Research Methods
Research Interviews
Wish to research
The research
Formulate and clarify your Process
Research topic
Critically review the literature
Choose your research
approach and strategy
Negotiate access and
address ethical issues
Plan your data collection and collect the data using one or more of :
Sampling Secondary data Observation Semi-structured and in-depth interviews Questionnaires
Analyse your data using one or both of:
Quantitative methods Qualitative methods
Write your project report
Submit your report
Previously…we looked at
turning Research ideas into Research Projects
Move from a Research idea
To a General Focus Research Question
To a series of Research Questions
To Specific Research Objectives
And we considered..The literature
review process
Research questions and objectives
Define parameters
Generate and refine key words
Conduct search Feedback
loop
Obtain literature
Evaluate
Record
Start drafting review
……….after several iterations…
Written critical review of the literature…..
Differing approaches to research
Research philosophy
Research approaches
Research strategies
Data collection Time horizons
methods
Ethical issues were
considered…
Standard Normal Distribution
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
-4 -2 0 2 4
Observation ……Sampling….
Secondary data….
Research Methods
Interviews
Reading
Saunders et al, ch. 10
Bryman and Bell, chs 7, 15.
Plus “Research Skills for Students”
on my website (download the pdf).
Reading: journal articles
at Emerald online
Jarratt, D.G (1996) 'A comparison of two alternative interviewing
techniques used within an integrated research design : a case study in
out-shopping using semi-structured and non-directed interviewing
techniques', Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 14(6) 6-15.pdf
Stokes, D. and Bergin, R. ( 2006) 'Methodology or "methodolatry"? An
evaluation of focus groups and depth interviews', Qualitative Market
Research, 9(1), 26-37. pdf
Plus hundreds more articles.
Try “Interviews” as a search term
in Emerald.
Purpose of Interviews?
What they know? Facts
What they do? Behaviour
What they think or feel? Attitudes
Appropriate?
•Where you are looking for detailed
information and want to focus on a small
number of people.
•May be used alongside other techniques
eg observation, (Triangulation)
Research Interview
Prominent data collection method
in both quantitative and qualitative
research.
Aim is to find out respondents
attitudes, beliefs, values,
understanding, explanations of
their actions.
Interviews are a specific Setting
genre of communication matters
Specific social settings:
Academics offices
Respondents homes
Over the telephone (CATI)
In a TV or radio studio
Teleconferencing
Interviews are a specific Context
genre of communication matters
Specific social settings:
Clinical interviews
On the street
JobCentre, etc…...
Further distinctions…. Group
dynamics
matter
Interviews may be conducted
One-to-one
or
Groups e.g. Focus groups
Further distinctions…. Ethical
issues
matter
Interviews may be observed
Covertly
or
Overtly
Further distinctions….
Interviews may be conducted
Structured
Unstructured
or
Semi-structured
Structured Interview
Used in social survey research
Also business research
Promotes standardization of both
asking questions and recording
answers.
Variation in answers therefore due
to real variation not interview
context.
Structured Interview
Closed / pre-coded questions =
limited choice of possible answers.
Easy to code.
May use CAPI - computer assisted
personal interviewing
Structured interview
Interviewers must ask questions as
they are written.
Write down replies exactly as
spoken by interviewee.
Need for clear instructions /
training.
Reduce intra-interviewer variability
Reduce inter-interviewer variability.
Structured Interviews
• More likely to be used by positivistically
inclined researchers -
effectively a q‟aire read out.
• POSITIVISM – “scientific method
• applied to social sciences”
Structured Interviews
• Pre-coding, circle the response,
• Quantitative data emphasis
• Easy to code but problem of „meaning‟
Semi-Structured
Interview
Use of open questions - less
structure
Interviewer can follow up answers
with other questions/ more flexible.
Obtain rich, detailed answers
about the way respondents see
their world.
Semi-Structured
interview
Begin with research questions.
List a few questions that will help
you answer these questions.
Can alter order, respond, probe,
prompt the interviewee.
Unstructured interview.
Similar to a conversation / informal
Single question / brief outline of
area of interest.
Each interview will be different
Phrasing / sequencing of questions
will be different each time.
Semi and Un-structured
Interviews
• Often used in ethnographic studies
• Open-ended q‟s
• Non-directive, in depth interviews
• Provides mainly qualitative data
Semi/Unstructured
Interviews
• More likely to reveal respondents meaning
but very difficult to code and categorise
responses
• Problem of comparability thus difficult
to generalise.
Research Methods
Setting up and Conducting an
Interview
Conducting Interviews.
Introduction.
Build rapport.
Ask about recording answers.
Make it clear that the words are „on
the record‟
Question order
Early questions directly related to
topic of research.
Question Order
Risk, difficult or embarrassing
questions left till later.
Logical flow
Break questions into sections
General questions precede
specific.
Probing
Interviewee does not understand
question or does not provide
complete answer,
„Can you say a little more about
that?‟
„Why is it you believe that?‟.
Conducting Interview
Ending Interview
Controlling Interview
Interviewer effect
socialdesirability
Acquiescence.
Conducting Interview
Use of language
Do not ask leading questions
Ask one question at a time
Kinds of Questions
Introducing questions
Why did you join the …?
Follow-up questions
Could you say a little more about
that?
Direct questions
„Are you happy with…?
Kinds of Questions
Structuring questions.
would now to move on and ask
„I
you about…‟
Interpreting Questions
„By that do you mean….‟
Silence.
Skills of an Interviewer
Knowledgeable.
Clear
Gentle
Sensitive listener / attentive.
Remembering
Interpreting
Skills of an interviewer
Non-judgmental.
Flexible.
Issue : Are there occasions when it
pays to be provocative as an
interviewer?
List them……….
Setting up...
Operationalise concepts
Ensure that all q‟s
mean the same to all respondents
otherwise you can‟t compare answers
e.g. “success”, “feedback”.
Setting up...
• Interviewees are deliberately chosen -
often „key players‟
• Researchers need to „do their
homework‟ on the issues.
• Consider costs of travel, time
Arranging the venue; seating, lighting.
Access
a) Explain who you are - a letter
of authorisation?
b) What the purpose of the
interview is
c) Assurance of confidentiality
d) Permission to video/audio
record?
Sequence
e) Cool off - straightforward q‟s to defuse
the situation
f) Closure - Thanks
g) Feedback - How you deal with responses after the
interview is terminated.
Sequence
g) Transcribe the material from your chosen technology:
(audio-casette or mini disk recorder, laptop with
appropriate software etc.)
h) Analyse the material - search for patterns and
themes.
Consider using Qualitative analysis software
e.g. NVIVO
Asking questions
1. Put q‟s in a straightforward, clear,
non-threatening way.
2. Avoid long q‟s where respondent may only
remember or answer a part of it.
3. Avoid 2 or 3 q‟s in one.
Avoid …...
“Ho w well do you know and like your
colleagues?”
Advice: Break it up into 2 q‟s
Asking questions
4. Avoid academic jargon unless you
are interviewing an academic
5. Avoid leading q‟s - which suggest a „right‟
answer.
6. Avoid loaded q‟s - which provide automatic
feelings of approval / disapproval.
Avoid Presuppositions...
Rather than asking “How have you changed as
a result of…? when the answer may be “I haven’t”
ask
“Would you say this experience has affected
you in any way”?
If the reply is “Yes”
Ask “In what way”
Asking questions
7. Avoid biased questions
e.g. A past Gallup poll :
a) “Would you describe yourself as
upper/middle/lower class“ > 1% lower class
b) “Would you describe yourself as
upper/middle/working class“ > 51% w. class
Asking questions
8. Avoid q‟s which rely heavily on memory
(except oral history interviews -
attempts to recapture the past from
contemporary memories.)
Asking questions
9. Probes = devices to get the respondent
to elaborate in more detail.
You need to be careful not to unduly
influence the answers
Probes:
“What was it that attracted to to becoming a
lawyer?” (A directive probe)
“Any other reasons?”
“How do you mean…in what way?”
(A non-directive probe)
Asking questions
10. Prompts = suggest range of answers expected
when respondents not sure.
Once again, need to be careful not to
unduly influence answers.
Asking questions
11. Some interviewing should be non-directive
In general a non-committal, neutral, non-judgmental
manner is appropriate.
Asking questions
12. However, some interviewing should
adopt a sceptical attitude to the answers.
Being more direct/ aggressive can help respondents
be more frank than they would otherwise be.
Need to cut through bland responses and other
attempts to merely „manage impressions‟ .
Research Methods
Criticisms of Interviews
Criticisms of Interviews
• Lack of standardisation creates problems
of reliability;
• Possibility of bias - especially if you have
personal sympathy/ antipathy towards the
person;
Criticisms of Interviews
• Establishing rapport and shared understandings
(„verstehen‟) does not mean that the behaviour
has to be condoned or given approval -
it means that you have to understand the world
from the „client‟s‟ point of view.
Criticisms of Interviews
• Time consuming.
a) for respondents - tell them how long in advance
(30-60 mins max.)
b) for researcher - can administer 100 q‟aires
in the time it takes to do one interview
plus
transcribing (1 hour of tape can take 10 hours,
longer if you use certain conventions.)
Criticisms of Interviews
• Interactions between researcher and respondent
can affect the outcome of the interview.
The identity
and role of the
interviewer/ee
will all affect the
outcome.
The Interviewer Effect
Differences in
class,
ethnicity
regional origin
age
gender
accent
status, etc…...
Criticisms of Interviews
Interviewer may be perceived as
a) introverted v. extroverted
b) caring v. uncaring
c) aggressive v. passive
Thus the perceptions of personality
and characteristics of the researcher will affect
responses.
Criticisms of Interviews
For a variety of reasons..
Respondents may give the response that they
think the interviewer wants.
This affects the quality of the data
Criticisms of Interviews
• Power in the relationship?
Our power to control what others by by nods,
smiles, movements, gestures, and utterances
such as “umm” etc is often unacknowledged.
Interviewers can control the agenda and
direction of the interview.
Criticisms of Interviews
• Deception?
People can tell lies especially over sensitive issues,
e.g. Politicians.
• Inconsistencies?
People are normally inconsistent
„walking contradictions‟
Criticisms of Interviews
• Some Feminists (A.Oakley) reject the
hierarchical implications of being detached
and neutral.
They see the objective, scientific approach as
infused with patriarchal values.
Criticisms of Interviews
• Dependency.
Problem of the respondent who is
so glad to have a willing ear to bend that
you cannot escape.
Need to develop the skill of „breaking away‟
Research Methods
Advantages of Interviews
Advantages of
Interviews
• Flexibility,
especially un- or semi- structured interviews
a) Unlike q‟aires you can modify approach as go along
to suit circumstances
e.g. to investigate underlying motives to
what people say.
Advantages of
Interviews
b) Especially where q‟s open-ended
you can
i) go into more depth
ii) clear up misunderstandings
Advantages of
Interviews
c) Allows respondent to define priorities
d) Increased chance for respondents to express
own viewpoints rather than just responding to
researcher‟s point of view.
This may generate new insights.
Advantages of
Interviews
e) Allows interviewer to
pursue topic
probe
ask further q‟s - unanticipated q‟s which may
suggest new relationships / hypotheses than can be
explored later.
ask respondents to develop and qualify their answers.
Advantages of
Interviews
f) Yields richer, more valid data
meanings are rarely clear cut.
Shades of meaning
hedged with qualification
A skilled interviewer can encourage respondents
to spell out these complexities.
Advantages of
Interviews
g) Flexibility also enables researcher to test
limits of respondents knowledge.
h) Encourages co-operation and rapport if
done well.
i) Unlike self-completion q‟aires, you can make a
better assessment of what the respondent really
believes.
Advantages of
Interviews
j) Non-response rate much lower than for self-
completed q‟aires.
'Realtime Interviewing Using Case
the World Wide Web' Study
Peter Chen and S.M. Hinton (1999)
'Realtime Interviewing Using the World Wide Web'
Sociological Research Online,
vol. 4, no. 3,
Online Focus Groups: Summary of Advantages
1/ Cost savings
2/ Objectivity of subjects through anonymity
3/ Geographic Reach
(subjects need not travel to centralised location)
4/ Speed, method is quick to establish and
run and post analysis is faster because
of lack of transcription
Online Focus Groups: Summary of Disadvantages
1/ Qualitative nature of research method
2/ Increased willingness of participants to voice
negative views
3/ Careful screening of participants required
4/ Lack of facial expression
Source: Peter Chen and S.M. Hinton (1999)
Analysing Interview data
• Transcribe
• Read and re-read („immersion‟)
• Analysis - Grounded Theory?
• Write up using analysis
• Triangulate.
Thank you!
Considering the use of semi-structured and in-depth interviews
Ask a colleague to comment on:
(a) your judgement about the use of semi-structured and/or in-depth interviews;
(b) the issues and threats that you have identified;
(c) your suggestions to overcome these; and
(d) the fit between your interview themes and the research question.