Gendered Lives,
Eighth Edition
Chapter 2
Theoretical
Approaches to
Gender
Development
Theoretical Approaches to
Gender
• Theory = way to describe,
explain, predict relationships
• Theories shape how we act and
expect others to act
• Theories are practical
Theoretical Approaches to
Gender
• Use theories to make sense of
behaviors
• Theories about sex and gender
affect thoughts and behaviors
• Theories influence how see
yourself
• Theories help develop awareness
Theoretical Approaches to
Gender
• Four types of gender theories:
• Focus on biology
• Emphasize interpersonal origins
• Concentrate on cultural
influences
• Offer critical perspectives
Biological Theories of
Gender
• Biological characteristics of sexes
are basis of differences
• Influence of sex chromosomes
•Most females – XX
•Most males - XY
Biological Theories of
Gender
• Several genes controlling
intelligence located only on X
• Some aspects of male
intelligence only inherited from
mother
• Females may inherit intelligence
from both parents
Biological Theories of
Gender
• Primary gene responsible for
social skills only on X
• Women more adept in social
situations
Biological Theories of
Gender
• X carries genes that influence
intelligence and susceptibility to
hereditary conditions
Biological Theories of
Gender
• Y’s function is ensuring egg will
evolve into male
• Larger variety in X
• More variation among women
Biological Theories of
Gender
• Role of hormonal activity
• Estrogen – primarily female
•Produce good cholesterol
•Blood vessels more flexible
•Strengthens immune system
Biological Theories of
Gender
• Role of hormonal activity
• Estrogen – primarily female
•Causes fat tissue to form
around hips
•Impede liver function
Biological Theories of
Gender
• Men have hormonal cycles
• Testosterone – primarily male
•Drug use, violent behavior
•Jockeying for power
•Attempts to dominate
•Physical expression of anger
Biological Theories of
Gender
• Hormones influence cognitive
abilities
• Men’s hormonal change is more
gradual than women’s
Biological Theories of
Gender
• Testosterone deficiency can lead
to:
• Increase in body fat
• Moodiness and depression
Biological Theories of
Gender
• Hormones influence skills and
tendencies
• Girls favor trucks if mother had
high levels of testosterone
during pregnancy
Biological Theories of
Gender
• Hormones influence skills and
tendencies
• Males given estrogen
experience:
•Decline in spatial skills
•Increase in verbal skills
Biological Theories of
Gender
• Biological theories – differences
in brain structure and
development
• Each sex specializes in one side
of brain
Biological Theories of
Gender
• Men – better developed left lobes
• Linear thinking
• Sequential information
• Spatial skills
• Abstract, analytical reasoning
Biological Theories of
Gender
• Women – better developed right
lobes
• Aptitude for imaginative and
artistic activity
• Holistic, intuitive thinking
• Visual and spatial tasks
Biological Theories of
Gender
• Women use both sides of brain
for language tasks
• Prefrontal cortex larger
• Restrains aggression
• Insula is larger
• Affects intuition and empathy
Biological Theories of
Gender
• Male amygdala is larger
• Controls emotions like anger
and fear
Biological Theories of
Gender
• Corpus callosum links two lobes
of brain
• Women have greater ability to
use
• Men listen with left brain
Biological Theories of
Gender
• Corpus callosum links two lobes
of brain
• Women listen with both sides
• Men better able to use left side
for directions
Biological Theories of
Gender
• Splenium – fold of connecting
tissue in corpus callosum
• Larger in women
•Increased verbal abilities
Biological Theories of
Gender
• Forces of biology evident in
gender re-assignment cases
• David Reimer
•Penis amputated in surgery
•Could not accept self as “girl”
•Later surgically returned to
male
Biological Theories of
Gender
• Controversy about strength of
biological forces
• Those with extreme view –
biological factors determine
abilities and behaviors
• Others argue biology edited by
environmental factors
Psychodynamic Theories of
Gender Development
• Psychodynamic theories assume
relationships are central to
human development
Psychodynamic Theories of
Gender Development
• The first important relationship is
with primary caregiver
• Influences how infant comes to
define identity
Psychodynamic Theories of
Gender Development
• Infants develop sense of self and
gender identity as internalize
views of others
• Internalizing creates basic
structure of psyche
Psychodynamic Theories of
Gender Development
• Mother may act differently
toward daughters and sons
• Infants follow distinct paths that
reflect relationship with mother
Psychodynamic Theories of
Gender Development
• Fundamental likeness between
mother and daughter
• Interact more with daughters
• Keep daughters closer
• More nurturing
• Allows infant girl to import
mother into her self
Psychodynamic Theories of
Gender Development
• Full identification between
mother and son less likely
• Encourage more independence
• Talk less about emotional
matters
• To establish identity – boy
differentiates himself from
mother
Psychodynamic Theories of
Gender Development
• Identity is not static
• Grows and changes as we
interact with others
• As infants mature, carry with
them basic identity formed in
first relationship
Psychological Theories of
Gender Development
• Focus on interpersonal bases of
gender
• Do not emphasize intrapsychic
process
• Highlight influence of
communication on gender
Social Learning Theory
• Learn by imitating others and
getting responses to behavior
• Behaviors that are rewarded
reinforced
• Behaviors that are punished or
seen as neutral rejected
• Social world amplifies personal
inclinations
Social Learning Theory
• Views children as passive in
process
• Suggests reinforcement process
continues through lifetime
Cognitive Development
Theory
• Children play active role in
developing gender identity
• Pick models to teach themselves
competency in masculine or
feminine behavior
Cognitive Development
Theory
• Children go through several
stages in developing identity
• Birth to 24-30 months – search
communication for labels to
apply to self
Cognitive Development
Theory
• Children go through several
stages in developing identity
• 3 or earlier – realize being boy
or girl not temporary
•Gender constancy
Cognitive Development
Theory
• As children mature, continue to
seek role models
• Boys learn aggressiveness is
masculine
Cognitive Development
Theory
• Girls learn being physically
attractive is feminine
• Children who witness violence
may follow model
Cultural Theories of Gender
• Focus on understanding gender
from cultural perspective
• Do not dispute biological or
interpersonal factors
• Assume qualified by influence
of culture
Anthropology
• Views of gender in 21st century
America clarified by viewing how
other cultures express gender
Anthropology
• Tahitian men – gentle
• Aboriginal fathers – no say in
daughters’ marriages
• Samoan males – tattoo lower
body
• Mbuti – don’t discriminate
Anthropology
• Mukogodo – higher value on
females
• Orango Island – women choose
mates
• Dominican Republic – some
males born with underdeveloped
organs
Anthropology
• Many Native American groups
had matrilineal systems
• Not necessarily matriarchal
• Viewed women as relatively
autonomous
• Created category of two spirit
Symbolic
Interactionism
• Through communication with
others we learn who we are
• As parents interact with children
then tell them who they are
• Each label offers child self-image
• Children internalize views to
arrive at understanding
Symbolic
Interactionism
• Views of gender communicated
• Through parents’ responses
• Play activities with peers
• Through interaction with teachers
Symbolic
Interactionism
• Role = set of expected behaviors
and values associated with them
• External to individuals
• Roles assigned by society
Symbolic
Interactionism
• One primary way to classify
social life – gender roles
• Women as caretakers
• Women represented in service
and clerical jobs
• Men as breadwinners
• Men seen as leaders
Symbolic
Interactionism
• Role is internalized
• Learn different roles for men and
women
• Learn unequal values assigned
to them
Critical Theories
• Direct attention to structures by
which societies classify people
• Interested in how dominant
groups privilege own interests
and impose on less powerful
• Understand how oppressed
groups can become empowered
Standpoint Theory
• Societies are made of different
groups that are organized in
social hierarchy
• Membership in groups shape
what individuals experience
Standpoint Theory
• Dates back to writings of Hegel
and Marx
• Nature of slavery perceived
different if master or if slave
• Where power relationships exist,
no single perspective
• Our work shapes our identity
• All views partial
Standpoint Theory
• Social location is not standpoint
• Standpoint earned through
critical reflection and engaging in
struggle
Standpoint Theory
• Powerful have vested interest in
preserving their place
• Views may be more distorted
• Unlikely to develop oppositional
politics
Standpoint Theory
• Subordinate groups may have
fuller understandings
• Have to understand both
perspectives
• May see world with less bias
Standpoint Theory
• Marginalized perspectives can
inform all about how society
operates
• Understandings of women and
men based on location in socially
constructed groups
Standpoint Theory
• Demands of role lead mothers to
develop maternal thinking
• Arises out of location in
domestic settings
• Men who are primary caregivers
• More nurturing and expressive
Standpoint Theory
• Biological influences called into
question
• Men with higher SES do not
display destructive aggression
Standpoint Theory
• Can earn or develop multiple
standpoints that overlap and
interact
• Possibility of developing different
standpoints that reflect political
awareness
Queer Performative Theory
• Queer performative theory defies
conventional categories
• Trouble our thinking
• Trouble provoke productive
Queer Theory
• Critique of conventional
categories of identity and culture
views of normal and abnormal
• Queer does not refer only to gays
and lesbians
• Refers to anything that departs
from what society considers
normal
Queer Theory
• Arose from of gay and lesbian
studies
• Initial focus – heteronormality
• Implications for understandings
of sexuality
• Aims to enlarge appreciation of
range of identities
Queer Theory
• Not useful to use terms like
women, men, gay, straight
• Essentialize by focusing on only
one aspect of person
• Erase variation among those in
categories
Queer Theory
• Assumes identities are not fixed
– relatively fluid
Performative Theory
• Through performance humans
generate identity
• Gender comes into being only as
expressed
• Gender is something we do at
specific times
• Gender as verb, not noun
Performative Theory
• We express conventional gender
through everyday practices
• We resist conventional views of
gender if act in ways that are
inconsistent
• Performances are collaborative
Performative Theory
• Queer performative theories
integrate views of queers and
performative theory
• Important are performances that
are routine
• Political tools that unsettle