e
cle
an
up
to
me
et
Wi
kip
edi
a's
qu
alit
y
sta
nd
ard
s.
Ple
ase
im
pro
ve
this
arti
cle
if
you
can
.
(M
ay
200
9)
Organizational communication is a subfield of the larger discipline of communication studies.
Organizational communication, as a field, is the consideration, analysis, and criticism of the role
of communication in organizational contexts.
Co
nte
nts
[hi
de]
1
H
i
s
t
o
r
y
o
f
O
r
g
a
n
i
z
a
t
i
o
n
a
l
C
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
2
A
s
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n
s
u
n
d
e
r
l
y
i
n
g
e
a
r
l
y
o
r
g
a
n
i
z
a
t
i
o
n
a
l
c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
o 2
.
1
C
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
s
n
e
t
w
o
r
k
s
3
D
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
o
f
c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
4
I
n
t
e
r
p
e
r
s
o
n
a
l
c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
5
R
e
s
e
a
r
c
h
i
n
o
r
g
a
n
i
z
a
t
i
o
n
a
l
c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
o 5
.
1
R
e
s
e
a
r
c
h
m
e
t
h
o
d
o
l
o
g
i
e
s
6
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
R
e
s
e
a
r
c
h
T
o
p
i
c
s
i
n
O
r
g
a
n
i
z
a
t
i
o
n
a
l
C
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
7
S
e
e
a
l
s
o
8
N
o
t
e
s
9
R
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
s
1
0
E
x
t
e
r
n
a
l
l
i
n
k
s
[edit] History of Organizational Communication
The field traces its lineage through business information, business communication, and early
mass communication studies published in the 1930s through the 1950s. Until then, organizational
communication as a discipline consisted of a few professors within speech departments who had
a particular interest in speaking and writing in business settings. The current field is well
established with its own theories and empirical concerns distinct from other communication
subfields and other approaches to organizations.
Several seminal publications stand out as works broadening the scope and recognizing the
importance of communication in the organizing process, and in using the term "organizational
communication". Nobel Laureate Herbert Simon wrote in 1947 about "organization
communications systems", saying communication is "absolutely essential to organizations".[1]
In the 1950s, organizational communication focused largely on the role of communication in
improving organizational life and organizational output. In the 1980s, the field turned away from
a business-oriented approach to communication and became concerned more with the
constitutive role of communication in organizing. In the 1990s, critical theory influence on the
field was felt as organizational communication scholars focused more on communication's
possibilities to oppress and liberate organizational members.
[edit] Assumptions underlying early organizational communication
Some of the main assumptions underlying much of the early organizational communication
research were:
Humans act rationally. Sane people behave in rational ways, they generally have access
to all of the information needed to make rational decisions they could articulate, and
therefore will make rational decisions, unless there is some breakdown in the
communication process.
Formal logic and empirically verifiable data ought to be the foundation upon which any
theory should rest. All we really need to understand communication in organizations is
(a) observable and replicable behaviors that can be transformed into variables by some
form of measurement, and (b) formally replicable syllogisms that can extend theory from
observed data to other groups and settings
Communication is primarily a mechanical process, in which a message is constructed and
encoded by a sender, transmitted through some channel, then received and decoded by a
receiver. Distortion, represented as any differences between the original and the received
messages, can and ought to be identified and reduced or eliminated.
Organizations are mechanical things, in which the parts (including employees functioning
in defined roles) are interchangeable. What works in one organization will work in
another similar organization. Individual differences can be minimized or even eliminated
with careful management techniques.
Organizations function as a container within which communication takes place. Any
differences in form or function of communication between that occurring in an
organization and in another setting can be identified and studied as factors affecting the
communicative activity.
Herbert Simon introduced the concept of bounded rationality which challenged assumptions
about the perfect rationality of communication participants. He maintained that people making
decisions in organizations seldom had complete information, and that even if more information
was available, they tended to pick the first acceptable option, rather than exploring further to
pick the optimal solution.
Through the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s the field expanded greatly in parallel with several other
academic disciplines, looking at communication as more than an intentional act designed to
transfer an idea. Research expanded beyond the issue of "how to make people understand what I
am saying" to tackle questions such as "how does the act of communicating change, or even
define, who I am?", "why do organizations that seem to be saying similar things achieve very
different results?" and "to what extent are my relationships with others affected by our various
organizational contexts?"
In the early 1990s Peter Senge developed a new theories on Organizational Communication. This
theories were learning organization and systems thinking. These have been well received and are
now a mainstay in current beliefs toward organizational communications.
[edit] Communications networks
Networks are another aspect of direction and flow of communication. Bavelas has shown that
communication patterns, or networks, influence groups in several important ways.
Communication networks may affect the group's completion of the assigned task on time, the
position of the de facto leader in the group, or they may affect the group members' satisfaction
from occupying certain positions in the network. Although these findings are based on laboratory
experiments, they have important implications for the dynamics of communication in formal
organizations.
There are several patterns of communication:
"Chain",
"Wheel",
"Star",
"All-Channel" network,
"Circle".[2]
The Chain can readily be seen to represent the hierarchical pattern that characterizes strictly
formal information flow, "from the top down," in military and some types of business
organizations. The Wheel can be compared with a typical autocratic organization, meaning one-
man rule and limited employee participation. The Star is similar to the basic formal structure of
many organizations. The All-Channel network, which is an elaboration of Bavelas's Circle used
by Guetzkow, is analogous to the free-flow of communication in a group that encourages all of
its members to become involved in group decision processes. The All-Channel network may also
be compared to some of the informal communication networks.
If it's assumed that messages may move in both directions between stations in the networks, it is
easy to see that some individuals occupy key positions with regard to the number of messages
they handle and the degree to which they exercise control over the flow of information. For
example, the person represented by the central dot in the "Star" handles all messages in the
group. In contrast, individuals who occupy stations at the edges of the pattern handle fewer
messages and have little or no control over the flow of information.These "peripheral"
individuals can communicate with only one or two other persons and must depend entirely on
others to relay their messages if they wish to extend their range.
In reporting the results of experiments involving the Circle, Wheel, and Star configurations,
Bavelas came to the following tentative conclusions. In patterns with positions located centrally,
such as the Wheel and the Star, an organization quickly develops around the people occupying
these central positions. In such patterns, the organization is more stable and errors in
performance are lower than in patterns having a lower degree of centrality, such as the Circle.
However, he also found that the morale of members in high centrality patterns is relatively low.
Bavelas speculated that this lower morale could, in the long run, lower the accuracy and speed of
such networks.
In problem solving requiring the pooling of data and judgments, or "insight," Bavelas suggested
that the ability to evaluate partial results, to look at alternatives, and to restructure problems fell
off rapidly when one person was able to assume a more central (that is, more controlling)
position in the information flow. For example, insight into a problem requiring change would be
less in the Wheel and the Star than in the Circle or the Chain because of the "bottlenecking"
effect of data control by central members.
It may be concluded from these laboratory results that the structure of communications within an
organization will have a significant influence on the accuracy of decisions, the speed with which
they can be reached, and the satisfaction of the people involved. Consequently, in networks in
which the responsibility for initiating and passing along messages is shared more evenly among
the members, the better the group's morale in the long run.
[edit] Direction of communication
If it's considered formal communications as they occur in traditional military organizations,
messages have a "one-way" directional characteristic. In the military organization, the formal
communication proceeds from superior to subordinate, and its content is presumably clear
because it originates at a higher level of expertise and experience. Military communications also
carry the additional assumption that the superior is responsible for making his communication
clear and understandable to his subordinates. This type of organization assumes that there is little
need for two-way exchanges between organizational levels except as they are initiated by a
higher level. Because messages from superiors are considered to be more important than those
from subordinates, the implicit rule is that communication channels, except for prescribed
information flows, should not be cluttered by messages from subordinates but should remain
open and free for messages moving down the chain of command. "Juniors should be seen and not
heard," is still an unwritten, if not explicit, law of military protocol.
Vestiges of one-way flows of communication still exist in many formal organizations outside the
military, and for many of the same reasons as described above.Although management recognizes
that prescribed information must flow both downward and upward, managers may not always be
convinced that two-wayness should be encouraged. For example, to what extent is a subordinate
free to communicate to his superior that he understands or does not understand a message? Is it
possible for him to question the superior, ask for clarification, suggest modifications to
instructions he has received, or transmit unsolicited messages to his superior, which are not
prescribed by the rules? To what extent does the one-way rule of direction affect the efficiency
of communication in the organization, in addition to the morale and motivation of subordinates?
These are not merely procedural matters but include questions about the organizational climate,
pr psychological atmosphere in which communication takes place. Harold Leavitt has suggested
a simple experiment that helps answer some of these questions.[3] А group is assigned the task of
re-creating on paper a set of rectangular figures, first as they are described by the leader under
one-way conditions, and second as they are described by the leader under two-way conditions.(A
different configuration of rectangles is used in the second trial.) In the one-way trial, the leader's
back is turned to the group. He describes the rectangles as he sees them. No one in the group is
allowed to ask questions and no one may indicate by any audible or visible sign his
understanding or his frustration as he attempts to follow the leader's directions. In the two-way
trial, the leader faces the group. In this case, the group may ask for clarifications on his
description of the rectangles and he can not only see but also can feel and respond to the
emotional reactions of group members as they try to re-create his instructions on paper.
On the basis of a number of experimental trials similar to the one described above, Leavitt
formed these conclusions:
1. One-way communication is faster than two-way communication.
2. Two-way communication is more accurate than one-way communication.
3. Receivers are more sure of themselves and make more correct judgments of how right or
wrong they are in the two-way system.
4. The sender feels psychologically under attack in the two-way system, because his
receivers pick up his mistakes and oversights and point them out to him.
5. The two-way method is relatively noisier and looks more disorderly. The one-way
method, on the other hand, appears neat and efficient to an outside observer.[3]
Thus, if speed is necessary, if a businesslike appearance is important, if a manager does not want
his mistakes recognized, and if he wants to protect his power, then one-way communication
seems preferable. In contrast, if the manager wants to get his message across, or if he is
concerned about his receivers' feeling that they are participating and are making a contribution,
the two-way system is better.
[edit] Interpersonal communication
Main article: Interpersonal communication
Another facet of communication in the organization is the process of face-to-face, interpersonal
communication, between individuals. Such communication may take several forms. Messages
may be verbal (that is, expressed in words), or they may not involve words at all but consist of
gestures, facial expressions, and certain postures ("body language"). Nonverbal messages may
even stem from silence.[4]
Ideally, the meanings sent are the meanings received. This is most often the case when the
messages concern something that can be verified objectively. For example, "This piece of pipe
fits the threads on the coupling." In this case, the receiver of the message can check the sender's
words by actual trial, if necessary. However, when the sender's words describe a feeling or an
opinion about something that cannot be checked objectively, meanings can be very unclear.
"This work is too hard" or "Watergate was politically justified" are examples of opinions or
feelings that cannot be verified. Thus they are subject to interpretation and hence to distorted
meanings. The receiver's background of experience and learning may differ enough from that of
the sender to cause significantly different perceptions and evaluations of the topic under
discussion. As we shall see later, such differences form a basic barrier to communication.[4]
Nonverbal content always accompanies the verbal content of messages. This is reasonably clear
in the case of face-to-face communication. As Virginia Satir has pointed out, people cannot help
but communicate symbolically (for example, through their clothing or possessions) or through
some form of body language. In messages that are conveyed by the telephone, a messenger, or a
letter, the situation or context in which the message is sent becomes part of its non-verbal
content. For example, if the company has been losing money, and in a letter to the production
division, the front office orders a reorganization of the shipping and receiving departments, this
could be construed to mean that some people were going to lose their jobs — unless it were
made explicitly clear that this would not occur.[5]
A number of variables influence the effectiveness of communication. Some are found in the
environment in which communication takes place, some in the personalities of the sender and the
receiver, and some in the relationship that exists between sender and receiver. These different
variables suggest some of the difficulties of communicating with understanding between two
people. The sender wants to formulate an idea and communicate it to the receiver. This desire to
communicate may arise from his thoughts or feelings or it may have been triggered by something
in the environment. The communication may also be influenced or distorted by the relationship
between the sender and the receiver, such as status differences, a staff-line relationship, or a
learner-teacher relationship.[5]
Whatever its origin, information travels through a series of filters, both in the sender and in the
receiver, before the idea can be transmitted and re-created in the receiver's mind. Physical
capacities to see, hear, smell, taste, and touch vary between people, so that the image of reality
may be distorted even before the mind goes to work. In addition to physical or sense filters,
cognitive filters, or the way in which an individual's mind interprets the world around him, will
influence his assumptions and feelings. These filters will determine what the sender of a message
says, how he says it, and with what purpose. Filters are present also in the receiver, creating a
double complexity that once led Robert Louis Stevenson to say that human communication is
"doubly relative". It takes one person to say something and another to decide what he said.[6]
Physical and cognitive, including semantic filters (which decide the meaning of words) combine
to form a part of our memory system that helps us respond to reality. In this sense, March and
Simon compare a person to a data processing system. Behavior results from an interaction
between a person's internal state and environmental stimuli. What we have learned through past
experience becomes an inventory, or data bank, consisting of values or goals, sets of
expectations and preconceptions about the consequences of acting one way or another, and a
variety of possible ways of responding to the situation. This memory system determines what
things we will notice and respond to in the environment. At the same time, stimuli in the
environment help to determine what parts of the memory system will be activated. Hence, the
memory and the environment form an interactive system that causes our behavior. As this
interactive system responds to new experiences, new learnings occur which feed back into
memory and gradually change its content. This process is how people adapt to a changing
world.[6]
[edit] Research in organizational communication
[edit] Research methodologies
Historically, organizational communication was driven primarily by quantitative research
methodologies. Included in functional organizational communication research are statistical
analyses (such as surveys, text indexing, network mapping and behavior modeling). In the early
1980s, the interpretive revolution took place in organizational communication. In Putnam and
Pacanowsky's 1983 text Communication and Organizations: An Interpretive Approach. they
argued for opening up methodological space for qualitative approaches such as narrative
analyses, participant-observation, interviewing, rhetoric and textual approaches readings) and
philosophic inquiries.
During the 1980s and 1990s critical organizational scholarship began to gain prominence with a
focus on issues of gender, race, class, and power/knowledge. In its current state, the study of
organizational communication is open methodologically, with research from post-positive,
interpretive, critical, postmodern, and discursive paradigms being published regularly.
Organizational communication scholarship appears in a number of communication journals
including but not limited to Management Communication Quarterly, Journal of Applied
Communication Research, Communication Monographs, Academy of Management Journal,
Communication Studies, and Southern Communication Journal.
[edit] Current Research Topics in Organizational Communication
The field of organizational communication has moved from acceptance of mechanistic models
(e.g., information moving from a sender to a receiver) to a study of the persistent, hegemonic and
taken-for-granted ways in which we not only use communication to accomplish certain tasks
within organizational settings (e.g., public speaking) but also how the organizations in which we
participate affect us.
These approaches include "postmodern", "critical", "participatory", "feminist", "power/political",
"organic", etc. and adds to disciplines as wide-ranging as sociology, philosophy, theology,
psychology, business, business administration, institutional management, medicine (health
communication), neurology (neural nets), semiotics, anthropology, international relations, and
music.
Currently, some topics of research and theory in the field are:
Constitution, e.g.,
how communicative behaviors construct or modify organizing processes or products
how the organizations within which we interact affect our communicative behaviors, and
through these, our own identities
structures other than organizations which might be constituted through our
communicative activity (e.g., markets, cooperatives, tribes, political parties, social
movements)
when does something "become" an organization? When does an organization become
(an)other thing(s)? Can one organization "house" another? Is the organization still a
useful entity/thing/concept, or has the social/political environment changed so much that
what we now call "organization" is so different from the organization of even a few
decades ago that it cannot be usefully tagged with the same word--"organization"?
Narrative, e.g.,
how do group members employ narrative to acculturate/initiate/indoctrinate new
members?
do organizational stories act on different levels? Are different narratives purposively
invoked to achieve specific outcomes, or are there specific roles of "organizational
storyteller"? If so, are stories told by the storyteller received differently than those told by
others in the organization?
in what ways does the organization attempt to influence storytelling about the
organization? under what conditions does the organization appear to be more or less
effective in obtaining a desired outcome?
when these stories conflict with one another or with official rules/policies, how are the
conflicts worked out? in situations in which alternative accounts are available, who or
how or why are some accepted and others rejected?
Identity, e.g.,
who do we see ourselves to be, in terms of our organizational affiliations?
do communicative behaviors or occurrences in one or more of the organizations in which
we participate effect changes in us? to what extent are we comprised of the organizations
to which we belong?
is it possible for individuals to successfully resist organizational identity? what would
that look like?
do people who define themselves by their work-organizational membership communicate
differently within the organizational setting than people who define themselves more by
an avocational (non-vocational) set of relationships?
for example, researchers have studied how human service workers and firefighters use
humor at their jobs as a way to affirm their identity in the face of various challenges
Tracy, S.J.; K. K. Myers; C. W. Scott (2006). "Cracking Jokes and Crafting Selves:
Sensemaking and Identity Management Among Human Service Workers".
Communication Monographs 73: 283–308. doi:10.1080/03637750600889500.. Others
have examined the identities of police organizations, prison guards, and professional
women workers.
Interrelatedness of organizational experiences, e.g.,
how do our communicative interactions in one organizational setting affect our
communicative actions in other organizational settings?
how do the phenomenological experiences of participants in a particular organizational
setting effect changes in other areas of their lives?
when the organizational status of a member is significantly changed (e.g., by promotion
or expulsion) how are their other organizational memberships affected?
Power e.g.,
how does the use of particular communicative practices within an organizational setting
reinforce or alter the various interrelated power relationships within the setting? Are the
potential responses of those within or around these organizational settings constrained by
factors or processes either within or outside of the organization--(assuming there is an
"outside"?
do taken-for-granted organizational practices work to fortify the dominant hegemonic
narrative? Do individuals resist/confront these practices, through what actions/agencies,
and to what effects?
do status changes in an organization (e.g., promotions, demotions, restructuring,
financial/social strata changes) change communicative behavior? Are there criteria
employed by organizational members to differentiate between "legitimate" (i.e., endorsed
by the formal organizational structure) and "illegitimate" (i.e., opposed by or unknown to
the formal power structure)? Are there "pretenders" or "usurpers" who employ these
communicative behaviors? When are they successful, and what do we even mean by
"successful?"
Why Good Communication
Is Good Business
By Marty Blalock
Why is communication important to business?
Couldn‘t we just produce graduates skilled at
crunching numbers?
Good communication matters because business
organizations are made up of people. As Robert Kent, former
dean of Harvard Business School has said, ―In business,
communication is everything.‖
Research spanning several decades has consistently ranked communication skills as crucial for
managers. Typically, managers spend 75 to 80 percent of their time engaged in some form of
written or oral communication. Although often termed a ―soft‖ skill, communication in a
business organization provides the critical link between core functions. Let‘s examine three
reasons why good communication is important to individuals and their organizations.
Reason 1. Ineffective communication is very expensive.
Communication in a business organization
provides the critical link
between core functions.
The National Commission on Writing estimates that American businesses spend $3.1 billion
annually just training people to write. The Commission surveyed 120 human resource directors
in companies affiliated with the Business Roundtable, an association of chief executive officers
from U.S. corporations.
According to the report of the National Commission on Writing:
People who cannot write and communicate clearly will not be hired,
and if already working, are unlikely to last long enough to be considered
for promotion.
Eighty percent or more of the companies in the services and the
finance, insurance and real estate sectors—the corporations with
greatest employment growth potential—assess writing during hiring.
Two-thirds of salaried employees in large American companies have
some writing responsibility.
More than 40 percent of responding firms offer or require training for
salaried employees with writing deficiencies.
Tips for Communication
• Whether writing or speaking, consider your objectives. What do you want your listeners
or readers to remember or do? To achieve an objective, you need to be able to articulate it.
• Consider your audience. How receptive will it be? If you anticipate positive reception of
your message, you can be more direct.
• Consider your credibility in relation to your audience. Also, consider the organizational
environment. Is it thick or flat, centralized or decentralized? Each will have communication
implications.
• How can you motivate others? Benefits are always your best bet. And if you can establish
common ground, especially at the opening of a message, you can often make your audience
more receptive.
• Think carefully about channel choice, about the advantages and disadvantages of your
choice, and the preferred channels of your audience.
• If you want to have a permanent record or need to convey complex information, use a
channel that involves writing. If your message is sensitive, email may not be the best
choice; the immediacy of face-to-face communication can be preferable, especially when
you would prefer not to have a written record.
Adapted from research on communication strategy by Mary Munter of the Tuck School at
Dartmouth and Jane Thomas of the University of Michigan.
In a New York Times article about the Commission‟s findings, Bob
Kerrey, president of New School University in New York and chair of the
National Commission on Writing, put it this way: “Writing is both a
„marker‟ of high-skill, high-wage, professional work and a „gatekeeper‟
with clear equity implications. People unable to express themselves
clearly in writing limit their opportunities for professional, salaried
employment.” The ability to communicate was rated as the most
important factor in making a manager “promotable” by subscribers to
Harvard Business Review.
Reason 2. The changing environment and increasing complexity of the 21st
century workplace make communication even more important.
Flatter organizations, a more diverse employee base and greater use of teams have all made
communication essential to organizational success. Flatter organizations mean managers must
communicate with many people over whom they may have no formal control. Even with their
own employees, the days when a manager can just order people around are finished. The
autocratic management model of past generations is increasingly being replaced by participatory
management in which communication is the key to build trust, promote understanding and
empower and motivate others.
Because the domestic workforce is growing more diverse, an organization can no longer assume
its employee constituencies are homogeneous. Employees reflect differences in age, ethnic
heritage, race, physical abilities, gender and sexual orientation. Diversity is not just a matter of
social responsibility; it is also an economic issue. Companies are realizing the advantage of
making full use of the creativity, talents, experiences and perspectives of a diverse employee
base.
Teams are the modus operandi in the 21st century workplace. In a recent survey of Fortune 1000
companies, 83 percent reported that their firms use teams; teams are all about communication.
The collaboration that allows organizations to capitalize on the creative potential of a diverse
workforce depends on communication.
Reason 3. The world’s economy is becoming increasingly global.
By the end of the 20th century, 80 percent of U.S. products were competing in international
markets. The direct investment of foreign-based companies grew from $9 trillion in 1966 to
more than $300 trillion in 2002. Many products we assume are American, such as Purina Dog
Chow and KitKat candy bars, are made overseas. Brands we may think are international, Grey
Poupon mustard, Michelin tires and Evian water, are made in the United States.
What We Have Here…
Is a Failure to Communicate
Does business language have to be dull? And full of jargon? And generally mind-numbing?
Brian Fugere, Chelsea Hardaway and Joan Warshawsky don‘t think so. In 2003, the three former
consultants at Deloitte Consulting released a software program called Bullfighter. It includes a
―jargon database‖ and ―Bull Composite Index calculator‖ that allow you to measure just how bad
your writing is.
Better yet, it has a feature that allows you to copy and paste any awful office memo that crosses
your electronic inbox, rate it for readability—or lack thereof—and email the rating anonymously
to the transgressor.
Now the light-hearted trio has a new book on the same subject which is winning excellent
reviews: ―Why Business People Speak Like Idiots: A Bullfighter‘s Guide‖ (176 pages, Free
Press, New York) The book attributes failures in business communication to four common
missteps: the obscurity trap, the anonymity trap, the hard-sell trap and the tedium trap. In fact,
they maintain ―jargon, wordiness and evasiveness are the active ingredients of modern business
speak.‖
But fear not: The book uses humor to help you devise ways to communicate your message —in a
sales pitch, a web page, even an annual report—and avoid ―corporate-speak.‖
—Lari Fanlund
For managers, having international experience is rapidly moving from ―desirable‖ to ―essential.‖
A study by the Columbia University School of Business reported that successful executives must
have multi-environment and multinational experience to become CEOs in the 21st century. The
ability to compete in the global economy is the single greatest challenge facing business today.
Organizations will want to negotiate, buy and sell overseas, consider joint ventures, market and
adapt products for an international market and improve their expatriates‘ success rate. All of this
involves communication.
Products have failed overseas sometimes simply because a name may take on unanticipated
meanings in translation: the Olympic copier Roto in Chile (roto in Spanish means ‗broken‘); the
Chevy Nova in Puerto Rico (no va means ‗doesn‘t go‘); the Randan in Japan (randan means
‗idiot‘); Parker Pen‘s Jotter pen (‗jockstrap‘ in some Latin American markets). This type of
mishap is not an American monopoly: A successful European chocolate and fruit product was
introduced into the U.S. with the unfortunate name ―Zit.‖
Naming a product is communication at its simplest level. The overall implications of
intercultural communication for global business are enormous. Take the case of EuroDisney,
later renamed Disneyland Paris. For the year 1993, the theme park lost approximately US $1
billion. Losses were still at US $1 million a day in 1994-95. There were many reasons for this,
including a recession in Europe, but intercultural insensitivity was also a very important factor.
No attention was paid to the European context or to cultural differences in management practice,
labor relations, or even such simple matters as preferred dining hours or availability of alcohol
and tobacco. EuroDisney signals the danger for business practitioners immersed in financial
forecasting, market studies and management models when they overlook how culture affects
behavior. Few things are more important to conducting business on a global scale than skill in
intercultural communication.
Improve Your Skills
Executive Education offers a three-day course in ―Improving Communication Skills.‖ The
program looks at ways to strengthen interpersonal communications skills, resolve conflicts and
communicate with confidence.
For all these reasons, communication is crucial to business. Specialized business knowledge is
important, but not enough to guarantee success. Communication skills are vital.
Gary Lessuisse, the new assistant dean for master‘s programs at the School of Business, who
recruited UW students for many years for Ford Motor Company, found effective communication
in the workplace to be essential. His advice? Think before you communicate. Be an active
listener. Be focused on your audience in your response. Be brief and be gone.
Marty Blalock is a senior lecturer and coordinator of professional communication at the School
of Business. This fall, she taught a new undergraduate course, Intercultural Communication in
Business. Another new undergraduate business course, Business Presentations and Meetings, is
also being taught this fall by Senior Lecturer Scott Troyan.
Communication & Leadership
No
on
e
wo
uld
tal
k
mu
ch
in
so
cie
ty
if
the
y
kn
ew
ho
w
oft
en
the
y
mi
su
nd
er
sto
od
ot
he
rs.
-
Jo
ha
nn
W
olf
ga
ng
Vo
n
Go
eth
e
Ma
ny
of
the
pro
ble
ms
tha
t
oc
cur
in
an
org
ani
zat
ion
are
the
dir
ect
res
ult
of
pe
opl
e
fail
ing
to
co
m
mu
nic
ate
.
Fa
ult
y
co
m
mu
nic
ati
on
ca
us
es
the
mo
st
pro
ble
ms
. It
lea
ds
to
co
nfu
sio
n
an
d
ca
n
ca
us
ea
go
od
pla
n
to
fail
.
Co
m
mu
nic
ati
on
is
the
ex
ch
an
ge
an
d
flo
w
of
inf
or
ma
tio
n
an
d
ide
as
fro
m
on
e
per
so
n
to
an
oth
er.
It
inv
olv
es
a
se
nd
er
tra
ns
mit
tin
g
an
ide
a
to
a
rec
eiv
er.
Eff
ect
ive
co
m
mu
nic
ati
on
oc
cur
s
onl
y if
the
rec
eiv
er
un
der
sta
nd
s
the
ex
act
inf
or
ma
tio
n
or
ide
a
tha
t
the
se
nd
er
int
en
de
d
to
tra
ns
mit
.
St
ud
yin
g
the
co
m
mu
nic
ati
on
pro
ce
ss
is
im
por
tan
t
be
ca
us
e
yo
u
co
ac
h,
co
ord
ina
te,
co
un
sel
,
ev
alu
ate
,
an
d
su
per
vis
e
thr
ou
gh
thi
s
pro
ce
ss.
It
is
the
ch
ain
of
un
der
sta
ndi
ng
tha
t
int
egr
ate
s
the
me
mb
ers
of
an
org
ani
zat
ion
fro
m
top
to
bot
to
m,
bot
to
m
to
top
,
an
d
sid
e
to
sid
e.
Th
e
Co
m
mu
nic
ati
on
Pr
oce
ss
Co
m
mu
nic
ati
on
Th
at
is
wh
at
we
try
to
do
Sp
ea
k
to
th
os
e
ne
ar
us
o T
h
o
u
g
h
t
:
F
i
r
s
t
,
i
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n
e
x
i
s
t
s
i
n
t
h
e
m
i
n
d
o
f
t
h
e
s
e
n
d
e
r
.
T
h
i
s
c
a
n
b
e
a
c
o
n
c
e
p
t
,
i
d
e
a
,
i
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n
,
o
r
f
e
e
l
i
n
g
s
.
o E
n
c
o
d
i
n
g
:
N
e
x
t
,
a
m
e
s
s
a
g
e
i
s
s
e
n
t
t
o
a
r
e
c
e
i
v
e
r
i
n
w
o
r
d
s
o
r
o
t
h
e
r
s
y
m
b
o
l
s
.
o D
e
c
o
d
i
n
g
:
l
a
s
t
l
y
,
t
h
e
r
e
c
e
i
v
e
r
t
r
a
n
s
l
a
t
e
s
t
h
e
w
o
r
d
s
o
r
s
y
m
b
o
l
s
i
n
t
o
a
c
o
n
c
e
p
t
o
r
i
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n
t
h
a
t
h
e
o
r
s
h
e
c
a
n
u
n
d
e
r
s
t
a
n
d
.
Du
rin
g
the
tra
ns
mit
tin
g
of
the
me
ss
ag
e,
tw
o
ele
me
nts
will
be
rec
eiv
ed:
co
nte
nt
an
d
co
nte
xt.
Co
nte
nt
is
the
act
ual
wo
rds
or
sy
mb
ols
of
the
me
ss
ag
e
wh
ich
is
kn
ow
n
as
la
ng
ua
ge
-
the
sp
ok
en
an
d
wri
tte
n
wo
rds
co
mb
ine
d
int
o
phr
as
es
tha
t
ma
ke
gra
m
ma
tic
al
an
d
se
ma
nti
c
se
ns
e.
We
all
us
e
an
d
int
erp
ret
the
me
ani
ng
s
of
wo
rds
diff
ere
ntl
y,
so
ev
en
si
mp
le
me
ss
ag
es
ca
n
be
mi
su
nd
ers
too
d.
An
d
ma
ny
wo
rds
ha
ve
diff
ere
nt
me
ani
ng
s
to
co
nfu
se
the
iss
ue
ev
en
mo
re.
Co
nte
xt
is
the
wa
y
the
me
ss
ag
e
is
del
ive
red
an
d
is
kn
ow
n
as
pa
ra
la
ng
ua
ge
- it
is
the
no
n
ver
bal
ele
me
nts
in
sp
ee
ch
su
ch
as
the
ton
e
of
voi
ce,
the
loo
k
in
the
se
nd
er'
s
ey
es,
bo
dy
lan
gu
ag
e,
ha
nd
ge
stu
res
,
an
d
sta
te
of
em
oti
on
s
(an
ger
,
fea
r,
un
cer
tai
nty
,
co
nfi
de
nc
e,
etc
.)
tha
t
ca
n
be
det
ect
ed.
Alt
ho
ug
h
par
ala
ng
ua
ge
or
co
nte
xt
oft
en
ca
us
e
me
ss
ag
es
to
be
mi
su
nd
ers
too
d
as
we
bel
iev
e
wh
at
we
se
e
mo
re
tha
n
wh
at
we
he
ar;
the
y
are
po
we
rful
co
m
mu
nic
ato
rs
tha
t
hel
p
us
to
un
der
sta
nd
ea
ch
oth
er.
Ind
ee
d,
we
oft
en
tru
st
the
ac
cur
ac
y
of
no
nv
erb
al
be
ha
vio
rs
mo
re
tha
n
ver
bal
be
ha
vio
rs.
So
me
lea
der
s
thi
nk
the
y
ha
ve
co
m
mu
nic
ate
d
on
ce
the
y
tol
d
so
me
on
e
to
do
so
me
thi
ng,
"I
do
n't
kn
ow
wh
y it
did
not
get
do
ne.
I
tol
d
Ji
m
to
it."
Mo
re
tha
n
lik
ely
,
Ji
m
mi
su
nd
ers
too
d
the
me
ss
ag
e.
A
me
ss
ag
e
ha
s
NO
T
be
en
co
m
mu
nic
ate
d
unl
es
s it
is
un
der
sto
od
by
the
rec
eiv
er
(de
co
de
d).
Ho
w
do
yo
u
kn
ow
it
ha
s
be
en
pro
per
ly
rec
eiv
ed
?
By
tw
o-
wa
y
co
m
mu
nic
ati
on
or
fee
db
ac
k.
Thi
s
fee
db
ac
k
tell
s
the
se
nd
er
tha
t
the
rec
eiv
er
un
der
sto
od
the
me
ss
ag
e,
its
lev
el
of
im
por
tan
ce,
an
d
wh
at
mu
st
be
do
ne
wit
h
it.
Co
m
mu
nic
ati
on
is
an
ex
ch
an
ge,
not
jus
t a
giv
e,
as
all
par
tie
s
mu
st
par
tici
pat
e
to
co
mp
let
e
the
inf
or
ma
tio
n
ex
ch
an
ge.
Ba
rri
ers
to
Co
m
mu
nic
ati
on
No
thi
ng
is
so
si
mp
le
tha
t it
ca
nn
ot
be
mi
su
nd
er
sto
od.
-
Fr
ee
ma
n
Te
ag
ue,
Jr.
An
yth
ing
tha
t
pre
ve
nts
un
der
sta
ndi
ng
of
the
me
ss
ag
e
is
a
bar
rier
to
co
m
mu
nic
ati
on.
Ma
ny
ph
ysi
cal
an
d
ps
yc
hol
ogi
cal
bar
rier
s
exi
st:
o C
u
l
t
u
r
e
,
b
a
c
k
g
r
o
u
n
d
,
a
n
d
b
i
a
s
-
W
e
a
l
l
o
w
o
u
r
p
a
s
t
e
x
p
e
r
i
e
n
c
e
s
t
o
c
h
a
n
g
e
t
h
e
m
e
a
n
i
n
g
o
f
t
h
e
m
e
s
s
a
g
e
.
O
u
r
c
u
l
t
u
r
e
,
b
a
c
k
g
r
o
u
n
d
,
a
n
d
b
i
a
s
c
a
n
b
e
g
o
o
d
a
s
t
h
e
y
a
l
l
o
w
u
s
t
o
u
s
e
o
u
r
p
a
s
t
e
x
p
e
r
i
e
n
c
e
s
t
o
u
n
d
e
r
s
t
a
n
d
s
o
m
e
t
h
i
n
g
n
e
w
,
i
t
i
s
w
h
e
n
t
h
e
y
c
h
a
n
g
e
t
h
e
m
e
a
n
i
n
g
o
f
t
h
e
m
e
s
s
a
g
e
t
h
a
t
t
h
e
y
i
n
t
e
r
f
e
r
e
w
i
t
h
t
h
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
p
r
o
c
e
s
s
.
o N
o
i
s
e
-
E
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
o
r
e
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
a
l
n
o
i
s
e
i
m
p
e
d
e
s
c
l
e
a
r
c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
.
T
h
e
s
e
n
d
e
r
a
n
d
t
h
e
r
e
c
e
i
v
e
r
m
u
s
t
b
o
t
h
b
e
a
b
l
e
t
o
c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
e
o
n
t
h
e
m
e
s
s
a
g
e
s
b
e
i
n
g
s
e
n
t
t
o
e
a
c
h
o
t
h
e
r
.
o O
u
r
s
e
l
v
e
s
-
F
o
c
u
s
i
n
g
o
n
o
u
r
s
e
l
v
e
s
,
r
a
t
h
e
r
t
h
a
n
t
h
e
o
t
h
e
r
p
e
r
s
o
n
c
a
n
l
e
a
d
t
o
c
o
n
f
u
s
i
o
n
a
n
d
c
o
n
f
l
i
c
t
.
T
h
e
"
M
e
G
e
n
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
"
i
s
o
u
t
w
h
e
n
i
t
c
o
m
e
s
t
o
e
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
.
S
o
m
e
o
f
t
h
e
f
a
c
t
o
r
s
t
h
a
t
c
a
u
s
e
t
h
i
s
a
r
e
d
e
f
e
n
s
i
v
e
n
e
s
s
(
w
e
f
e
e
l
s
o
m
e
o
n
e
i
s
a
t
t
a
c
k
i
n
g
u
s
)
,
s
u
p
e
r
i
o
r
i
t
y
(
w
e
f
e
e
l
w
e
k
n
o
w
m
o
r
e
t
h
a
t
t
h
e
o
t
h
e
r
)
,
a
n
d
e
g
o
(
w
e
f
e
e
l
w
e
a
r
e
t
h
e
c
e
n
t
e
r
o
f
t
h
e
a
c
t
i
v
i
t
y
)
.
o P
e
r
c
e
p
t
i
o
n
-
I
f
w
e
f
e
e
l
t
h
e
p
e
r
s
o
n
i
s
t
a
l
k
i
n
g
t
o
o
f
a
s
t
,
n
o
t
f
l
u
e
n
t
l
y
,
d
o
e
s
n
o
t
a
r
t
i
c
u
l
a
t
e
c
l
e
a
r
l
y
,
e
t
c
.
,
w
e
m
a
y
d
i
s
m
i
s
s
t
h
e
p
e
r
s
o
n
.
A
l
s
o
o
u
r
p
r
e
c
o
n
c
e
i
v
e
d
a
t
t
i
t
u
d
e
s
a
f
f
e
c
t
o
u
r
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
t
o
l
i
s
t
e
n
.
W
e
l
i
s
t
e
n
u
n
c
r
i
t
i
c
a
l
l
y
t
o
p
e
r
s
o
n
s
o
f
h
i
g
h
s
t
a
t
u
s
a
n
d
d
i
s
m
i
s
s
t
h
o
s
e
o
f
l
o
w
s
t
a
t
u
s
.
o M
e
s
s
a
g
e
-
D
i
s
t
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
s
h
a
p
p
e
n
w
h
e
n
w
e
f
o
c
u
s
o
n
t
h
e
f
a
c
t
s
r
a
t
h
e
r
t
h
a
n
t
h
e
i
d
e
a
.
O
u
r
e
d
u
c
a
t
i
o
n
a
l
i
n
s
t
i
t
u
t
i
o
n
s
r
e
i
n
f
o
r
c
e
t
h
i
s
w
i
t
h
t
e
s
t
s
a
n
d
q
u
e
s
t
i
o
n
s
.
S
e
m
a
n
t
i
c
d
i
s
t
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
s
o
c
c
u
r
w
h
e
n
a
w
o
r
d
i
s
u
s
e
d
d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
t
l
y
t
h
a
n
y
o
u
p
r
e
f
e
r
.
F
o
r
e
x
a
m
p
l
e
,
t
h
e
w
o
r
d
c
h
a
i
r
m
a
n
i
n
s
t
e
a
d
o
f
c
h
a
i
r
p
e
r
s
o
n
,
m
a
y
c
a
u
s
e
y
o
u
t
o
f
o
c
u
s
o
n
t
h
e
w
o
r
d
a
n
d
n
o
t
t
h
e
m
e
s
s
a
g
e
.
o E
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
a
l
-
B
r
i
g
h
t
l
i
g
h
t
s
,
a
n
a
t
t
r
a
c
t
i
v
e
p
e
r
s
o
n
,
u
n
u
s
u
a
l
s
i
g
h
t
s
,
o
r
a
n
y
o
t
h
e
r
s
t
i
m
u
l
u
s
p
r
o
v
i
d
e
s
a
p
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l
d
i
s
t
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
.
o S
m
o
t
h
e
r
i
n
g
-
W
e
t
a
k
e
i
t
f
o
r
g
r
a
n
t
e
d
t
h
a
t
t
h
e
i
m
p
u
l
s
e
t
o
s
e
n
d
u
s
e
f
u
l
i
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n
i
s
a
u
t
o
m
a
t
i
c
.
N
o
t
t
r
u
e
!
T
o
o
o
f
t
e
n
w
e
b
e
l
i
e
v
e
t
h
a
t
c
e
r
t
a
i
n
i
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n
h
a
s
n
o
v
a
l
u
e
t
o
o
t
h
e
r
s
o
r
t
h
e
y
a
r
e
a
l
r
e
a
d
y
a
w
a
r
e
o
f
t
h
e
f
a
c
t
s
.
o S
t
r
e
s
s
-
P
e
o
p
l
e
d
o
n
o
t
s
e
e
t
h
i
n
g
s
t
h
e
s
a
m
e
w
a
y
w
h
e
n
u
n
d
e
r
s
t
r
e
s
s
.
W
h
a
t
w
e
s
e
e
a
n
d
b
e
l
i
e
v
e
a
t
a
g
i
v
e
n
m
o
m
e
n
t
i
s
i
n
f
l
u
e
n
c
e
d
b
y
o
u
r
p
s
y
c
h
o
l
o
g
i
c
a
l
f
r
a
m
e
s
o
f
r
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
s
-
o
u
r
b
e
l
i
e
f
s
,
v
a
l
u
e
s
,
k
n
o
w
l
e
d
g
e
,
e
x
p
e
r
i
e
n
c
e
s
,
a
n
d
g
o
a
l
s
.
Th
es
e
bar
rier
s
ca
n
be
tho
ug
ht
of
as
filt
ers
,
tha
t
is,
the
me
ss
ag
e
lea
ve
s
the
se
nd
er,
go
es
thr
ou
gh
the
ab
ov
e
filt
ers
,
an
d
is
the
n
he
ard
by
the
rec
eiv
er.
Th
es
e
filt
ers
mu
ffle
the
me
ss
ag
e.
An
d
the
wa
y
to
ov
erc
om
e
filt
ers
is
thr
ou
gh
act
ive
list
eni
ng
an
d
fee
db
ac
k.
Act
ive
Lis
ten
ing
He
ari
ng
an
d
list
eni
ng
are
not
the
sa
me
thi
ng.
He
ari
ng
is
the
act
of
per
cei
vin
g
so
un
d.
It
is
inv
olu
nta
ry
an
d
si
mp
ly
ref
ers
to
the
rec
ept
ion
of
aur
al
sti
mu
li.
Lis
ten
ing
is
a
sel
ect
ive
act
ivit
y
wh
ich
inv
olv
es
the
rec
ept
ion
an
d
the
int
erp
ret
ati
on
of
aur
al
sti
mu
li.
It
inv
olv
es
de
co
din
g
the
so
un
d
int
o
me
ani
ng.
Lis
ten
ing
is
div
ide
d
int
o
tw
o
ma
in
cat
eg
ori
es:
pa
ssi
ve
an
d
act
ive
.
Pa
ssi
ve
list
eni
ng
is
littl
e
mo
re
tha
t
he
ari
ng.
It
oc
cur
s
wh
en
the
rec
eiv
er
of
the
me
ss
ag
e
ha
s
littl
e
mo
tiv
ati
on
to
list
en
car
efu
lly,
su
ch
as
wh
en
list
eni
ng
to
mu
sic,
sto
ry
tell
ing
,
tel
evi
sio
n,
or
wh
en
bei
ng
pol
ite.
Pe
opl
e
sp
ea
k
at
10
0
to
17
5
wo
rds
per
mi
nut
e
(W
PM
),
but
the
y
ca
n
list
en
int
elli
ge
ntl
y
at
60
0
to
80
0
W
PM
.
Sin
ce
onl
y a
par
t of
our
mi
nd
is
pa
yin
g
att
ent
ion
, it
is
ea
sy
to
go
int
o
mi
nd
dr
ift
-
thi
nki
ng
ab
out
oth
er
thi
ng
s
wh
ile
list
eni
ng
to
so
me
on
e.
Th
e
cur
e
for
thi
s is
ac
tiv
e
lis
te
ni
ng
-
wh
ich
inv
olv
es
list
eni
ng
wit
ha
pu
rp
os
e.
It
ma
y
be
to
gai
n
inf
or
ma
tio
n,
obt
ain
dir
ect
ion
s,
un
der
sta
nd
oth
ers
,
sol
ve
pro
ble
ms
,
sh
are
int
ere
st,
se
e
ho
w
an
oth
er
per
so
n
fee
ls,
sh
ow
su
pp
ort,
etc
. It
req
uir
es
tha
t
the
list
en
er
att
en
ds
to
the
wo
rds
an
d
the
fee
lin
gs
of
the
se
nd
er
for
un
der
sta
ndi
ng.
It
ta
ke
s
th
e
sa
m
e
a
m
o
u
nt
or
m
or
e
en
er
gy
th
an
sp
ea
ki
n
g.
It
req
uir
es
the
rec
eiv
er
to
he
ar
the
var
iou
s
me
ss
ag
es,
un
der
sta
nd
the
me
ani
ng,
an
d
the
n
ver
ify
the
me
ani
ng
by
off
eri
ng
fee
db
ac
k.
Th
e
foll
ow
ing
are
a
fe
w
trai
ts
of
act
ive
list
en
ers
:
o S
p
e
n
d
m
o
r
e
t
i
m
e
l
i
s
t
e
n
i
n
g
t
h
a
n
t
a
l
k
i
n
g
.
o D
o
n
o
t
f
i
n
i
s
h
t
h
e
s
e
n
t
e
n
c
e
s
o
f
o
t
h
e
r
s
.
o D
o
n
o
t
a
n
s
w
e
r
q
u
e
s
t
i
o
n
s
w
i
t
h
q
u
e
s
t
i
o
n
s
.
o A
r
e
a
w
a
r
e
o
f
b
i
a
s
e
s
.
W
e
a
l
l
h
a
v
e
t
h
e
m
.
W
e
n
e
e
d
t
o
c
o
n
t
r
o
l
t
h
e
m
.
o N
e
v
e
r
d
a
y
d
r
e
a
m
s
o
r
b
e
c
o
m
e
p
r
e
o
c
c
u
p
i
e
d
w
i
t
h
t
h
e
i
r
o
w
n
t
h
o
u
g
h
t
s
w
h
e
n
o
t
h
e
r
s
t
a
l
k
.
o L
e
t
t
h
e
o
t
h
e
r
s
p
e
a
k
e
r
s
t
a
l
k
.
D
o
n
o
t
d
o
m
i
n
a
t
e
t
h
e
c
o
n
v
e
r
s
a
t
i
o
n
s
.
o P
l
a
n
r
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
s
a
f
t
e
r
t
h
e
o
t
h
e
r
s
h
a
v
e
f
i
n
i
s
h
e
d
s
p
e
a
k
i
n
g
,
N
O
T
w
h
i
l
e
t
h
e
y
a
r
e
s
p
e
a
k
i
n
g
.
o P
r
o
v
i
d
e
f
e
e
d
b
a
c
k
,
b
u
t
d
o
n
o
t
i
n
t
e
r
r
u
p
t
i
n
c
e
s
s
a
n
t
l
y
.
o A
n
a
l
y
z
e
b
y
l
o
o
k
i
n
g
a
t
a
l
l
t
h
e
r
e
l
e
v
a
n
t
f
a
c
t
o
r
s
a
n
d
a
s
k
i
n
g
o
p
e
n
-
e
n
d
e
d
q
u
e
s
t
i
o
n
s
.
W
a
l
k
o
t
h
e
r
s
t
h
r
o
u
g
h
b
y
s
u
m
m
a
r
i
z
i
n
g
.
o K
e
e
p
c
o
n
v
e
r
s
a
t
i
o
n
s
o
n
w
h
a
t
o
t
h
e
r
s
s
a
y
,
N
O
T
o
n
w
h
a
t
i
n
t
e
r
e
s
t
s
t
h
e
m
.
o T
a
k
e
b
r
i
e
f
n
o
t
e
s
.
T
h
i
s
f
o
r
c
e
s
t
h
e
m
t
o
c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
e
o
n
w
h
a
t
i
s
b
e
i
n
g
s
a
i
d
.
Fee
db
ack
W
he
n
yo
u
kn
ow
so
me
thi
ng,
sa
y
wh
at
yo
u
kn
ow
.
W
he
n
yo
u
do
n't
kn
ow
so
me
thi
ng,
sa
y
tha
t
yo
u
do
n't
kn
ow
.
Th
at
is
kn
ow
led
ge.
-
Ku
ng
Fu
Tz
u
(C
on
fuc
ius
)
Th
e
pur
po
se
of
fee
db
ac
k is
to
alt
er
me
ss
ag
es
so
the
int
ent
ion
of
the
ori
gin
al
co
m
mu
nic
ato
r is
un
der
sto
od
by
the
se
co
nd
co
m
mu
nic
ato
r. It
inc
lud
es
ver
bal
an
d
no
nv
erb
al
res
po
ns
es
to
an
oth
er
per
so
n's
me
ss
ag
e.
Pr
ovi
din
g
fee
db
ac
k is
ac
co
mp
lis
he
d
by
par
ap
hra
sin
g
the
wo
rds
of
the
se
nd
er.
Re
sta
te
the
se
nd
er'
s
fee
lin
gs
or
ide
as
in
yo
ur
ow
n
wo
rds
,
rat
her
tha
n
rep
eat
ing
the
ir
wo
rds
.
Yo
ur
wo
rds
sh
oul
d
be
sa
yin
g,
"T
his
is
wh
at I
un
der
sta
nd
yo
ur
fee
lin
gs
to
be,
am
I
cor
rec
t?"
It
not
onl
y
inc
lud
es
ver
bal
res
po
ns
es,
but
als
o
no
nv
erb
al
on
es.
No
ddi
ng
yo
ur
he
ad
or
sq
ue
ezi
ng
the
ir
ha
nd
to
sh
ow
agr
ee
me
nt,
dip
pin
g
yo
ur
ey
ebr
ow
s
sh
ow
s
yo
u
do
n't
qui
te
un
der
sta
nd
the
me
ani
ng
of
the
ir
las
t
phr
as
e,
or
su
cki
ng
air
in
de
epl
y
an
d
blo
wi
ng
it
har
d
sh
ow
s
tha
t
yo
u
are
als
o
ex
as
per
ate
d
wit
h
the
sit
uat
ion
.
Ca
rl
Ro
ger
s
list
ed
fiv
e
ma
in
cat
eg
ori
es
of
fee
db
ac
k.
Th
ey
are
list
ed
in
the
ord
er
in
wh
ich
the
y
oc
cur
mo
st
fre
qu
ent
ly
in
dai
ly
co
nv
ers
ati
on
s.
No
tic
e
tha
t
we
ma
ke
jud
gm
ent
s
mo
re
oft
en
tha
n
we
try
to
un
der
sta
nd:
o E
v
a
l
u
a
t
i
v
e
:
M
a
k
i
n
g
a
j
u
d
g
m
e
n
t
a
b
o
u
t
t
h
e
w
o
r
t
h
,
g
o
o
d
n
e
s
s
,
o
r
a
p
p
r
o
p
r
i
a
t
e
n
e
s
s
o
f
t
h
e
o
t
h
e
r
p
e
r
s
o
n
'
s
s
t
a
t
e
m
e
n
t
.
o I
n
t
e
r
p
r
e
t
i
v
e
:
P
a
r
a
p
h
r
a
s
i
n
g
-
a
t
t
e
m
p
t
i
n
g
t
o
e
x
p
l
a
i
n
w
h
a
t
t
h
e
o
t
h
e
r
p
e
r
s
o
n
'
s
s
t
a
t
e
m
e
n
t
m
e
a
n
s
.
o S
u
p
p
o
r
t
i
v
e
:
A
t
t
e
m
p
t
i
n
g
t
o
a
s
s
i
s
t
o
r
b
o
l
s
t
e
r
t
h
e
o
t
h
e
r
c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
o
r
.
o P
r
o
b
i
n
g
:
A
t
t
e
m
p
t
i
n
g
t
o
g
a
i
n
a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
a
l
i
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n
,
c
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
t
h
e
d
i
s
c
u
s
s
i
o
n
,
o
r
c
l
a
r
i
f
y
a
p
o
i
n
t
.
o U
n
d
e
r
s
t
a
n
d
i
n
g
:
A
t
t
e
m
p
t
i
n
g
t
o
d
i
s
c
o
v
e
r
c
o
m
p
l
e
t
e
l
y
w
h
a
t
t
h
e
o
t
h
e
r
c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
o
r
m
e
a
n
s
b
y
h
e
r
s
t
a
t
e
m
e
n
t
s
.
Im
agi
ne
ho
w
mu
ch
bet
ter
dai
ly
co
m
mu
nic
ati
on
s
wo
uld
be
if
list
en
ers
trie
d
to
un
der
sta
nd
firs
t,
bef
ore
the
y
trie
d
to
ev
alu
ate
wh
at
so
me
on
e
is
sa
yin
g.
No
nve
rba
l
Be
ha
vio
rs
of
Co
m
mu
nic
ati
on
To
del
ive
r
the
full
im
pa
ct
of
a
me
ss
ag
e,
us
e
no
nv
erb
al
be
ha
vio
rs
to
rai
se
the
ch
an
nel
of
int
erp
ers
on
al
co
m
mu
nic
ati
on:
o E
y
e
c
o
n
t
a
c
t
:
T
h
i
s
h
e
l
p
s
t
o
r
e
g
u
l
a
t
e
t
h
e
f
l
o
w
o
f
c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
.
I
t
s
i
g
n
a
l
s
i
n
t
e
r
e
s
t
i
n
o
t
h
e
r
s
a
n
d
i
n
c
r
e
a
s
e
s
t
h
e
s
p
e
a
k
e
r
'
s
c
r
e
d
i
b
i
l
i
t
y
.
P
e
o
p
l
e
w
h
o
m
a
k
e
e
y
e
c
o
n
t
a
c
t
o
p
e
n
t
h
e
f
l
o
w
o
f
c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
a
n
d
c
o
n
v
e
y
i
n
t
e
r
e
s
t
,
c
o
n
c
e
r
n
,
w
a
r
m
t
h
,
a
n
d
c
r
e
d
i
b
i
l
i
t
y
.
o F
a
c
i
a
l
E
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
s
:
S
m
i
l
i
n
g
i
s
a
p
o
w
e
r
f
u
l
c
u
e
t
h
a
t
t
r
a
n
s
m
i
t
s
h
a
p
p
i
n
e
s
s
,
f
r
i
e
n
d
l
i
n
e
s
s
,
w
a
r
m
t
h
,
a
n
d
l
i
k
i
n
g
.
S
o
,
i
f
y
o
u
s
m
i
l
e
f
r
e
q
u
e
n
t
l
y
y
o
u
w
i
l
l
b
e
p
e
r
c
e
i
v
e
d
a
s
m
o
r
e
l
i
k
a
b
l
e
,
f
r
i
e
n
d
l
y
,
w
a
r
m
a
n
d
a
p
p
r
o
a
c
h
a
b
l
e
.
S
m
i
l
i
n
g
i
s
o
f
t
e
n
c
o
n
t
a
g
i
o
u
s
a
n
d
p
e
o
p
l
e
w
i
l
l
r
e
a
c
t
f
a
v
o
r
a
b
l
y
.
T
h
e
y
w
i
l
l
b
e
m
o
r
e
c
o
m
f
o
r
t
a
b
l
e
a
r
o
u
n
d
y
o
u
a
n
d
w
i
l
l
w
a
n
t
t
o
l
i
s
t
e
n
m
o
r
e
.
o G
e
s
t
u
r
e
s
:
I
f
y
o
u
f
a
i
l
t
o
g
e
s
t
u
r
e
w
h
i
l
e
s
p
e
a
k
i
n
g
y
o
u
m
a
y
b
e
p
e
r
c
e
i
v
e
d
a
s
b
o
r
i
n
g
a
n
d
s
t
i
f
f
.
A
l
i
v
e
l
y
s
p
e
a
k
i
n
g
s
t
y
l
e
c
a
p
t
u
r
e
s
t
h
e
l
i
s
t
e
n
e
r
'
s
a
t
t
e
n
t
i
o
n
,
m
a
k
e
s
t
h
e
c
o
n
v
e
r
s
a
t
i
o
n
m
o
r
e
i
n
t
e
r
e
s
t
i
n
g
,
a
n
d
f
a
c
i
l
i
t
a
t
e
s
u
n
d
e
r
s
t
a
n
d
i
n
g
.
o P
o
s
t
u
r
e
a
n
d
b
o
d
y
o
r
i
e
n
t
a
t
i
o
n
:
Y
o
u
c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
e
n
u
m
e
r
o
u
s
m
e
s
s
a
g
e
s
b
y
t
h
e
w
a
y
y
o
u
t
a
l
k
a
n
d
m
o
v
e
.
S
t
a
n
d
i
n
g
e
r
e
c
t
a
n
d
l
e
a
n
i
n
g
f
o
r
w
a
r
d
c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
e
s
t
o
l
i
s
t
e
n
e
r
s
t
h
a
t
y
o
u
a
r
e
a
p
p
r
o
a
c
h
a
b
l
e
,
r
e
c
e
p
t
i
v
e
a
n
d
f
r
i
e
n
d
l
y
.
I
n
t
e
r
p
e
r
s
o
n
a
l
c
l
o
s
e
n
e
s
s
r
e
s
u
l
t
s
w
h
e
n
y
o
u
a
n
d
t
h
e
l
i
s
t
e
n
e
r
f
a
c
e
e
a
c
h
o
t
h
e
r
.
S
p
e
a
k
i
n
g
w
i
t
h
y
o
u
r
b
a
c
k
t
u
r
n
e
d
o
r
l
o
o
k
i
n
g
a
t
t
h
e
f
l
o
o
r
o
r
c
e
i
l
i
n
g
s
h
o
u
l
d
b
e
a
v
o
i
d
e
d
a
s
i
t
c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
e
s
d
i
s
i
n
t
e
r
e
s
t
.
o P
r
o
x
i
m
i
t
y
:
C
u
l
t
u
r
a
l
n
o
r
m
s
d
i
c
t
a
t
e
a
c
o
m
f
o
r
t
a
b
l
e
d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
f
o
r
i
n
t
e
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
w
i
t
h
o
t
h
e
r
s
.
Y
o
u
s
h
o
u
l
d
l
o
o
k
f
o
r
s
i
g
n
a
l
s
o
f
d
i
s
c
o
m
f
o
r
t
c
a
u
s
e
d
b
y
i
n
v
a
d
i
n
g
t
h
e
o
t
h
e
r
p
e
r
s
o
n
'
s
s
p
a
c
e
.
S
o
m
e
o
f
t
h
e
s
e
a
r
e
:
r
o
c
k
i
n
g
,
l
e
g
s
w
i
n
g
i
n
g
,
t
a
p
p
i
n
g
,
a
n
d
g
a
z
e
a
v
e
r
s
i
o
n
.
o V
o
c
a
l
:
S
p
e
a
k
i
n
g
c
a
n
s
i
g
n
a
l
n
o
n
v
e
r
b
a
l
c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
w
h
e
n
y
o
u
i
n
c
l
u
d
e
s
u
c
h
v
o
c
a
l
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
s
a
s
:
t
o
n
e
,
p
i
t
c
h
,
r
h
y
t
h
m
,
t
i
m
b
r
e
,
l
o
u
d
n
e
s
s
,
a
n
d
i
n
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n
.
F
o
r
m
a
x
i
m
u
m
t
e
a
c
h
i
n
g
e
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e
n
e
s
s
,
l
e
a
r
n
t
o
v
a
r
y
t
h
e
s
e
s
i
x
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
s
o
f
y
o
u
r
v
o
i
c
e
.
O
n
e
o
f
t
h
e
m
a
j
o
r
c
r
i
t
i
c
i
s
m
s
o
f
m
a
n
y
s
p
e
a
k
e
r
s
i
s
t
h
a
t
t
h
e
y
s
p
e
a
k
i
n
a
m
o
n
o
t
o
n
e
v
o
i
c
e
.
L
i
s
t
e
n
e
r
s
p
e
r
c
e
i
v
e
t
h
i
s
t
y
p
e
o
f
s
p
e
a
k
e
r
a
s
b
o
r
i
n
g
a
n
d
d
u
l
l
.
Sp
eak
ing
Hi
nts
Sp
ea
k
co
mf
ort
abl
e
wo
rd
s! -
Wil
lia
m
Sh
ak
es
pe
ar
e
o W
h
e
n
s
p
e
a
k
i
n
g
o
r
t
r
y
i
n
g
t
o
e
x
p
l
a
i
n
s
o
m
e
t
h
i
n
g
,
a
s
k
t
h
e
l
i
s
t
e
n
e
r
s
i
f
t
h
e
y
a
r
e
f
o
l
l
o
w
i
n
g
y
o
u
.
o E
n
s
u
r
e
t
h
e
r
e
c
e
i
v
e
r
h
a
s
a
c
h
a
n
c
e
t
o
c
o
m
m
e
n
t
o
r
a
s
k
q
u
e
s
t
i
o
n
s
.
o T
r
y
t
o
p
u
t
y
o
u
r
s
e
l
f
i
n
t
h
e
o
t
h
e
r
p
e
r
s
o
n
'
s
s
h
o
e
s
-
c
o
n
s
i
d
e
r
t
h
e
f
e
e
l
i
n
g
s
o
f
t
h
e
r
e
c
e
i
v
e
r
.
o B
e
c
l
e
a
r
a
b
o
u
t
w
h
a
t
y
o
u
s
a
y
.
o L
o
o
k
a
t
t
h
e
r
e
c
e
i
v
e
r
.
o M
a
k
e
s
u
r
e
y
o
u
r
w
o
r
d
s
m
a
t
c
h
y
o
u
r
t
o
n
e
a
n
d
b
o
d
y
l
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
(
N
o
n
v
e
r
b
a
l
B
e
h
a
v
i
o
r
s
)
.
o V
a
r
y
y
o
u
r
t
o
n
e
a
n
d
p
a
c
e
.
o D
o
n
o
t
b
e
v
a
g
u
e
,
b
u
t
o
n
t
h
e
o
t
h
e
r
h
a
n
d
,
d
o
n
o
t
c
o
m
p
l
i
c
a
t
e
w
h
a
t
y
o
u
a
r
e
s
a
y
i
n
g
w
i
t
h
t
o
o
m
u
c
h
d
e
t
a
i
l
.
o D
o
n
o
t
i
g
n
o
r
e
s
i
g
n
s
o
f
c
o
n
f
u
s
i
o
n
.
On
Co
m
mu
nic
ati
on
Per
Se
(a
few
ran
do
m
tho
ug
hts
)
On
Dis
cus
sin
g
Co
m
mu
nic
ati
on
Tr
yin
g
to
sp
ea
k
of
so
me
thi
ng
as
me
ss
y
as
co
m
mu
nic
ati
on
in
tec
hni
cal
ter
ms
se
em
s
to
be
an
ot
he
r
for
m
of
the
"m
ath
an
d
sci
en
ce
"
ar
gu
me
nt,
tha
t
is,
ma
th
an
d
sci
en
ce
an
d
tec
hn
olo
gy
ar
e
the
an
sw
er
to
all
of
ou
r
pr
obl
em
s. -
An
on
ym
ou
s
Bu
t
wh
at
for
ms
of
hu
ma
n
be
ha
vio
r
are
not
me
ssy
?
Le
arn
ing
is
not
"an
tis
ept
ic,"
yet
it is
dis
cu
ss
ed
all
the
tim
e -
we
do
not
lea
ve
it
to
the
ac
ad
em
ics,
su
ch
as
Blo
om
,
Kn
ow
les
,
Du
ga
n,
or
Ro
ss
ett.
Le
ad
ers
hip
an
d
ma
na
ge
me
nt
se
em
s
to
be
ev
en
me
ssi
er,
yet
we
cat
eg
ori
ze
it,
bui
ld
mo
del
s
of
it,
ind
ex
it,
ch
op
it
an
d
slic
e it
an
d
dic
e
it,
bui
ld
pyr
am
ids
out
of
it,
an
d
ge
ner
all
y
ha
ve
a
go
od
tim
e
dis
cu
ssi
ng
it.
Bu
t
wh
en
it
co
me
s
to
"co
m
mu
nic
ati
on,
"
we
cal
l it
too
me
ssy
to
pla
y
wit
h
an
d
lea
ve
it
up
to
Ch
om
sky
,
Pin
ker
,
an
d
oth
ers
to
wri
te
ab
out
so
tha
t
we
ca
n
rea
d
ab
out
it.
Ye
t
we
all
co
m
mu
nic
ate
al
mo
st
ev
ery
sin
gle
da
y
of
our
liv
es,
wh
ich
is
mu
ch
mo
re
tha
n
we
will
ev
er
do
wit
h
lea
rni
ng
or
lea
der
shi
p.
Pa
ul
Ek
ma
n
In
the
mi
d
19
60
s,
Pa
ul
Ek
ma
n
stu
die
d
em
oti
on
s
an
d
dis
co
ver
ed
six
fac
ial
ex
pre
ssi
on
s
tha
t
al
mo
st
ev
ery
on
e
rec
og
niz
es
wo
rld-
wi
de:
ha
ppi
ne
ss,
sa
dn
es
s,
an
ger
,
fea
r,
dis
gu
st,
an
d
sur
pri
se.
Alt
ho
ug
h
the
y
we
re
co
ntr
ov
ers
ial
at
firs
t
(he
wa
s
bo
oe
d
off
the
sta
ge
wh
en
he
firs
t
pre
se
nte
d it
to
a
gro
up
of
ant
hro
pol
ogi
sts
an
d
lat
er
cal
led
a
fas
cist
an
da
rac
ist)
the
y
are
no
w
wi
del
y
ac
ce
pte
d.
On
e
of
the
co
ntr
ov
ers
ies
still
lin
ger
ing
is
the
am
ou
nt
of
co
nte
xt
ne
ed
ed
to
int
erp
ret
the
m.
For
ex
am
ple
, if
so
me
on
e
rep
ort
s
to
me
tha
t
the
y
ha
ve
thi
s
gre
at
ide
al
tha
t
the
y
wo
uld
lik
e
to
im
ple
me
nt,
an
d I
sa
y
tha
t
wo
uld
be
gre
at,
but
I
loo
k
on
the
m
wit
ha
fro
wn
, is
it
po
ssi
ble
tha
t I
co
uld
be
thi
nki
ng
ab
out
so
me
thi
ng
els
e?
Th
e
tro
ubl
e
wit
h
the
se
ext
ra
sig
nal
s is
tha
t
we
do
not
al
wa
ys
ha
ve
the
full
co
nte
xt.
Wh
at
if
the
per
so
n
em
ail
ed
me
an
d I
rep
lie
d
gre
at
(w
hil
e
fro
wn
ing
).
Wo
uld
it
ev
ok
e
the
sa
me
res
po
ns
e?
Em
oti
ons
Tru
st
yo
ur
ins
tin
cts
.
Mo
st
em
oti
on
s
are
diff
icu
lt
to
imi
tat
e.
For
ex
am
ple
,
wh
en
yo
u
are
trul
y
ha
pp
y,
the
mu
scl
es
us
ed
for
sm
ilin
g
are
co
ntr
oll
ed
by
the
lim
bic
sys
te
m
an
d
oth
er
par
ts
of
the
bra
in,
wh
ich
are
not
un
der
vol
unt
ary
co
ntr
ol.
Wh
en
yo
u
for
ce
a
sm
ile,
a
diff
ere
nt
par
t of
the
bra
in
is
us
ed
-
the
cer
ebr
al
cor
tex
(un
der
vol
unt
ary
co
ntr
ol),
he
nc
e
diff
ere
nt
mu
scl
es
are
us
ed.
Thi
s is
wh
y a
cle
rk,
wh
o
mi
ght
not
ha
ve
an
y
rea
l
int
ere
st
in
yo
u,
ha
s a
"fa
ke"
loo
k
wh
en
he
for
ce
s a
sm
ile.
Of
co
urs
e,
so
me
act
ors
lea
rn
to
co
ntr
ol
all
of
the
ir
fac
e
mu
scl
es,
wh
ile
oth
ers
dra
w
on
a
pa
st
em
oti
on
al
ex
per
ien
ce
to
pro
du
ce
the
em
oti
on
al
sta
te
the
y
wa
nt.
Bu
t
thi
s is
not
an
ea
sy
tric
k
to
pul
l
off
all
the
tim
e.
Th
ere
is
a
go
od
rea
so
n
for
thi
s -
par
t of
our
em
oti
on
s
ev
olv
ed
to
de
al
wit
h
oth
er
pe
opl
e
an
d
our
em
pat
hic
nat
ure
. If
the
se
em
oti
on
s
co
uld
ea
sily
be
fak
ed,
the
y
wo
uld
do
mo
re
har
m
tha
n
go
od
(Pi
nk
er,
19
97)
.
So
our
em
oti
on
s
not
onl
y
gui
de
our
de
cisi
on
s,
the
y
ca
n
als
o
be
co
m
mu
nic
ate
d
to
oth
ers
to
hel
p
the
m
in
the
ir
de
cisi
on
s -
of
co
urs
e
the
ir
em
oti
on
s
will
be
the
ulti
ma
te
gui
de,
but
the
em
oti
on
s
the
y
dis
co
ver
in
oth
ers
be
co
me
par
t of
the
ir
kn
ow
led
ge
ba
se.
Me
hra
bia
n
an
d
the
7%
-
38
%-
55
%
My
th
We
oft
en
he
ar
tha
t
the
co
nte
nt
of
a
me
ss
ag
e
is
co
mp
os
ed
of:
o 5
5
%
f
r
o
m
t
h
e
v
i
s
u
a
l
c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
o 3
8
%
f
r
o
m
t
h
e
a
u
d
i
t
o
r
y
c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
o 7
%
f
r
o
m
l
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
Ho
we
ver
,
the
ab
ov
e
per
ce
nta
ge
s
onl
y
ap
ply
in
a
ver
y
nar
ro
w
co
nte
xt.
A
res
ear
ch
er
na
me
d
Me
hra
bia
n
wa
s
int
ere
ste
d
in
ho
w
list
en
ers
get
the
ir
inf
or
ma
tio
n
ab
out
a
sp
ea
ker
's
ge
ner
al
atti
tud
e
in
sit
uat
ion
s
wh
ere
the
fac
ial
ex
pre
ssi
on,
ton
e,
an
d/o
r
wo
rds
are
se
ndi
ng
co
nfli
cti
ng
sig
nal
s.
Th
us,
he
de
sig
ne
da
co
upl
e
of
ex
per
im
ent
s.
In
on
e,
Me
hra
bia
n
an
d
Fer
ris
(19
67)
res
ear
ch
ed
the
int
era
cti
on
of
sp
ee
ch,
fac
ial
ex
pre
ssi
on
s,
an
d
ton
e.
Thr
ee
diff
ere
nt
sp
ea
ker
s
we
re
ins
tru
cte
d
to
sa
y
"m
ay
be"
wit
h
thr
ee
diff
ere
nt
atti
tud
es
to
wa
rds
the
ir
list
en
er
(po
siti
ve,
ne
utr
al,
or
ne
gat
ive
).
Ne
xt,
ph
oto
gra
ph
s
of
the
fac
es
of
thr
ee
fe
ma
le
mo
del
s
we
re
tak
en
as
the
y
att
em
pte
d
to
co
nv
ey
the
em
oti
on
s
of
lik
e,
ne
utr
alit
y,
an
d
dis
lik
e.
Te
st
gro
up
s
we
re
the
n
ins
tru
cte
d
to
list
en
to
the
var
iou
s
ren
diti
on
s
of
the
wo
rd
"m
ay
be,
"
wit
h
the
pic
tur
es
of
the
mo
del
s,
an
d
we
re
as
ke
d
to
rat
e
the
atti
tud
e
of
the
sp
ea
ker
.
No
te
tha
t
the
em
oti
on
an
d
ton
e
we
re
oft
en
mi
xe
d,
su
ch
as
a
fac
ial
ex
pre
ssi
on
sh
ow
ing
dis
lik
e,
wit
h
the
wo
rd
"m
ay
be"
sp
ok
en
in
a
po
siti
ve
ton
e.
Sig
nifi
ca
nt
eff
ect
s
of
fac
ial
ex
pre
ssi
on
an
d
ton
e
we
re
fou
nd
in
tha
t
the
stu
dy
su
gg
est
ed
tha
t
the
co
mb
ine
d
eff
ect
of
si
mu
lta
ne
ou
s
ver
bal
,
vo
cal
an
d
fac
ial
atti
tud
e
co
m
mu
nic
ati
on
s is
a
we
igh
ted
su
m
of
the
ir
ind
ep
en
de
nt
eff
ect
s
wit
h
the
co
effi
cie
nts
of
.07
,
.38
,
an
d
.55
,
res
pe
ctiv
ely
.
Me
hra
bia
n
an
d
Fer
ris
als
o
wr
ote
ab
out
a
de
ep
limi
tati
on
to
the
ir
res
ear
ch:
"T
he
se
fin
din
gs
reg
ard
ing
the
rel
ati
ve
co
ntri
but
ion
of
the
ton
al
co
mp
on
ent
of
a
ver
bal
me
ss
ag
e
ca
n
be
saf
ely
ext
en
de
d
onl
y
to
co
m
mu
nic
ati
on
sit
uat
ion
s
in
wh
ich
no
ad
diti
on
al
inf
or
ma
tio
n
ab
out
the
co
m
mu
nic
ato
r-
ad
dre
ss
ee
rel
ati
on
shi
p
is
av
ail
abl
e."
Th
us,
wh
at
ca
n
be
co
ncl
ud
ed
is
tha
t
wh
en
pe
opl
e
co
m
mu
nic
ate
,
list
en
ers
der
ive
inf
or
ma
tio
n
ab
out
the
sp
ea
ker
's
atti
tud
es
to
wa
rds
the
list
en
er
fro
m
vis
ual
,
ton
al,
an
d
ver
bal
cu
es;
yet
the
per
ce
nta
ge
der
ive
d
ca
n
var
y
gre
atl
y
de
pe
ndi
ng
up
on
a
nu
mb
er
of
oth
er
fac
tor
s,
su
ch
as
act
ion
s,
co
nte
xt
of
the
co
m
mu
nic
ati
on,
an
d
ho
w
we
ll
the
y
kn
ow
tha
t
per
so
n