Questions and answers_Diesel1_

DIESEL







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DIESEL INFORMATION AND LIAISON COMMITTEE









1

Foreword









The Diesel Information and Liaison Committee (DILC) is an organization uniting various

companies active in developing Diesel-industry technologies.



It is a place where its members can have dialogues and exchanges concerning the technical,

scientific and environmental aspects surrounding Diesel engines.



Today, after having been strongly developed in France, Diesel has seen spectacular success in

many European countries, especially in Germany, Austria and Italy.



In the context of the priorities enumerated at the Tokyo Conference on climate change, Diesel is,

furthermore, of growing interest in many countries of the world as one of the primary responses

to the challenge set in the struggle against the greenhouse effect. This is particularly due to its

intrinsic energy-saving properties.



The goal of the document that you are now holding is to answer any questions you may have

about Diesel in a clear and concise manner.



Please contact the DILC should you have any further information needs.









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DIESEL



AND



ITS ENVIRONMENT



Questions/Answers









3

STRUCTURE OF THE QUESTION/ANSWER DATABASE





I - ENERGY, THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT, AND CO2 p. 14



1 -CO2 p. 15



2 -The Greenhouse Effect p. 21



3 -Consumption p. 23





II – POLLUTANTS p. 27



1 -CO p. 28



2 -HC and VOC p. 29



3 -Nitrogen oxides p. 30



4 -Ozone p. 31



5 -Particulates p. 32



6 -SO2 p. 36



7 -COMBINATION OF POLLUTANTS p. 37



7.1- General p. 37



7.2- Health p. 43



7.3- Automobile and Diesel p. 51









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III - GENERAL PERSPECTIVES p. 57



1 -Players in the environment p. 58



2 -Automobile and Society p. 59



3 –Economy p. 62



4 -Air quality and emissions due to transport p. 69



5 -Effects of technology p. 70



5.1- Fuels p. 71



5.2- Post-treatment p. 78



5.3- Refining p. 79



5.4- Supercharging p. 81



5.5- Injection system p. 82





BIBLIOGRAPHY p. 83









5

I - ENERGY, THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT, AND CO2 p. 14



1- CO2 p. 15

1.1- What is CO2? p. 15

1.2- Why are we interested in CO2? p. 15

1.3- What are the things responsible for CO2 emissions? p. 15

1.4- Does increased engine fuel efficiency result in an

equivalent decrease in emissions? p. 16

1.5- What is the contribution of highway traffic to

global CO2 emissions? p. 17

1.6- Is France in a good position with respect to

anthropogenic (manmade) CO2 emissions? p. 17

1.7- What can be seen being done in various countries to reduce

CO2 emissions? p. 18

1.8- Are there any European directives to reduce CO2

production from passenger cars? p. 19

1.9- What are the magnitudes of emissions from

passenger cars in Europe? p. 19

1.10- Won’t the increase in highway traffic annihilate the

progress made in CO2 emissions and regulated pollutants? p. 20

1.11- Are overall CO2 emissions going to decrease in the world? p. 20

1.12- Does CO2 have any health effects? p. 20



2- The greenhouse effect p. 21

2.1- What is the greenhouse effect? p. 21

2.2- Which are the greenhouse gases subject to

monitoring following the Tokyo agreement and

what is their global warming potential? p. 21

2.3- What is the relative contribution of CO2? p. 22



3- Consumption p. 22

3.1- What is the advantage of the Diesel engine

compared to a gasoline engine in terms of consumption? p. 23

3.2- What is the handicap of a gasoline engine compared to

a Diesel engine with direct injection in terms of CO2? p. 23

3.3- Won’t Diesel’s fuel-efficiency advantage disappear

with the coming of direct-injection gasoline engines? p. 23

3.4- Do the official figures for fuel efficiency reflect reality? p. 24

3.5- What are test cycles used for? p. 24

3.6- Do modern automobiles consume less than old ones? p. 24









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3.7- Will automobiles consume less in 10 years? p. 24

3.8- Will alternative energies replace gasoline or

diesel? p. 25

3.9- Is it true that there is a limited proportion of Diesel

produced by refineries and that there might not

be enough if the Diesel fleet increased? p. 25

3.10- Are alternative energy sources capable of reducing

automobiles' contribution to the increase in the

greenhouse effect? p. 25

3.11- Will the "dieselification" of the fleet allow lower

consumption of crude oil? p. 26

3.12- Why is it necessary to increase automobile fuel efficiency? p. 26

3.13- Will a driver who exchanges his gasoline-engine

automobile for a Diesel-engine automobile drive longer

distances and therefore produce more CO2? p. 26





II – POLLUTANTS p. 27



1- CO p. 28

1.1- What is CO? p. 28

1.2- CO is supposed to be the leading cause of

lethal poisoning in France. p. 28

1.3- Are CO emissions from the automobile fleet

decreasing in France? p. 28



2- HC and VOC p. 29

2.1- What is HC? p. 29

2.2- What is the portion of HC emissions from transport? p. 29

2.3- Does benzene have health effects? p. 29



3- Nitrogen oxides p. 30

3.1- What is NOx? p. 30

3.2- How have NOx emissions due to transport changed? p. 30





4- Ozone p. 31

4.1- Why is the automobile implicated when

speaking about ozone? p. 31









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5- Particulates p. 32

5.1- What is the difference between black smoke, aerosols,

P.M. (different sizes), and particulates? Aren't black

smoke, all suspended particulate matter, and P.M. 10

sometimes grouped together? p. 32

5.2- What happens to particulates after being emitted? p. 32

5.3- How is particulate matter measured and with what precision? p. 33

5.4- Is it true that the number of fine particulates is greater

at night than during the day? p. 33

5.5- What is the role of automobiles in black smoke? p. 34

5.6- If the fleet only contained vehicles produced after 1997 or

after 2000, would particulate matter still be an issue? p. 34

5.7- In tunnels that are not cleaned, soot clearly accumulates

on the walls. Is this attributable to Diesel? If so, what

type of vehicle? p. 35

5.8- Are emissions from gasoline-powered vehicles invisible? p. 35

5.9- Is particulate matter such as is present in the atmosphere

(concentration, doses encountered by the population, with

distribution by size, etc.) harmful? p. 36



6- SO2 p. 36



7- Combination of pollutants p. 37

7.1- General p. 37



7.1.1- What is a primary pollutant? A secondary pollutant? p. 37

7.1.2- How is air quality measured? p. 37

7.1.3- Has air quality deteriorated over the last years? p. 37

7.1.4- How do pollutant emissions evolve? p. 38

7.1.5- What is the change in emissions due to highway

traffic in France? p. 39

7.1.6- How much does transport contribute to air pollution? p. 41

7.1.7- Does atmospheric pollution change over time? p. 42

7.1.8- Where did pollution peaks originate? p. 43

7.1.9- What is the phenomenon known as

temperature inversion? p. 43



7.2- Health p. 43



7.2.1- Are the effects of pollutants on health known? p. 43

7.2.2- Is air pollution dangerous for children and

the elderly? p. 44









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7.2.3- Are there immediate and delayed health effects from

atmospheric pollution? p. 45

7.2.4- Is pollution in the home less than that out of doors? p. 46

7.2.5- Should people stay indoors during pollution peaks?

(Would it be better to keep the windows open or

closed to fight against pollution?) p. 46

7.2.6- Have there been any deaths due to pollution? p. 47

7.2.7- Why do people speak of deaths? How are they

measured? p. 47

7.2.8- What do “probable carcinogen” and “potential

carcinogen” mean? p. 47

7.2.9- Does pollution affect the heart? p. 48

7.2.10-Does the number of doctor’s visits increase

with pollution? p. 48

7.2.11-Do asthma attacks due to a pollution peak become

recurrent? p. 48

7.2.12-What are the identified causes for the increase in

asthma? Among these causes, is the automobile

significant? p. 48

7.2.13-Is smoking more dangerous than automobiles? p. 49

7.2.14-Can results from in-vitro and in-vivo toxicological

studies on small mammals be transferred to man? p. 49

7.2.15-Is pollution a placebo? p. 49

7.2.16-Is Diesel a carcinogen? p. 49

7.2.17-What is the Precautionary Principle? p. 50

7.2.18-What should be made of recent

epidemiological studies? p. 50

7.2.19-Are there dangerous pollutants that are

not measured? p. 51

7.2.20-Is Europe behind the USA in pollution and

health areas? p. 51



7.3- Automobile and Diesel p. 51



7.3.1- Can current air-quality indicators be used

meaningfully when engine emissions are isolated? p. 51

7.3.2- Which automobile emissions can be measured? p. 52

7.3.3- Why were there pollution peaks in 1997 even

though there was less traffic? (Why did AIRPARIF

record pollution peaks?) p. 52

7.3.4- What has been and what will be the change in

emissions per vehicle and for the entire fleet?

Is there a genuine increase in automobile emissions? p. 53

7.3.5- Will a level of 0 emissions for various pollutants

ever be reached in automobiles, industry, or the

domestic arena, etc.? p. 54









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7.3.6- In current studies, has there been

identification of any illnesses whose initial

cause is air pollution from automobile emissions? p. 55

7.3.7- Compared to gasoline, if current air quality

indicators (NOx, ozone precursors, CO, particulates,

CO2), are considered, is Diesel ecological? At its

origin? In 1993 (gasoline catalytic converter)?

In 1997 (Diesel catalytic converter)? In 2000

(implementation of the Euro 3 standard)? After

2000 (with technologies currently being developed

for which the probability of industrial fruition

is very high)? p. 55

7.3.8- Should Diesel be banned in order to improve

air quality in the city? p. 55

7.3.9- What would Diesel's role be in a policy designed

to drastically reduce emissions? p. 55

7.3.10-What are the Germans doing to reduce

automobile pollution? p. 56

7.3.11-Why will Diesel be even more attractive tomorrow? p. 56

7.3.12-Is it necessary to have zero pollution cars

(electric cars) to cleanse the air in cities? p. 56







III - GENERAL PERSPECTIVES p. 57



1.- Players in the environment p. 58



1.1- Why do French environmentalists criticize Diesel? p. 58

1.2- Why do German environmentalists no longer

criticize Diesel? p. 58



2.- Automobile and Society p. 59



2.1- What has been the increase in traffic? p. 59

2.2- Why do all industrial applications

(trucks, tractors, ships, electric

generators, pumps, etc.) use Diesel engines? p. 59

2.3- In winter, why are Diesel drivers so satisfied? p. 60

2.4- How much does mass transit contribute

to pollution in Paris? p. 60

2.5- Are the French the only ones in the world who

buy more than 35% of their cars with Diesel engines? p. 60









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2.6- Who's buying Diesel and for what reasons? p. 61

2.7- At the current rate, how many years of renewal

would it take for the fleet to be composed mainly

of vehicles with 97 emissions? p. 61



3.- Economy p. 62



3.1- Who pays for the efforts needed to render

automobiles non-polluting? p. 62

3.2- Does the industrial tool have enough flexibility

to allow passage from Diesel to gasoline easily

(in the short and long terms)? p. 62

3.3- Does the difference in taxation between gasoline

and Diesel represent a loss of revenue for the State? p. 62

3.4- What is the place of the automobile in the

French economy? p. 63

3.5- What is the place of each automobile manufacturer

in the French economy (savings, social, vehicles, R&D)? p. 63

3.6- Can the costs of the various pollution solutions

be compared? p. 64

3.7- What is the place of the Diesel market in France,

Europe, the USA, and Japan? p. 64

3.8- What should be made of the depreciation studies

concerning Diesel vehicles compared to purchases

of gasoline-engined vehicles that appear in different

magazines? What is the difference if the savings

obtained during the entire lifetime of the

vehicle are factored in? p. 65

3.9- Is biomass fuel good for the French economy? p. 65

3.10- How much in terms of health costs can be

attributed to air pollution from automobiles? p. 65

3.11- What are the taxation levels on automobiles

in European countries? p. 66

3.12- Why is Diesel non-existent in the USA and so

insignificant in Japan? p. 67

3.13- The Americans initiated large-scale research

programs for the "cleanest Diesel in the world" in

the context of the PNGV, partnership for a new

generation of vehicles. What is the explanation for

this in a country where energy is so inexpensive

and where there are almost no Diesel automobiles? p. 67



3.14- In European countries, will there likely be a decrease

in gasoline taxes to reach the rate of Diesel taxation? p. 67

3.15- Does France tax diesel less than other countries? p. 68









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4.- Air quality and emissions due to transport

p. 69



4.1- Does knowledge of automobile emissions allow

evaluation of air quality? p. 69



5.- Effects of technology p. 70



5.0.1- Can new technologies contribute to the

reduction of pollution? p. 70

5.0.2- Can automobile emissions be further reduced? p. 70



5.1- Fuels p. 71

5.1.1- How many cars can be powered by alternative

energy sources (electric, NGV, LPG, etc.) as

of now and in the future? p. 71

5.1.2- What is the interest of a car running on LPG? p. 72

5.1.3- What is the interest of natural gas for

highway transport? p. 72

5.1.4- What is the interest of a car running

on methanol? p. 73

5.1.5- What is the situation for emissions

from biomass fuels? p. 73

5.1.6- What can be done to reduce odors from

exhaust gases? p. 74

5.1.7- Can an impact on air quality in cities be

expected through the use of alternative fuels? p. 74

5.1.8- Will improving the quality of fuels allow a

reduction in emissions? p. 74

5.1.9- Does fuel quality have an effect on CO2 p. 75

5.1.10-Is it possible to travel with an energy source

which is a 100% biomass fuel? p. 75

5.1.11-Is traffic flow important for emissions and

fuel efficiency? p. 76

5.1.12-Do traffic restrictions have any impact on

air quality? p. 76

5.1.13-Would a 60 km/hour speed limit along the

Parisian beltway influence air quality in Paris? p. 77

5.1.14-Is Diesel inappropriate for short distances

in the city? p. 77

5.1.15-What is a test cycle? p. 77

5.1.16-Are there different test cycles? p. 77

5.1.17-Do the methods for measuring automotive

emissions represent reality? p. 78









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5.2- Post-treatment p. 78



5.2.1- What is the effect of a catalytic

converter on particulate size? p. 78

5.2.2- Which Diesel-engined vehicles today come

with catalytic converters? p. 79

5.2.3- Have Diesel engines particulate filters? p. 79



5.3- Refining p. 79



5.3.1- Do the French and European refineries

have the means to meet the demand for

Diesel and remain profitable? p. 79

5.3.2- Is the production and distribution of Diesel a

source of profit or loss for the refineries? p. 80

5.3.3- Are Diesel and gasoline complementary? p. 80

5.3.4- Can Diesel and gasoline be easily replaced

in automobiles immediately and in the medium term? p. 80

5.3.5- Are there sufficient petroleum reserves to

provide enough Diesel supplies in the years ahead? p. 80

5.3.6- Are petroleum producers disturbed by increased

fuel efficiency in automobiles? p. 81

5.3.7- Why do French petroleum producers import Diesel? p. 81



5.4- Supercharging p. 81



5.4.1- Why are there fewer gasoline turbo cars

than Diesel turbos? p. 81

5.4.2- What is the impact of the turbocharger on

pollution from a direct or indirect Diesel engine? p. 82



5.5- Injection system p. 82



5.5.1- Will direct-injection gasoline engines kill

Diesel engines? p. 82



bibliography p. 83









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I - ENERGY, THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT, AND CO2









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1. CO2



1.1 What is CO2?



Carbon dioxide, also known as CO2 and carbonic gas, is a colorless, odorless gas which is

harmless at low doses. It is produced by oxidation of carbon compounds:



 slow oxidation in the case of decomposition of organic material and respiration of living

organisms;



 rapid oxidation in the case of burning wood and fossil fuels.







1.2 Why are we interested in CO2?



 Because, among human activities, CO2 production is the one which contributes most to the

greenhouse effect;



 To preserve natural nonrenewable resources, petroleum, natural gas, coal, the quantities of

which are limited and the consumption of which is increasing with the emergence of

developing nations.







1.3 What are the sources of CO2 emissions?



They are mainly natural in origin: plant respiration, physical-chemical exchanges from oceans,

soil exchanges.



Emissions of CO2 from human activities: these represent 3 to 4% of total CO2 emissions, 1% of

which comes from deforestation, 2% from burning of fossil fuels.







(1) OECD, CO2 Emissions and Transportation, European Conference of Secretaries of

Transportation (ECST), OECD Publications, 1997.

(2) Jean-Claude Guibet (French Petroleum Institute), Fuels and Motors, Editions Technip,

1997.

(3) Richard Houghton (Director of Research at Woods Hole, Massachusetts) and George

Woodwell (Director of the Woods Hole Research Center), The Warming of the Earth,

Atmosphere file for “Science”, June 1996.









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(1) Jean-Claude Guibet (French Petroleum Institute), Fuels and Motors, Editions Technip,

1997.

(2) OECD, CO2 Emissions and Transportation, European Conference of Secretaries of

Transportation (ECST), OECD Publications, 1997.

(3) Richard Houghton (Director of Research at Woods Hole, Massachusetts) and George

Woodwell (Director of the Woods Hole Research Center), The Warming of the Earth,

Atmosphere file for “Science”, June 1996.

(4) Pollutant Emissions from Automobiles; C.C.F.A. March 1997.









1.4 Does increased engine fuel efficiency result in an equivalent decrease in emissions?



- Yes, with respect to CO2. All other things being equal, a 20% decrease in consumption

results in a 20% decrease in CO2 emissions.



- No, with respect to emissions of other pollutants (CO, HC, NOx, particulates, SO2, PAH,

etc.), the production of which depends on the technology used.



- In the case of gasoline and Diesel engines, research for increased productivity and the

introduction of direct-injection reduce CO2 emissions.



- Also, to reduce NOx emissions, engine manufacturers are developing new catalytic

technologies and petroleum producers are developing desulfurized fuels.









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(1) OECD, CO2 Emissions and Transportation, European Conference of Secretaries of

Transportation (ECST), OECD Publications, 1997.







1.5 What is the contribution of highway traffic to global CO2 emissions?









(1) Jean-Claude Guibet (French Petroleum Institute), Fuels and Motors, Editions Technip,

1997.

(2) OECD, CO2 Emissions and Transportation, European Conference of Secretaries of

Transportation (ECST), OECD Publications, 1997.

(3) Richard Houghton (Director of Research at Woods Hole, Massachusetts) and George

WOODWELL (Director of the Woods Hole Research Center), The Warming of the Earth,

Atmosphere file for “Science”, June 1996.

(4) Pollutant emissions from automobiles; C.C.F.A. March 1997.







1.6 Is France in a good position with respect to anthropogenic (manmade) CO2 emissions?



Yes, for two reasons:



- The first is that France, more than most other countries, produces its electricity using

nuclear energy.



- The second reason is due to stronger “Dieselisation” of its vehicle fleet. In 1994, CO2

emissions per inhabitant in the transportation sector were 24% greater for OECD countries

than those of France.





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-

TRANSPORTATION

Total Transportation Transportation per Share of Transportation

(Mt CO2) Inhabitant (t CO2) (%)

Year 1990 1994 1990 1994 1990 1994

France 124.9 134.94 2.2 2.3 32.9 38.8

Total OECD 2782.54 2984.48 2.67 2.86 27.7 29.1



Syst24/03/99



(1) R. DAUTRAY, The greenhouse effect and its climatic consequences. Scientific assessment,

Overview article for report no. 25 of the Académie des Sciences, File IFP 91-2, October

1990.

(2) Jean-Claude GUIBET (French Petroleum Institute), Fuels and Motors, editions TECHNIP,

1997.

(3) OECD, CO2 Emissions and Transportation, European Conference of Secretaries of

Transportation, OECD Publications, 1997.







1.7 What can be seen being done in various countries to reduce CO2 emissions?



- In France, heightened taxation of fuels encourages the purchase of highly efficient vehicles.

The tax differential between gasoline and Diesel is justified because of fewer CO2 emission

from Diesel vehicles. Since July 1998, calculation of the engine rating for administrative

purposes (stamp and vehicle registration certificate) directly take into account CO2

emission levels from passenger cars.



- In Germany, a two stage program intended to encourage more fuel-efficient vehicles: taxes

will be centered around emissions, first for heavy duty vehicles greater than 3.5 t in weight

(in effect since April 1995), then on light duty vehicles, passenger cars, and motorcycles (in

effect since April 1997).



- In Austria, fuel efficiency is, since January 1992, one of the criteria used to determine

vehicle sales tax.



- In Belgium, all fuels have been taxed heavily to encourage biomass fuels.



- In Denmark, a tax on CO2 has been placed on all forms of non-renewable energy sources,

except for natural gas and gasoline.



- In Spain, fleet renewals are encouraged through cash incentives to get obsolete vehicles off

the road.







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- In Finland, taxes promote purchases of fuel-efficient vehicles.



- In Ireland, taxes promote small displacement vehicles.



- In Italy, the incentives concern fleet maintenance and the use of high-efficiency engines.

Better traffic-flow management has also been implemented.



- In the United States, there is no price difference between Diesel and gasoline, taxes (from

1000 to 7700$) are placed on vehicles proportionally to consumption above 22.5 miles per

gallon (that is 10.46 liters per 100 km in the American system, FTP). Renewable energy

sources are also encouraged through incentives.



- In Japan, natural gas, electricity, and methanol are encouraged (but that does not necessarily

limit CO2 emissions if the entire energy sector is considered).







(1) Philippe THALMANN, Ecological taxes, the example of CO2 taxes, Presses Polytechniques

et Universitaires Romandes, 1997.

(2) OECD, CO2 Emissions and Transportation, European Conference of Secretaries of

Transportation, OECD Publications, 1997.







1.8 Are there any European directives to reduce CO2 production from passenger cars?



No, there are no directives, but in order to meet commitments made by Europe in Kyoto, the

European automobile industry is committed to limiting mean CO2 emissions to 140 g/km in new

vehicles by 2008 contingent on improved fuel quality (a necessary improvement in order to allow

the introduction of new technologies), and contingent that no discriminatory measures are taken

against fuel-efficient technologies (Direct Injection, etc.).







1.9 What are the magnitudes of emissions from passenger cars in Europe ?



Using the European approval rating for new cars as a base:







1960 1997 2008



CO2 210 g/km 185 g/km 140 g/km



Regulated Pollutants CO-HC-NOx-particulates 60 g/km 2.8 g/km 1.2 g/km









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1.10 Won’t the increase in highway traffic annihilate the progress made in CO2 emissions and

regulated pollutants?



Reading the preceding figures shows that the problems related to CO2 and to regulated pollutants

are different.

For regulated pollutants, with the replacement of old vehicles by modern vehicles which pollute

20 times less, emissions from the automobile fleet in the cities will decrease quite strongly

despite increased traffic.





For CO2, however, progress cannot be on the same scale as for other pollutants and the increase

in traffic worldwide will cause an increase in CO2 produced by heat engines used in

transportation. In Europe, thanks to the commitment made by the ACEA (European Automobile

Manufacturers Association), there is a plan for stabilization of CO2 emissions from passenger

cars.



1.11 Are overall CO2 emissions going to decrease in the world?



No, CO2 emissions are going to increase for two reasons: an increasing world population and

economic development of developing nations.



Even if CO2 emissions due to transportation were stabilized (which will not happen), merely the

requirement for heating and cooking food would cause a continuous increase of CO2 emissions.



That is why there must be firm action in all areas which contribute to CO2 emissions.



In France, CO2 emissions due to passenger cars will not increase any more.

(1) Richard HOUGHTON (Director of Research at Hoods Hole, Massachusetts) and George

Woodwell (Director of the Woods Hole Research Center, Massachusetts), The Warming of

the Earth, Atmosphere file for “Science”, June 1996.





1.12 Does CO2 have any effect on health?



No, there are no directs effects. CO2 has always been present in the air we breathe, and an

increase in its concentration will not effect health. There is an interest in carbon dioxide because

it contributes to an increase in the greenhouse effect.









20

2- THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT





2.1- What is the greenhouse effect?

 Certain gaseous molecules present in the atmosphere have the property of reflecting infrared light

emitted by the earth and of allowing ultraviolet rays emitted by the sun to pass through either wholly

or in part. This phenomenon is called the greenhouse effect and it allows the temperature necessary

for life on Earth to be maintained.



 The warming effect is due to the increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases present in the

atmosphere. This warming effect results in an increase in the Earth’s temperature.



(1) - Paul DEGOBERT (French Petroleum Institute), Automobiles and Pollution, editions Technip,

October 1992.



(2) - Académie des Sciences, Ozone: oxidizing properties of the troposphere (Report No. 30), Institut de

France, October 1993.

2.2- What are the greenhouse gases subject to monitoring following the Tokyo agreement and

what is their global warming potential?

Many gases contribute to the greenhouse effect. In Kyoto, the following gases were chosen to be

monitored.



Global warming potential (GWP)



(effect of the emission of the gas compared to that of CO2)



CO2 1



CH4 63 (1)

42 (2)



N2O 270

(1) (2)



CFC11 4500 (1)

4000 (2)



CFC 12 7100 (1)

6200 (2)



HCFC22 4100 (1)



(1) and (2): See end-of-paragraph references.









21

 Three parameters must be taken into consideration. The global warming potential, atmospheric

concentration, and the lifetime of the gas.



 The warming potential must be weighted by the concentration of each pollutant in the atmosphere.



(1) - R. DAUTRAY The greenhouse effect and its climatic consequences. Scientific assessment, Overview

article for report no. 25 of the Académie des Sciences, File IFP 91-2, October 1990.



(2) - IPCC, INRETS, 1990.





2.3- What is the relative contribution of CO2?

 Six pollutants alone contribute to 95% of the warming effect.



 CO2 is responsible for 55% of the effect of all regulated pollutants.



 The automobile is more particularly concerned by CO2, and the Diesel engine, on this point, has a

significant advantage over all other heat engines.



(1) - R. DAUTRAY The greenhouse effect and its climatic consequences. Scientific assessment, Overview

article for report no. 25 of the Académie des Sciences, File IFP 91-2, October 1990.









22

3- CONSUMPTION

3.1- What is the advantage of the Diesel engine compared to a gasoline engine in terms of

consumption?

For comparable service (acceleration from 80 to 120 km/h), a car with a gasoline engine of the

same make and model as a Diesel car with indirect injection consumes approximately 33% more

liters of fuel or 20% more in Kg (diesel is more dense than gasoline). Compared to a direct-

injection Diesel car, it would use approximately 55% more in liters and 40% more in Kg.

3.2- What is the handicap of a gasoline engine compared to a Diesel engine with direct

injection in terms of CO2?

This is related to consumption expressed in Kg, which is approximately 20% more compared

with an indirect-injection Diesel engine, and approximately 40% compared with a direct-

injection Diesel engine.

3.3- Won’t Diesel’s fuel-efficiency advantage disappear with the coming of direct-injection

gasoline engines?

 Diesel and gasoline engines in passenger cars are going to make the transition - very quickly for

Diesel and in a more distant future for gasoline engines - to direct-injection technology, that is, where

fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber. This technology will provide each engine with

approximately 15% increased fuel efficiency.



 The fuel efficiency differential will therefore remain the same:

 30% more in liters for gasoline engines

or

 20% more in Kg of fuel and in CO2 emitted.





(1) - Jean Claude GUIBET (French Petroleum Institute), Fuels and Engines, Editions TECHNIP, 1997



(2) - Roger KLING (ECAM, ENSPM), General Thermodynamics and Applications, Editions TECHNIP,

1980.









23

3.4- Do the official figures for fuel efficiency reflect reality?

The Test Cycles in Europe (ECE-EUDC), America (FTP), and Japan represent average,

standardized driving conditions for the considered countries. In practice, Diesel’s low-power

performances often lead to greater fuel efficiency than that found in the official figures.



A Diesel engine's output is also less sensitive to operating temperature than a gasoline engine. An

outside temperature lower than 20C, or a cold start, will thus cause the Diesel engine’s output to

fall less than that of the gasoline engine.



Compared to a gasoline engine, a Diesel engine’s performance is more stable over time with

respect to pollution and fuel-efficiency.

3.5- What are test cycles used for?

The cycles are representative and are used to measure overall fleet consumption. They are useful

in order to measure the pollution and consumption of each engine technology and the progress

made in each; however, they do not suffice to give a good comparison in all circumstances for

the various types of motorization - each one with respect to the others.







(1) - P. HUPPERICH and M. DURNHOLZ (FEV Motorentechnik GmbH and Co. KG), Exhaust

Emissions of Diesel, Gasoline, and Natural Gas Fueled Vehicles (SAE Publication 960857), 1996.



(2) - Marc-Andre CHARBONNIER and Manuel ANDRES (Lucas Diesel Systems). A Comparative Study

of Gasoline and Diesel Passenger Car Emissions Under Similar Conditions of Use (SAE

publication 930779), U.S. AND EUROPEAN AUTOMOTIVE EMISSION TECHNOLOGY (SP-957),

SAE, 1993.

3.6- Do modern automobiles consume less than old ones?

Yes, mean consumption per vehicle has been reduced by approximately 15%, going from 8.3

l/100 km in 1980 to 7.1 l/100 km in 1995 in 7 countries of reference (Germany, France, Sweden,

Austria, Italy, Belgium, United Kingdom).



3.7- Will automobiles consume less in 10 years?

In the future, fuel consumption will be expressed in grams of CO2 per kilometer. European

manufacturers are committed to reducing this consumption from 186 g/km in 1995 to 140 g/km

in 2008 based on a weighted average of European sales. This corresponds to a new 25%

decrease.









24

3.8- Will alternative energies replace gasoline or diesel?

 Alternative or substitute energy sources are primarily electricity, Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG),

compressed natural gas, Methanol, Ethanol, biomass fuels, and Dimethyl Ether.



 All are interesting with respect to one or more parameters of an ecological, economic, or geographic

nature. These energy sources may, therefore, provide a non-negligible complement to diesel and

gasoline. Their implementation will generally require State support through various tax incentives;

additionally, distribution networks remain to be developed.



 Electricity is certainly an energy of the future for automobiles, but the technologies currently being

developed must still resolve cost problems for large-scale manufacturing.



 Alternative fuels generally target market niches in which development is limited to a few percentage

points of the global market. For the next 20 years, diesel and gasoline cannot be avoided, and it is

probable that in 30 years the automotive fleet will still be primarily powered by diesel or gasoline.

3.9- Is it true that there is a limited proportion of diesel produced by refineries and that there

might not be enough if the Diesel fleet increased?

No, the petroleum industry has the financial and technical resources available to increase the

proportion of diesel produced. Currently, the European refining industry easily meets the demand

for diesel in Europe. It is true, however, that in France, petroleum companies have made strategic

choices which today have resulted in an insufficient Diesel-production capacity by those

refineries present in France.



3.10- Are alternative energy sources capable of reducing automobiles' contribution to the

increase in the greenhouse effect?

With respect to gasoline:



 Yes, for electricity when nuclear in origin or from fuel cells.



 No, for electricity produced by coal-fueled thermal power plants.



 Yes, for compressed natural gas (CNG), Diesel, Methanol, and DME.



 Yes, for biomass fuels.



 No, for liquid petroleum gas (LPG).









25

3.11- Will the "Dieselisation" of the fleet allow lower consumption of crude oil?

 If trips made with Diesel passenger cars in France in 1995 had been made with gasoline powered

automobiles, the additional expenditure in fuel would have been approximately 2.55 million m3, that

is approximately 10% of the consumption for highway transport.



 If all vehicles were powered either by gasoline or by Diesel, refinery conversion costs would be

greater. The existence of two technologies benefits everyone! Users and refiners.







(1) - Jean-Claude GUIBET (French Petroleum Institute), Fuels and Engines, Editions TECHNIP, 1997



(2) - Highway Union of France (Union Routière de France - URF). Air quality and Highways

(www.urf.asso.fr) 1997.



(3) - International Energy Agency (IEA, AIS), Refining and Environmental Implication of Increased Use

of Diesel-Engined Passenger Cars, OECD Publication, December 1994.





3.12- Why is it necessary to increase automobile fuel-efficiency?

 Human activities lead to consumption of energy which results in an increase in the Earth's

temperature due to greenhouse gases produced by the transformation of this energy during work.

Even if not everything is known about this phenomenon, it is desirable to limit production of

greenhouse gases.



 Transport represents a large part of this increase and its development worldwide necessitates drastic

limitations in vehicle fuel consumption if authoritarian limitations placed on man's freedom of

movement are to be avoided.



 Fossil fuels, petroleum, natural gas, and coal are present in limited quantities in the world. They must

be used wisely.



 All things being equal, furthermore (including energy savings), reducing consumption leads

indirectly to increased purchasing power, which preserves freedom of movement.





3.13- Will a driver who exchanges his gasoline-engine automobile for a Diesel-engine

automobile drive longer distances and therefore produce more CO2.

 It's the need to travel longer distances and not the converse that encourages the user to buy Diesel.



 The observed increase in individual mobility comes from work-related restrictions and to changing

leisure requirements.



 Choosing a Diesel car means contributing to the limitation of greenhouse-gas production.



(1) - International Energy Agency (IEA, AIE), Refining and Environmental Implications of Increased Use

of Diesel-Engined Passenger Cars, OECD Publication, December 1994.









26

II - POLLUTANTS









27

1- CO

1.1- What is CO?

Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas whose density is very close to that of air, and it is

very toxic. Through binding, CO can inhibit the power of hemoglobin in the blood to deliver

oxygen to the heart and brain.







(1) - Paul DEGOBERT (French Petroleum Institute), Automobile and Pollution, editions TECHNIP,

October 1992



(2) - Rene JOATTON, Future Transport, Flammarion, March 1996.







1.2- CO is supposed to be the leading cause of lethal poisoning in France.

This is true within buildings and is mainly due to non-ventilated, natural-gas, hot-water heaters.



This is not true outside, even in city centers - CO content in air is less than WHO and EPA

recommended levels.



DOR 1995, STROEBEL 95





1.3- Are CO emissions from the automobile fleet decreasing in France?

 Yes, thanks to the increase in the number of automobiles with catalytic converters and Diesel

automobiles, such that, in parking lots, fans which start operating based on the CO content in air no

longer start often enough. The sensor threshold needs to be changed.



 Emissions from the transport sector have regularly decreased since 1990. The tendency toward

regression appears to be accelerating over the last few years: 1.4 % in 1991 compared to 1990, -8.7%

in 1995 compared with 1994 (literature review - no. 126, DCQ 11/97 from the CITEPA).









28

2- HC AND VOC



2.1- What is HC?



In atmospheric chemistry, it is normal to distinguish methane emissions (of which the

predominant sources are natural, and the share attributed to transport negligible, on the order of

0.7%) and emissions of Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds (NMVOC).



The term hydrocarbon (HC) refers more specifically to all organic compounds measured

according to a method known as FID (including methane).







(1) - Paul DEGOBERT (French Petroleum Institute), Automobile and Pollution, editions TECHNIP,

October 1992



(2) - Rene JOATTON, Future transportation, Flammarion, March 1996.





2.2- What is the portion of HC emissions from transport?

The share from natural sources lies between 90% (LENZ et al, 1994) and 50% (DEGOBERT

1992).



The share attributable to transport-related anthropogenic emissions is on the order of 44%

(CITEPA).

2.3- Does benzene have health effects?

The list of health effects from various aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene and PAH

(polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) is regularly updated. Most of them are classified as

potentially carcinogenic by the French Association for Public Health (Societe Francaise de Sante

Publique). Benzene is listed as a carcinogen.



Diesel-engined vehicles do not emit benzene.







(1) - French Association for Public Health (SFSP). Atmospheric pollution from automobiles and public

health, May 1996.









29

3. NITROGEN OXIDES

3.1 What is NOx?

The nitrogen oxide label generally applies to nitrogen monoxide (NO), also known as nitrous

oxide, and to nitrogen dioxide (N2O2), nitrogen pentoxide (N2O5), or nitric anhydride, but only

NO and NO2 are currently designated by the abbreviated formula NOx.



NO2 is found at room temperature in the form of a very volatile, yellow-brown liquid, or as a red-

brown gas, which is a strong irritant. Present in large quantities, this gas reduces atmospheric

visibility and confers, in most cases, a brownish coloring to the masses of air which cover

urbanized zones.



NO is the most abundant of the nitrogen derivatives present in the atmosphere (90 to 95% of

NOx). A primary pollutant, it may be transformed into NO2 in the presence of other pollutants.







(1) - Karine PAPIN, nitrogen oxides of our days, Université PARIS VII, September 1996.

3.2- How have NOx emissions due to transport changed?

 The rate of regression for NOx emissions from transport was 7% for 1990 to 1995. For passenger

cars, it is larger, on the order of 13% for the same period (source CITEPA, literature review N 126

DQC November 1997). This rate of regression would be ever greater if it were possible to accelerate

fleet renewal.









30

4- OZONE

4.1 Why is the automobile implicated when speaking about ozone?

At low altitudes (in tropospheric), natural ozone is present in low concentrations. The natural

sources are connected with:



. Intrusion of high-altitude air (stratospheric),



. Photochemical synthesis of natural HC and NOx.



The equilibrium thus established is disrupted by anthropogenic NOx and HC emissions. Highway

vehicles, including automobiles, contribute to these anthropogenic emissions.



In certain cases, the change in this equilibrium leads to an increase in the ozone content causing

damaging health effects.



Two important points should be remembered:



. The phenomenon is very complicated and requires in-depth studies,



. Because of their low HC emissions, Diesel engines are very advantageous in cases of high

ozone levels, since they contribute much less to ozone formation than gasoline engines.







(1) - Academie des Sciences, Ozone and oxidizing properties of the troposphere (Report No. 30), Institut

de France, October 1993.



(2) - CITEPA, Estimation of changes in pollutant emissions related to highway traffic from 1990 to 2010

(NO2, VOC, dust, SO2). Report 289, December 1994.









31

5- PARTICULATES

5.1- What is the difference between black smoke, aerosols, P.M. (different sizes), and

particulates? Aren't black smoke, all suspended particulate matter, and P.M. 10 sometimes

grouped together?

Today, there is no precise definition for the term ‘particulate.’ The term includes all substances in

suspension in the air whether they be solid or liquid, of natural or anthropic origin.



The label of black smoke, aerosol, PM, etc. ... corresponds only to methods for measuring the

concentration in air.



. Black smoke: particles are evaluated according to the blackness of a filter.



. P.M. 10: all particles with a diameter less than 10 µm.



. P.M. 2.5: all particles with a diameter less than 2.5 µm.



. Aerosol or Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM): all particles with a diameter less than 100

µm.



These methods when applied to measurement of emissions do not allow the particulate origins to

be differentiated.

5.2- What happens to particulates after being emitted?

The life of a particle is a complex phenomenon not fully understood. It depends on its chemical

composition and its surface state. It is reactive with respect to the exterior and therefore in

constant transformation.



There is no consensus concerning atmospheric particulate change.







(1) - Paul DEGOBERT - Automobiles and Pollution, October 1992.



(2) - Karine PAJOT, Suspended Particulate Matter: synthesis and commentary based on three French

documents, DESS Chemical and Biological Atmospheric Quality, University Paris VII, September

1997.



(3) - Professor Andre RENOUX (University Paris XII, Laboratory of Aerosol Physics and Contaminant

Transfers, Creteil) Atmospheric aerosol: its origins. Some ideas about the main physical properties

of aerosols, CITEPA, Day of Studies, December 17, 1996.









32

5.3- How is particulate matter measured and with what precision?

Atmospheric particulate matter



Currently there are several methods for sampling and measuring particulate matter suspended in

the atmosphere. These are used in distinct fashions depending on the networks for national and

foreign measurements. In Europe, the 1980 directive makes no reference to any particular

fraction of particulate matter in relation to health, and the methods used cover different

granulometric domains.







Black smoke Suspended PM10

particulate matter



Sample filtration (0.08 filtration (1.5 m3/h) sampling head

m3/h)



Analysis reflectometry ß ray attenuation optical photometer



Granulometric cut- D < 5µm D < 13 µm D < 10 µm

off



Data mass mass mass



Measured Impact especially soot and industrial-site health (thoracic

non-burned residue monitoring section)







Particulate matter metering, unlike measuring gas, is not an absolute measure: no technique can

effectively collect the entire granulometric range of particulate matter and simultaneously

provide all information such as: mass, number, size, composition, etc.

5.4- Is it true that the number of fine particulates is greater at night than during the day?

Depending on the area considered, particulate concentrations vary with the time of day. However,

the change does not take place in the same way in every location. Thus, particulates with

dimensions less than 0.1µm are greater during the day than at night in a city such as Brest

(France) (1).







(1) - Professor Andre RENOUX (University Paris XII, Laboratory of Aerosol Physics and Contaminant

Transfers, Creteil) Atmospheric aerosol: its origins. Some ideas about the main physical properties

of aerosols, CITEPA, Day of Studies, December 17, 1996.



(2) - Ulf ULFVARSON et al., Diesel Engine Development Is guided by Inadequate Particle Sampling

(SAE Publication 970759) Royal Institute of Technology, 1997.





33

5.5- What is the role of automobiles in black smoke?

Automobile particulates originate in the phenomenon of imperfect combustion in the engine

followed by the processes of condensation and absorption along the entire exhaust line. These

mechanisms depend indirectly on the fuel and the functional properties of the engine, but they are

common to both gasoline engines and Diesel engines.



Old Diesel engines emit more visible smoke under urban driving conditions. Over the last 20

years, black smoke from Diesel engines has been greatly reduced, new technologies are

appearing (direct injection, high pressure, particulate filter, etc.), which will suppress black

smoke.



Today, the only regulatory steps for approval of vehicles apply to Diesel particulates with a

standardized methodology: measurement of the particulate mass collected on a filter placed in

parallel to the dilution tunnel.

5.6- If the fleet only contained vehicles produced after 97 or after 2000, would particulate

matter still be an issue?

According to a CITEPA simulation which considered fleet renewal and new technologies,

particulate emissions shall decrease by 70% between 1995 and 2010. (1)



 Per passenger car, the maximum emission will decrease from 0.4 to 0.05 grams per kilometer,

approximately an eight-fold decrease in the ECE cycle between 1989 and 2001. (2)



 Furthermore, the Diesel engine has exhibited stable behavior through years, which means for

particulate emissions, that the emissions from a given vehicle will not increase with mileage (they

will even have a tendency to decrease a bit, specifically with respect to particulates). (3)







(1) - CITEPA, Estimation of changes in pollutant emissions related to road traffic from 1990 to 2020

(NOx, VOC, CO, dust, SO2), July 1998.



(2) - Highway Union of France (URF), The Road and Air Quality (www.urf.asso.fr), 1997.



(3) - Michel ANDRE (INRETS), In Actual Use Car Testing: 1000 Trips by 55 French Cars Under Real

Conditions (SAE publication 910039), Warrendale (United States of America), February-March

1991.









34

5.7- In tunnels which are not cleaned, soot clearly accumulates on the walls. Is this attributable

to Diesel? If so, what type of vehicle?

 The black deposit found in tunnels is due to automotive emissions, but also to dust of various origins

(tire wear, etc.) which is found on the road and which gets kicked-up with the passage of vehicles.



 The relative contribution of different means of transport in particulate emissions is an important

point.



 The contribution of gasoline particulates is never considered in these assessments because mass

emissions data is not available. Only one in-depth study in Great Britain indicates that the share of

gasoline particulates in the total mass of PM10 emitted in Great Britain in 1995 lies between 25% and

18%. By assuming like conditions for the French fleet, the following hypotheses may be advanced:



 Passenger cars contribute to less than one-fourth of Diesel particulate emissions: heavy-duty

and commercial vehicles being the primary emitters, which is confirmed by simulations in

which passenger cars contributed approximately 25% of Diesel particulate emissions in

France in 1995, while highway transport (HD + CV) contributed approximately 75%.



 Gasoline and Diesel passenger cars, in the French fleet’s current configuration, contribute

equally to particulate emissions.





5.8- Are emissions from gasoline-powered vehicles invisible?

 The mechanisms for the formation of gasoline particulates are relatively close to those which take

place for Diesel particulates. Gasoline particulates form during combustion by a nucleation process .

They are smaller and less visible than on Diesel.



 The chemical composition of gasoline particulates indicates the presence of the same 20 PAH

(Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons) and their nitrated or oxygenated homologues in gasoline

particulates and in Diesel particulates, which shows that it is difficult, in a given environment, to

separate gasoline particulates from Diesel particulates.









35

5.9- Is particulate matter, such as is present in the atmosphere (concentration, doses

encountered by the population, with distribution by size, etc.), harmful?

 Particulate concentrations and distribution by size and chemical composition vary widely from one

site to another and also depend on the period.



 In the 1950s, several extreme episodes of smog due to industrial and heating emissions demonstrated

that strong pollutant concentrations, including particulates, could affect the health of human beings.



 Particulate emissions with human origins have greatly decreased since then (down thirty-fold in less

than 40 years) and, at current levels along public thoroughfares, direct effects can no longer be

observed.



 The increase in time spent in confined atmospheres has, for several years, oriented research to

particulates specific to living quarters (proteins secreted by mites and secondary smoke from burning

tobacco).



(1) - Kathleen NAUSS, Diesel Exhaust: A critical Analysis of Emissions, Exposure and Health Effects,

Health Effects Institute (HEI), October 1997.



(2) - French Association for Public Health (SFSP), Atmospheric pollution from Automobiles and Public

Health, May 1996.



(3) - Quality of Urban Air Review Group (QUARG), Diesel Vehicle Emissions and Urban Air Quality,

Birmingham, Institute of Public and Environmental Health - School of Biological Sciences,

December 1993.



(4) - Dr. Sverre VEDAL, Health Effects of Inhalable Particles: Implications for British Columbia -

Overview and Conclusions, (www.env.gov.bc.ca/epd/epda/ar/heoipifb.html), Department of

Medicine, University of British Columbia (for the British Columbia Minister of the Environment),

June 1995.



6- SO2



Sulfur is an impurity present in coal and fuels, whether they are domestic or heavy petroleum

derivatives. It combines with oxygen during combustion and results mainly in SO2.



Between 1965 and 1993, the concentration of SO2 in the air in Paris was decreased ten-fold (1).

This drop is due, in part, to controls placed on stationary sources and to the desulfurization of

fuels used for domestic heating, production of electricity and industry, and, in part, to the

disappearance of coal as a primary energy source.



Sulfur in automobile fuels leads to emissions of SO2 and sulfates. It is also a catalytic poison.

Several steps have already been accomplished in fuel desulfurization. The European Parliament,

contingent on implementation decrees, has just set the maximum concentration of sulfur in

gasoline and Diesel fuels at 50 ppm by 2005 at the latest, with exemptions possible.



(1) - Olivier HERTZ (Minister of the Environment), The law governing air and the rational use of

energy. Paris School of Mines (Ecole de Mines de Paris), November 20, 1997.







36

7- COMBINATION OF POLLUTANTS

7.1- General

7.1.1- What is a primary pollutant? A secondary pollutant?

Atmospheric pollutants include all natural or artificial substances capable of being air-borne.

Primary pollutants, which are emitted directly from identifiable sources, are distinguished from

secondary pollutants, which are produced by reactions between primary atmospheric pollutants.



7.1.2- How is air quality measured?

 Currently, in order to determine air quality, concentrations of several pollutants are measured at posts

that are generally non-moving. These samplings are taken only in a few cities (but the network is

being expanded in France).



 Regular measurements are taken for the following pollutants: lead (Pb) and sulfur dioxide (SO 2).

There are four pollutants which are most often measured regularly: nitrogen dioxide (NO 2), carbon

monoxide (CO), ozone (O3), and particulates (the historical levels of these latter concern black

smoke).



 An index can thus be associated with the concentrations of these pollutants. In the Parisian

metropolitan region, this is the Atmo index.







(1) - Hygiene Laboratory for the City of Paris (LHVP - Laboratoire d’hygiene de la Ville de Paris), Air

quality in Paris, 1997.



7.1.3- Has air quality deteriorated over the last years?

No, not with respect to pollutants which have been measured for more than 20 years.



Not all pollutants have been measured using the same starting date. Certain pollutants: CO, Dust,

SO2, and Lead, have been monitored in Paris for a long time. The table below shows the change

in the concentration of these pollutants in Paris (1).









37

For these, in Paris just as in almost every large European city, progress has been significant. It

may be simplified by saying that a level 3 pollution peak today is equal to mean winter pollution

in the 1960s or even, being conservative, that mean pollution has decreased three-fold. (1)



However, certain pollutants, whether or not they are regulated, have only been measured by an

adequate network for some years and often there is not sufficient space to gauge changes in their

concentration.



7.1.4- How do pollutant emissions evolve?

Three sources of pollutants must be considered:



 Natural sources: vegetation, soils, etc. If there is any change, it is certainly very slow and not

measurable along the scale of time which interests us.



 Stationary sources: domestic heating, electricity production, industry. Since the beginning of the

1960s, pollution due to stationary sources is decreasing. Certain pollutants, however, may not have

been included in legislation and could be increasing.



 Transport: until 1993, traffic increases erased the effects of relatively unrestrictive legislation. The

new European legislation, which appeared in 1993, put an end to increased pollution due to transport.

Since 1995, emissions due to transport have decreased and this trend, despite increasing traffic, will

only accelerate with the implementation of more restrictive standards in 1997, 2000, and 2005.









38

7.1.5- What is the change in emissions due to highway traffic in France?

Since 1990, particularly in Paris, reliable information sources are available to us. The tables

below summarize pollutant emissions due to highway transport in France as percentages.









39

40

Despite the slow pace in the renewal of the fleet of highway vehicles (approximately 8% of the

fleet is renewed each year - these are old vehicles replaced by new vehicles meeting new

European standards), the decrease in pollution due to transport has been confirmed.



Only CO2, which is not a pollutant detrimental to health, but which does contribute to the

warming effect, is increasing.



Source: CITEPA/CORALIE & THE UNIVERSITY OF THESSALONICA



7.1.6- How much does transport contribute to air pollution?

The CITEPA has provided information about three pollutants: sulfur dioxide SO2, nitrogen

oxides NOx, and volatile organic compounds. The table below summarizes the changes and

shares attributable to transport and other sources. It can be seen that since 1990, progress made in

transport is greater than progress in other sources.









41

SULFUR DIOXIDE NITROGEN OXIDES - VOLATILE ORGANIC

NOx COMPOUNDS -VOC



% Total Variation % Total Variation % Total Variation

96/90 96/90 96/90



HIGHWAY 10% -27% 56.6% -12% 37.4% -25%

TRANSPORT



OTHER SOURCES 90% -19.2% 43.4% -7.4% 62.6% -10.6%



TOTAL 100% -20% 100% -10% 100% -16%



This trend is going to accelerate through the effect of new standards in 1997, 2000, and 2005.



Source: CITEPA



(1) - AIRPARIF, Capital atmosphere, October 1997.



(2) - Olivier HERTZ (Minister of the Environment), The law governing air and the rational use of

energy. Paris Ecole des Mines, November 20, 1997.



7.1.7- Does atmospheric pollution change over time?

 Atmospheric pollution follows not only seasonal cycles, but also cycles based on geological,

monthly, weekly, daily, and hourly time frames. Statistical trends can be seen thus for several

pollutants.



 Sulfur dioxide reaches maximum mean concentrations from November to February (more than 20

g/m3 in Paris during these months from 1992 to 1996); from June to September, its levels are less

than 10 g/m3. Heating from fossil fuels during winter could explain these differences.



 Conversely, ozone concentrations are highest during summer, reaching 40 g/m3 in Paris during July

and August and falling below 15 g/m3 in fall and winter. During hot periods, solar energy shifts the

balance of chemicals in the atmosphere toward the ozone.



 During the day, ozone levels are generally highest in the afternoon, while for nitrogen dioxide, the

maximum levels are generally present in early morning and evening.



Note: all of these values are less than the limits established by the WHO (World Health

Organization).



(1) - AIRPARIF, Capital atmosphere, October 1997



(2) - Paul DEGOBERT (French Petroleum Institute), Automobile and Pollution, éditions TECHNIP,

October.









42

7.1.8- Where did pollution peaks originate?

Of course, their origin is due to emissions from anthropogenic sources: transport, industry,

heating, or natural sources (vegetation, soils).



But today, in large European cities, pollution peaks occur in unfavorable geographic

configurations (cities surrounded by hills) in conjunction with particular meteorological

conditions which lead to pollution stagnating above the sources of emission (the pollution peaks

observed in Paris and Strasbourg in August 1998 occurred at times and on days when automobile

traffic was particularly low).







(1) - Paul DEGOBERT (French Petroleum Institute), Automobiles and Pollution, editions TECHNIP,

October 1992.



(2) - Hygiene Laboratory for the City of Paris (LHVP), Air quality in Paris, 1997, (Pour la Science).



(3) - Thomas GRAEDEL (AT&T Bell Laboratories) and Paul CRUTZEN (director of the department of

atmospheric chemistry at the Max Planck Institute), The condition of the atmosphere, Atmosphere

file, Pour la Science, June 1996.



7.1.9- What is the phenomenon known as temperature inversion?

 In anticyclonic weather, the sky is clear. Temperatures then rise rapidly during the day and fall just

as quickly at night. Because of the great difference in temperatures between day and night, the air at

ground level is colder than that at several hundred meters higher. This is the origin of the term

designating a situation of temperature inversion.



 Diffusion of pollutants upward is then greatly reduced: in the absence of wind, the pollutants remain

close to the ground. This stagnation may last from several hours to several days.







(1) - AIRPARIF - Capital atmosphere, October 1997.







7.2- Health

7.2.1- Are the effects of pollutants on health known?

 The effects of pollutants, at observed atmospheric concentrations, are not well-known to date.

However, the effects of these chemical compounds at high doses have been well-detailed.



 Studies have been conducted on animals, bacteria (AMES test) and, more rarely, lung specimens.

The experiments, such as they are conducted, do not always allow the results obtained from one

animal to be generalized to all others: furthermore, even in the most complete studies, the effects of

pollutants at high doses differ from one species of guinea pig to another, and it is known that

concentration can have a determining effect.







43

 Doses to which rats, mice, hamsters, and monkeys (to mention only these four species) are submitted

vary from 200 to 1,000 times greater than those observable in the atmosphere; this slant is necessary

in order to obtain visible results within a given time. However, more recent studies (from the Health

Effect institute in particular) demonstrate a threshold effect for the biological effect of aerosols on

animals: at doses which are 50 to 100 times lower than the maxima for certain experiments, the

lungs’ defense mechanisms are sufficient to inhibit the chemical and physical actions of the

pollutants: the concentrations of these latter at the threshold effect are 10 to 50 times greater than

those of the urban atmosphere (diurnal or nocturnal).







(1) - Kathleen NAUSS, Diesel Exhaust: a Critical Analysis of Emissions, Exposure and Health Effects,

Health Effects Institute (HEI), October 1997.







7.2.2- Is air pollution dangerous for children and the elderly?

 Children and the elderly are more exposed to certain pollutants than an adult in good health (1).

Thus, sources of nitrogen dioxide inside buildings would constitute a risk parameter for the

occurrence of chronic respiratory symptoms in children; this aggravation would be comparable to

that occasioned by second-hand cigarette smoke (passive smoking) (2).



 These conclusions have not been reached by all scientists: some, on the contrary, evoke the absence

of a relationship between NO2 and respiratory symptoms in children (3) (4), just as with the other

population segments (5).



(1) - John D. SPENGLER et al. (Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA), Nitrogen Dioxide and Respiratory

Illness in Children (Research Report no. 58), The Health Effects Institute (HEI) 1996.



(2) - L.M. NEAS, D.W. DOCKEREY, J.H. WARE, Association of indoor nitrogen dioxide with symptoms and

pulmonary function in children, in Extrapol (Epidémiologie et Pollution Atmosphérique: analyse critique des

publications internationales) NO2 et Pollution intérieure: exposition et effets sur la santé, Extrapol No. 5,

January 1995.



(3) - C.BRAUN-FAHRLANDER, U. ACKERMANN-LIEBRICH, J. SCHWARZ, H.P. GNEHM, M. RUTISHAUSER,

H.U. WANNER, Air pollution and respiratory symptoms in preschool children, in Extrapol (Epidémiologie et

Pollution Atmosphérique: analyse critique des publications internationales) NO2 et Pollution intérieure:

exposition et effets sur la santé, Extrapol No. 5, January 1995.



(4) - L. SIJKSTA, D. HOUTHUIJS, B. BRUNEKREEK, I. AKKERMAN, S.M. BOLEIJ, Respiratory Health Effects of

the Indoor Environment in a Population of Dutch Children, in Extrapol (Epidémiologie et Pollution

Atmosphérique: analyse critique des publications internationales) NO2 et Pollution intérieure: exposition et

effets sur la santé, Extrapol No. 5, January 1995.



(5) - D.E. ABBEY, S.D. COLOME, P.K. MILLS, R. BURCHETTE, W.L. BEESON, Y. TIAN, Chronic Disease

Associated with Long-term Concentrations of Nitrogen Dioxide, in Extrapol (Epidémiologie et Pollution

Atmosphérique: analyse critique des publications internationales) NO2 et Pollution intérieure: exposition et

effets sur la santé, Extrapol No. 5, January 1995.









44

7.2.3- Are there immediate and delayed health effects from atmospheric pollution?

 The studies do not reach the same conclusions in assigning the role of atmospheric pollution,

depending on the pollutants and the doses received by the populations.



 For nitrogen dioxide, in light of the current low levels, no significant relationship can be put forth,

although at high doses, this pollutant is recognized for its irritating properties. Thus, after several

studies (1) (2), there appears to be no meaningful link between nitrogen dioxide and health

parameters regarding long-term exposure to moderate concentrations.



 The role of particulates, in concentrations such as are found in the atmosphere, in lung cancer, has

not been proven (2); however, an epidemiological relationship was able to be established between

very high doses of particulates and lung cancer.



(1) - D.E. ABBEY, S.D. COLOME, P.K. MILLS, R. BURCHETTE, W.L. BEESON, Y. TIAN, Chronic Disease

Associated with Long-term Concentrations of Nitrogen Dioxide, in Extrapol (Epidémiologie et Pollution

Atmosphérique: analyse critique des publications internationales) NO2 et Pollution intérieure: exposition et

effets sur la santé, Extrapol No. 5, January 1995.



(2) - L. DIJKSTA, D. HOUTHUIJS, B. BRUNEKREEK, I. AKKERMAN, S.M. BOLEIJ, Respiratory Health Effects

of the Indoor Environment in a Population of Dutch Children, in Extrapol (Epidémiologie et Pollution

Atmosphérique: analyse critique des publications internationales) NO2 et Pollution intérieure: exposition et

effets sur la santé, Extrapol No. 5, January 1995.



(3) - Dr. SVERRE VEDAL, Health Effects of Inhalable Particles: Implications for British Columbia - Overview and

Conclusions (www.env.gov.bc.ca/epd/epda/ar/heoipfb.html), Department of Medicine, University of British

Columbia, (for the British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Land and Parks), June 1995.









45

7.2.4- Is pollution in the home less than that out of doors?

 The contribution of indoor sources to nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in the home is preponderant (1).



 Although the concentrations are comparable, the time of exposure in the home is much greater,

therefore the doses of nitrogen dioxide inhaled in the home are greater than those outside. Surpassed

guideline values (100 g/m3 for Canada) are due to cooking emissions. In this last category, great

changes are in the making with the development of “low NOx” gas burners.



(1) - K. SEA, Distributions of long-term household exposure of different population groups to nitrogen

dioxide, in Extrapol (Epidémiologie et Pollution Atmosphérique: analyse critique des publications

internationales) NO2 et Pollution intérieure: exposition et effets sur la santé, Extrapol No. 5,

January 1995.



(2) - Dr. Ben CROSFORD, doric.bart.ucl.ac.uk/web/ben/index/html, Bartlett School of Architecture, University

College London.



(3) - Derrick R. CRUMP (Building Research Establishment, Garston, Warford, Hertfordshire, RU), Volatile

Organic Compounds in Indoor Air, in Roy M. Harrisson (University of Birmingham) and Ronald E. Hester

(University of York), Volatile Organic Compounds in the Atmosphere, the Royal Society of Chemistry

Information Services, 1995.



(4) - Ni RIAIN C. et al., City Space and Pollution dispersion: a monitoring and modeling exercise (The compact

City, a sustainable urban form), E & FN Spon, March 1996.







7.2.5 Should people stay indoors during pollution peaks? (Would it be better to keep the

windows open or closed to fight against pollution)?

 On days when there is not an especially high level of pollutants, it is better to aerate the house. And,

even during a relative increase of outside concentrations, natural building ventilation is the best

solution in most cases.



 Volatile organic compounds are, on average for a single locale, ten times more abundant indoors than

outside, and the differentials in maxima may go from one to twenty (such as with formaldehyde).

They are already from one to five for benzene, one to eight for toluene, and one to 250 for undecane.

(2)



(1) - Dr. Ben CROSFORD, doric.bart.ucl.ac.uk/web/ben/index/html, Bartlett School of Architecture,

University College, London.



(2) - Derrick R. CRUMP (Building Research Establishment, Garston, Warford, Hertfordshire, RU),

Volatile Organic Compounds in Indoor Air, in Roy M. Harrisson (University of Birmingham) and

Ronald E. Hester (University of York), Volatile Organic Compounds in the Atmosphere, the Royal

Society of Chemistry Information Services, 1995.



(3) - Ni RIAIN C. et al., City Space and Pollution Dispersion: a monitoring and modeling exercise (The

compact City, a sustainable urban form), E & FN Spon, March 1996.









46

7.2.6- Have there been any deaths due to pollution?

Except for very rare cases of asthma attacks where pollution may have been an aggravating factor, there

have not been, strictly speaking, any immediate deaths due to pollution in Europe.

On the other hand, it is possible to talk of premature death for certain terminally ill persons in hospitals.

Statistical analysis of deaths in hospitals permits the demonstration of a correlation between pollution

peaks and mortality peaks.

But pollution is perhaps not the only factor implicated: temperature and atmospheric pressure may also

be involved.



7.2.7- Why do people speak of deaths? How are they measured?

Deaths are not counted, instead life-years lost are counted.

Examples:

A 20-year-old man today would have an 88-year life expectancy (approximately); if he were to die today

in a traffic accident, he would have lost 68 life-years.



A 70-year-old man today would have a life expectancy of 81 years (approximately); if he were to die

today from to smoking-related lung cancer, he would have lost 11 life-years.



Some figures:



Cause of death Number of life-years

lost in France each year

Smoking-related lung cancer 1,000,000

Fatal traffic accidents 350,000

Insect bites 600

Air pollution 30 to 100





(1) - Professor Michel AUBIER - Professor at Bichat Hospital (FISITA, Paris. September 1998).







7.2.8- What do “probable carcinogen” and “potential carcinogen” mean?



 The labels of ‘probable’ and ‘potential’ carcinogen correspond to various classifications which are

placed on chemical compounds and their carcinogenic activity. In the first case, certain indicators

suggest that, above a certain dose, the incriminated pollutant influences the development of some

cancers in man. In the second case, the pollutant has a less visible role with respect to cancer: it

increases, for example, cellular multiplication in a bacteria culture (AMES test), but its role in man

has not been determined.

 Classifications of pollutants may change with medical discoveries.



(1) - Paul DEGOBERT (French Petroleum Institute), Automobile et Pollution, éditions TECHNIP,

October 1992.









47

7.2.9- Does pollution affect the heart?

 No, apparently not at current pollutant concentrations.



 Yes, at high doses, especially because of the action of carbon monoxide.



(1) - Beatrice A. WITTENBERG et al. (Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY), Effects of

Carbon Monoxide on Heart Muscle Cells (Research Report No. 62), The Health Effects Institute

(HEI), 1996.



7.2.10 - Does the number of doctor’s visits increase with pollution?

The answers are mitigated depending on the epidemiological study in question. Furthermore, a

placebo effect because of media coverage relating to air pollution in cities and its influence on

health should not be neglected.



7.2.11- Do asthma attacks due to a pollution peak become recurrent?

 No mention can be found of recurring asthma attacks due to pollution peaks. Some doctors warn

against overestimating the effect of atmospheric pollution on asthmatics. Changes in lifestyle (and

particularly in housing) play a much larger role in these respiratory illnesses.



 However, medical studies have shown that atmospheric pollutants have a slight but measurable

impact on respiratory function and on the level of symptoms experienced by asthmatic persons. Still,

these effects should be grouped with those of allergens, cigarette smoke, and other environmental

reactants; some doctors lament that this has not yet been done in a systematic manner.



(1) - Dr. R. RAPER (Office of “The Atmospheric Research and Information Centre”),

www.doc.mmu.ec.uk/aric/, July 1997.





7.2.12- What are the identified causes of the increase in the prevalence of asthma? Among

these identified causes, are automobiles significant?

 Certain dust mites living in homes secrete a protein which enters into suspension in the atmosphere

and which is the primary allergen for more than 90% of children. Since the interiors of living

quarters have evolved toward more sealed spaces with double-paned windows, central heating, and

wall-to-wall carpeting, high temperatures and low humidity were created in many living quarters;

mites proliferate in these conditions and are known to be the greatest cause for the increase of these

cases of asthma and their gravity.



 Studies of atmospheric pollutants, PM10 (particulate dimensions less than 10 m), NOx, and ozone

on well-known individuals in enclosed spaces, have been conducted by adjusting the concentration of

one or more of these pollutants. Most research has shown weak changes in asthmatic respiratory

function, however only at pollution levels which are much higher than those which can be observed

in European urban atmospheres.



(1) - Dr. D. RAPER (Office of “The Atmospheric Research and Information Centre”),

www.doc.mmu.ec.uk/aric/, July 1997.









48

7.2.13- Is smoking more dangerous than automobiles?

Although there is definite certainty concerning the impact of smoking on health, the danger level

from automobile emissions has not yet been determined. Studies on this point are still being

conducted.



However, it has been proven that impacts from smoking and air pollution in Europe are not of the

same order of magnitude. See §7-2-7.



(1) - Dr. D. RAPER (Office of “The Atmospheric Research and Information Centre”),

www.doc.mmu.ec.uk/aric/, July 1997.



7.2.14- Can results from in-vitro and in-vivo toxicological studies on small mammals be

transferred to man?

They may be transferred if they have been validated by complementary studies.



The size of respiratory pathways varies widely between man and rat, requiring the results to be

taken under scrutiny.



7.2.15- Is pollution a placebo?

 According to some scientists, studies on the effects of pollution on the population come too late: The

effects that the doctors and physicians were trying to characterize were already very minor, and with

the media attention given to atmospheric pollution, a placebo effect (autosuggestion) then became

preponderant. Epidemiological studies, then, determined the consequences of the latter rather than

those from concentrations of atmospheric pollutants.



 Persons monitored in certain studies also generally know their level of exposure to highway traffic

(according to the distance from their home to main arteries). They may therefore automatically

modify the assessment of their state of health as a function of these considerations (1).



(1) - Extrapol (Epidémiologie et Pollution Atmosphérique: analyse critique des publications

internationales) NO2 et Pollution intérieure: exposition et effets sur la santé, Extrapol No. 5,

January 1995.



7.2.16- Is Diesel a carcinogen?

 As, in most cases, engine exhaust emissions are not breathed directly by individuals, it would be

strange to speak of Diesel’s carcinogenic effect. The share of pollutants provided to the atmosphere

by the latter is, furthermore, very low in the assessments of global emissions. Even in urban

environments, where there is a significant concentration of vehicles, the role of Diesel is often

overestimated either compared to other sources, or in absolute terms: pollutants of domestic origin

are not easy to estimate, but they are present in greater quantities than all emissions due to

automobiles put together.



 Several pollutants at the concentrations at which they are found in the atmosphere only have a

minimal influence on health.









49

 The Diesel engine is one of the heat engines emitting the least amount of hydrocarbons, particularly

of the chemical compounds whose carcinogenic effects have been proven at certain doses.



 But the question remains for exposure at very high doses (for emissions of various pollutants 1,000

times greater than those observed in the atmosphere of urban centers).



(1) - Kathleen NAUSS, Diesel Exhaust: a Critical Analysis of Emissions, Exposure and Health Effects,

Health Effects Institutes (HEI), October 1997.



7.2.17- What is the Precautionary Principle?

 The precautionary principle: starting at the time that there is a risk, even if it is minuscule, that a

parameter has a role in the causation of an illness (or more generally, a clinical symptom), then

everything should be done to make the level of this parameter zero.



 The goal pursued thus is optimal quality of life for Society. To this end, all factors capable of

influencing it are to be taken into consideration so as to guarantee the greatest improvement with

certain given expenses.



 In the case of pollution, the share of emissions due to the automobile, according to the most

pessimistic scenarios, has an impact on health. But the controversy is largely open in the scientific

community, and in-the-home emissions justify a more extensive debate because of their greater level

and because of the longer time to which individuals are exposed to this type of pollution. However,

according to the media, few studies extrapolate life-years lost by human beings living in

insufficiently aerated environments. Yet, there are studies on doses of pollutants inhaled in the home

(1) (2).





(1) - Extrapol (Epidémiologie et Pollution Atmosphérique: analyse critique des publications

internationales) NO2 et Pollution intérieure: exposition et effets sur la santé, Extrapol No. 5,

January 1995.



(2) - Hygiene Laboratory for the City of Paris (LHVP - Laboratoire d’hygiène de la Ville de Paris), La

qualité de l’air à Paris, 1997.



7.2.18- What should be made of recent epidemiological studies?

Epidemiological studies offer assumptions not evidence. Scientists are therefore generally careful

with their conclusions: have all disrupting factors been taken into consideration? Can the placebo

effect be removed?





(1) - Extrapol (Epidémiologie et Pollution Atmosphérique: analyse critique des publications

internationales) NO2 et Pollution intérieure: exposition et effets sur la santé, Extrapol No. 5,

January 1995.









50

7.2.19 Are there dangerous pollutants which are not measured?

Those pollutants which offer the greatest risk are monitored by the various monitoring agencies

in many countries. However, certain chemical compounds are not measured specifically, but

grouped together in a larger family. Thus, benzene is, most often, counted just like any other

hydrocarbon, although its detrimental effect, at a certain concentration, has been proven.



Certain laboratories, though, are making efforts to assess all pollutants whose danger at high

doses has been toxicologically demonstrated, even if these measurements are not easy. (1)





(1) - Hygiene Laboratory for the City of Paris (LHVP), La qualité de l’air à Paris, 1997.

7.2.20- Is Europe behind the USA in pollution and health areas?

No: the European standards will be more strict than the strictest American directives (from

California) after the year 2000.





(1) - EPA (Environmental Protection Agency)





7.3- Automobile and Diesel

7.3.1- Can current air quality indicators be used meaningfully when engine emissions are

isolated?

No, the current air quality indexes do not allow the effects from engine emissions to be

identified. Impartially speaking, that is not their function. They simply facilitate arranging

emissions into a finite number of concentration intervals.



However, for carbon monoxide, a correlation can be made along the immediate boundaries of

major traffic arteries such as the Parisian beltway.





(1) - Hygiene Laboratory for the City of Paris (LHVP), La qualité de l’air à Paris, 1997.









51

7.3.2- Which automobile emissions can be measured?

The main emissions from heat engines can be measured rapidly in laboratories:

Technical method Measured Measurement Response time

emissions interval

Non-dispersive CO 0 - 3000 ppm 2 -5 s

infrared (NIDR)

CO2 0 - 20% 2 -5 s

Chemiluminescence NOx 0 - 10000 ppm 1.5 - 2 s

Flame ionization Total HC 0 - 10000 ppm 1 -2 s

detector

Rapid flame Total HC 0 - 2000 ppm 1 - 2 ms

ionization detector

Fourier transform Nox, some specific variable 5 - 15 s

infrared analyzer HC, etc.

Paramagnetic O2 0 - 25 1-5s

analyzer

Analysis techniques for non-particulate emissions



(1) - www.dieselnet.com



7.3.3- Why were there pollution peaks in 1997 even though there was less traffic? (Why did

AIRPARIF record pollution peaks?)

 Meteorology should be examined for episodes of summertime pollution, at times when automobile

traffic is clearly less dense.

 In effect, these days were marked by high temperatures and much sunlight associated with very low

wind, favorable conditions for the formation of secondary pollutants, such as ozone primarily, while

dispersion of all other pollutants decrease. This accumulation of pollutants may be amplified by the

temperature inversion phenomenon.

(1) - AIRPARIF, L’atmosphère capitale, October 1997.









52

7.3.4- What has been and what will be the change in emissions per vehicle and for the entire

fleet? Is there a genuine increase in automobile emissions?

The change leads downward as much for pollutants for which directives have been issued as for

non-regulated pollutants for which data are available. The reductions are due to technological

advances in engines and fuel (gasoline or Diesel).









Emissions standards for Diesel-engined passenger cars in Europe

Particulates NOx HC (g/km) CO (g/km)

(g/km) (g/km)

EURO I (1992) 0.14 0.97 0.97 2.72

EURO II (1996) Direct injection 0.1 0.9 0.9 1

Indirect injection 0.08 0.7 0.7 1

EURO III (2000) 0.05 0.5 0.56 0.64

EURO IV (2005) 0.025 0.25 0.3 0.5









53

7.3.5- Will a level of 0 emissions for various pollutants ever be reached in automobiles,

industry, or the domestic arena, etc.?



No, completely eliminating anthropogenic emissions in the atmosphere is unattainable. Energy

conversion, be it natural or initiated by man, results from chemical reactions. Man cannot be asked to

control the impact of all of these reactions. For physicists (1) man’s struggle for life is linked with the

lowest possible increase in entropy.

Pollution must find its place not only in global policies, but in local ones as well. Efforts must be made

by all players in the economic and social spheres; therefore, we will direct our attention to all emissions

sources and not only on those which we recognize most easily.



(1) - Roger KLING (ECAM, ENSPM) Thermodynamique Générale et applications, TECHNIP 1980.



(2) - Doug JOHNSON, Sources of Fine Particulate Matter in Interior Communities (www.

env.gov.bc.ca/ske/skeair/sourpm10.html), British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Land and

Parks, June 1997.









54

7.3.6- In current studies, has there been identification of any illnesses whose initial cause is

air pollution from automobile emissions?

No, but studies have already shown the role of pollutants emitted by industry during periods prior

to 1965 (1). Today, this type of situation would not easily occur again: a pollution peak for the

1990s is no higher than the mean level of pollutants emitted in the 1960s (2).



(1) - Elizabeth M. WHELAN, Sc.D., M.P.H., Toxic Terror: the truth behind the Cancer Scares, 1993.



(2) - Olivier HERZ (Minister of the Environment), The law governing air and the rational use of energy.

Ecole de Mines de Paris , November 20, 1997.



7.3.7- Compared to gasoline, if current air quality indicators (NOx, ozone precursors, CO,

particulates, CO2), are considered, is Diesel ecological? At its origin? In 1993

(gasoline catalytic converter)? In 1997 (Diesel catalytic converter)? In 2000

(implementation of the Euro 3 standard)? After 2000 (with technologies currently

being developed for which the probability of industrial fruition is very high)?



Diesel- and gasoline-powered vehicles manufactured after 1982, when the EURO I standard was

implemented, both may be considered to be little polluting (especially compared with models prior to

1980). However, if degradation of the gasoline three-way catalytic converter is taken into consideration,

as well as the drift of emissions due to mileage (phenomenon particular to the gasoline engine), the

advantage from the point of view of emissions (CO, HC, and NOx) goes back to Diesel for vehicles put

into circulation between 1993 and 1996.

Engine designers have, in any event, taken the position of decreasing emissions of, among other things,

particulates, despite doubts that remain concerning these effects, thus anticipating European standards.



7.3.8- Should Diesel be banned in order to improve air quality in the city?

 Recent vehicles, be they Diesel or gasoline powered, have polluting levels which are very low (30

time lower in 1996 than for a 1970 vehicle). Each technology has certain advantages or

disadvantages with respect to the other, depending on the pollutant considered. Today, the most

important thing is to replace the fleet of old vehicle - both gasoline and Diesel - with modern vehicles

- both gasoline and Diesel.



 The increase Diesel power is, comparatively, the best way of reaching the CO objectives for

automobiles established in Kyoto.



7.3.9- What would Diesel’s role be in a policy designed to drastically reduce emissions?

On a large scale, in the reduction of certain emissions, such as hydrocarbons (HC) or carbon

monoxide, Diesel will necessarily play a part. However, the undeniable advantage of the Diesel

engine lies in its levels of CO2 emissions.









55

7.3.10- What are the Germans doing to reduce automobile pollution?



The Germans are planning an increase in the Diesel fleet to reduce global pollution, knowing that local

pollution has already reached extremely low levels. Diesel enables the struggle against the greenhouse

effect with industrial and domestic activities, which are said to be growing.

German tax policies favor vehicles (gasoline or Diesel) that anticipate meeting future standards.



7.3.11- Why will Diesel be even more attractive tomorrow?

High-pressure direct injection, supercharging with variable geometry turbochargers, oxidation

catalysts, and particulate filters starting in the early years of the next century are Diesel’s

advantages of tomorrow. These three technological areas are already advanced. The hoped-for

progress is not merely hypothetical, but already quite real. Fuel consumption and emissions of

pollutants have gone down and will continue to do so with these perfections.



7.3.12- Is it necessary to have zero pollution cars (electric cars) to cleanse the air in cities?

A rapid renewal of the fleet with gasoline- and Diesel-powered cars fitted with recent technology

would suffice to cleanse city air, while developing “zero pollution” cars merely shifts the

pollution problem to sites for the production of electricity.









56

III - GENERAL PERSPECTIVES









57

1- PLAYERS IN THE ENVIRONMENT

1.1- Why do French environmentalists criticize Diesel?

 Because on poorly adjusted vehicles some emissions are at times visible to the naked eye, Diesel-

engined vehicles are held in poor esteem by French environmentalists. For them, it appears to be

responsible for local atmospheric pollution.



 Furthermore, for the Euro I standards, Diesel vehicles were not systematically required to have

catalytic converters, unlike gasoline-powered vehicles. Now, a vehicle not equipped with a catalytic

converter (Euro I Diesel) emits no more pollutants (HC, VOC, NOx) over its lifetime than a vehicle

with a three-way catalytic converter (Euro I Gasoline). However, the absence of a catalytic converter

on Diesel vehicles may have given the false impression that it would pollute more than gasoline-

powered vehicles.



 Criticizing Diesel is also an astute manner for the anti-automobile lobby to attack highway transport:

in a number of ways, the Diesel engine is the best automobile engine design, and criticizing it,

whether or not it is justified, is a way of attacking all types of vehicles.



 Renewing the fleet, by eliminating or rendering old vehicles non-polluting, would contribute to the

elimination of negative impacts from visible and odiferous fumes.

1.2- Why do German environmentalists no longer criticize Diesel?

 For German environmentalists, local air quality has reached a more than acceptable level both in

absolute terms and compared to what it was in the 1960s.



 The distinction between gasoline and Diesel with regard to local pollution is only truly justified for

those pollutants which actually pose a problem, for example, carbon monoxide, whose toxicity must

not be forgotten, and unburned hydrocarbons, for which the toxic nature of some has already been

proven (such as for benzene) and whose role in the formation of tropospheric ozone is fundamental.

Now, these two families of pollutants are emitted in ultra-low quantities by Diesel engines, and

without (all the more reason) using oxidation catalytic converters. There remain only particulates

whose emissions have tangibly decreased, knowing that the particulate filter will make them

immeasurable.



 Nitrogen monoxide is emitted in the same proportions by each new engine, be it gasoline or Diesel,

even though particulate emissions, individually and overall, have been steeply decreasing for several

years.



 Furthermore, just by renewing the fleet, all automobile emissions will decrease even further. The

priorities for German environmentalists are today the greenhouse effect and energy savings; for these

two points and to allow business to develop, the Diesel engine is, again, the leader for twenty-first-

century solutions.



(1) - OECD, CO2 Emissions and Transport, European Conference of Ministers of Transport (ECMT)

OECD Publications, 1997.









58

2- AUTOMOBILE AND SOCIETY

2.1- What has been the increase in traffic?

 From 1950 to 1995, all passenger traffic, in billions of passenger-kilometers, has been multiplied by

eight. This increase may be directly connected to that of the quality of life: the democratization of the

automobile has in large part allowed this development. The automobile, in effect, represents 80% of

these trips.



 This trend should stabilize itself, if the situation taking place in Germany extends to other European

countries (1).



 This balance is found in France in the decrease in mileage by passenger cars, industrial cars, heavy

duty vehicles, city buses and coaches, and light-duty vehicles (2). For passenger cars, comparison

with other countries does not allow major trends to be seen.



(1) - Christian GERONDEAU, Les Transports en Europe, EDS, 1996.



(2) - Highway Union of France (URF), La route et la qualité de l’air (www.urf.asso.fr), 1997.





2.2- Why do all industrial applications (trucks, tractors, ships, electric generators, pumps, etc.)

use Diesel engines?

 The Diesel engine is used universally for all industrial applications with heat engines: the ease with

which it is made available is one of its advantages. Furthermore, it is able to deliver strong torque at

low power operation: the use of high potential is obtained without damaging beyond measure to the

mechanical parts of the engine. Its high efficiency, regardless of type of operation, also makes it very

attractive: the quantities of mechanical work demanded by whichever industrial domains are

involved, the use of an efficient conversion mode, the Diesel engine allows quite sizable energy

savings (more than 15% total).



 Finally, Diesel provides double safety to its user. In this way, risks of fire are limited: fuel storage is

not a problem since Diesel is less volatile than gasoline or any other oxygenated product considered

as fuel. Furthermore, the Diesel engine emits carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons in low

quantities: In the cases where persons must work in proximity to the engine, non-toxic exhaust gases

at all times are an elementary condition for safety and health.



 The permanent safety aspect is one of the strongest traits of the Diesel engine. In effect, without

after-treatment (and even more so with an oxidation catalytic









59

converter and a filter), polluting emissions are very low, while in other engines equipped with three-

way catalytic converters, emissions of toxic chemicals are more dramatic since an incident (physical

or thermal shock) can lessen or reduce to zero the efficacy of the catalytic converter. This robustness

of the Diesel engine can be found again in the way emissions change with mileage: over time, the

latter do not degrade, unlike other types of engines.



(1) - Jean-Claude GUIBET (French Petroleum Institute), Carburants et Moteurs, Editions TECHNIP,

1997.





2.3- In winter, why are Diesel drivers so satisfied?

At low temperatures, Diesel engines start without difficulty because their glow plugs enable a

sufficient premix temperature to be reached for combustion, which is also facilitated by

compression (the compression which causes combustion in a Diesel engine may be obtained by

the movement of pistons along a slope).





(1) - Jean-Claude GUIBET (French Petroleum Institute), Carburants et Moteurs, Editions TECHNIP,

1997.





2.4- How much does mass transit contribute to pollution in Paris?

 Mass transit contributes little pollution to Paris: less than 10% of particulate emissions from road

vehicles.





(1) - French Ministry for the Environment, Les transports propres, Les Entretiens de Segur, January

1995





2.5- Are the French the only ones in the world who buy more than 40% of their cars with

Diesel engines?

 The technical advantages of the Diesel engine, highlighted by economic reasons, have been

recognized elsewhere than in France: Belgians, Austrians, and Spaniards also purchase more than

40% of their cars with Diesel engines, respectively 49%, 53%, and 42% versus 42% for France in

1997. This is directly converted into the mean vehicle fuel efficiency. In effect, these four countries

have a mean miles per gallon consumption that is in a downward trend.



 The trend for registrations of Diesel-engined cars shows stabilization of the “dieselification” in

France and a growth in other European countries (Germany, Italy, and Spain in particular).









60

(1) - B. BENSAID, Bilan économique de l’industrie automobile mondiale, ENSPM, Engine and

Hydrocarbon Utilization Center (Centre Moteur et Utilisations des Hydrocarbures), December

1966 [sic].



(2) - CO2 Emissions and Transport, European Conference of Ministers of Transport (ECMT), OECD

Publications, 1997.



(3) - CCFA





2.6- Who’s buying Diesel and for what reasons?

. There is no homogenous population using Diesel-engined vehicles.



. The main motivation is savings (fuel and lifetime).



. The torque during low-power operation makes it attractive to drive.



. A long cruising range (autonomy).



2.7- At the current rate, how many years of renewal would it take for the fleet to be composed

mainly of vehicles with 97 emissions?

Today, it is believed that approximately twelve years are needed to renew the largest part of the

automobile fleet in France.







(1) - Highway Union of France (URF), La route et la qualité de l’air (www.urf.assso.fr), 1997.









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3- ECONOMY

3.1- Who pays for the efforts needed to render automobiles non-polluting?

 All players in society who are concerned and who participate in the financing: tax payer,

manufacturer with its shareholders and employees, the consumer. The costs for progress made are, in

general, not compensated by savings and improvements in productivity. Petroleum producers are also

sought after to increase the quality of fuel delivered.



 The impact on prices, salaries, and savings should be compensated by increases in jobs and quality of

life.



(1) - Philippe THALMANN, Impôts écologiques, l’exemple des taxes CO2, Presses Polytechniques et

Universitaires Romandes, 1997.





3.2- Does the industrial tool have enough flexibility to allow passage from Diesel to gasoline

easily (in the short and long terms)?

Not in the short term. In the medium term, the transition would be costly for all:

- automobile manufacturers,

- petroleum producers,

- producers of equipment specific to Diesel engines.



(1) - Jean-Luc KARNIK, Eléments d’économie pétrolière, ENSPM, Engine and Hydrocarbon Utilization

Center, September 1996.





3.3- Does the difference in taxation between gasoline and diesel represent a loss of revenue

for the State?

 France is the country in Europe where the tax on Euro Super is the highest.



 In France, the tax paid on Diesel has always been the highest in Europe after Great Britain and Italy.



 This means that France has among the most expensive fuels in the world and that the taxes on both

gasoline and Diesel cause considerable amounts of money to flow into the State’s coffers.









62

3.4- What is the place of the automobile in the French economy?

Unit 1997 Variation vs. 1996

Commerce Outside of

France

Exports Billions of Francs 1,713 + 14.7%

Imports Billions of Francs 1,563 + 9.7%

Impact of the

automobile in foreign

commerce

Exports % 208 +15.5%

Imports % 142 - 7.1%

Automobile and the French Economy



(1) - B. BENSAID (Petroleum Institute), Economic assessment of the worldwide automobile industry,

ENSPM, Engine and Hydrocarbon Utilization Center, December 1996.





3.5- What is the place of each automobile manufacturer in the French economy (savings,

social, vehicles, R&D)?

Unit 1995 1996 1997 Variation

97/96



French manufacturer

data (PSA Peugeot,

Citroën + Renault)



net sales billions of francs 348 357 395 + 10.7%



Investment billions of francs 26 27 27 - 2.9%



Personnel thousands of 280 280 282 +0.5%

persons



Automobile sector

employment



Automobile industry thousands of 775 770 + 3.1%

persons



Jobs supported by the thousands of 2,651 2,680 + 2.1%

automobile persons

Situation of the Automobile in France in 1995

(1) - B. BENSAID (Petroleum Institute), Economic assessment of the worldwide automobile industry,

ENSPM, Engine and Hydrocarbon Utilization Center, December 1996.









63

3.6- Can the costs of the various pollution solutions be compared?

 It is possible to know energy costs involved with the different solutions (1) (2). The financial costs of

traditional pollution-reduction solutions (modified traditional fuels) have also been identified.



 It is less easy, however, to estimate costs beforehand for solutions which have only been developed

in laboratories: generally, industrial production lowers them, but the extent of the decrease can never

be completely known.



 Furthermore, indirect consequences of various solutions to pollution have a price that cannot be

easily identified. These consequences may prove to be quite serious, both for employees of

companies producing or marketing taxed goods and for the consumer.







(1) - Jean-Claude GUIBET (French Petroleum Institute), Carburants et Moteurs, éditions TECHNIP,

1997.



(2) - Philippe THALMANN, Impôts écologiques, l’exemple des taxes CO2, Presses Polytechniques et

Universitaires Romandes, 1997.



(3) - Michel ANDRE (INRETS), Cristina PRONELLO (Politechnico di Torino), Speed and Acceleration

Impact on Pollutant Emissions (SAE Publications 961113), 1996.





3.7- What is the place of the Diesel market in France, Europe, the USA, and Japan?

In 1995, among new car registrations, Diesel represented 46.5% in France. In the fleet of

passenger cars (PC), Diesel then reached 27.6%.



In 1997, in the 17 western European countries, Diesel represented 22.3% of new registrations

with:

. 42% in Spain,

. 42% in France,

. 49% in Belgium,

. 53% in Austria

In the United States, the PC Diesel sales were insignificant in 1995: 3,000 vehicles from among

8.5 million.



In Japan, the PC Diesel fleet has reached 5.072 million cars, or 10.4% of the fleet.









64

3.8 What should be made of the depreciation studies concerning Diesel vehicles compared to

purchases of gasoline-engined vehicles that appear in different magazines? What is the

difference if the savings obtained during the entire lifetime of the vehicle are factored in?

The purchase price and the resale price, the various taxes, and the price of fuel and maintenance

are the points which allow a Diesel-engined vehicle to be evaluated against a comparable

gasoline-powered vehicle. According to the International Energy Agency, a Diesel vehicle is

more advantageous in three of the four cases for someone who travels more than 15,000 km/year.



(1) - International Energy Agency (IEA, AIE), Refining and Environmental Implications of Increased use

of Diesel-Engined Passenger Cars, OECD Publication, December 1994.





3.9- Is biomass fuel good for the French economy?

From a national point of view, the rapeseed ester is an economically interesting area:

 Its ecological performances are very interesting.

 The commercial balance in the domain of energy finds itself with better stability: the volume of

rapeseed ester product should compensate the diesel deficit in the energy industry.

 Jobs are created.

 Its production cost remains high (3 to 1 compared to Diesel). But studies are underway with the goal

of making it more competitive with petroleum products.

(1) - Georges VERMEERSCH (Sofiproteol), Filière Diesel: Effets macro-économiques induits.



(2) - MM. F. STAAT and G. VERMEESRCH, Les esters méthyliques d’huile de colza comme carburants:

bilans énergétiques, French Review of Fatty Bodies (Revue Française des corps gras), May- June

1993.





3.10- How much in terms of health costs can be attributed to air pollution from automobiles?

 It would be quite risky to try and attach a precise figure to the health costs incurred from automobile

exhaust.



 Automobile emissions are only indirectly related to mean levels of atmospheric emissions.

Furthermore, the impact of the latter on health cannot be clearly separated from the other parameters

which influence people’s lives: epidemiological and ecological studies are generally very careful on

this point.



 For such studies, all emissions and all reactions explaining the atmospheric environment (pollutant

concentrations, temperature, pressure, etc.), indoors and out of doors, the sample of persons

examined, should be taken into consideration: Automobiles are only responsible for a small part of

total pollutant emissions and are therefore only responsible for a small part of the doses of pollutants

inhaled by the population.









65

 Then, an attempt must be made to measure the effect of breathed air on health: the variety of

scenarios advanced undoubtedly explains the different reactions depending on the individuals. These

differences are found from one country to another along with life expectancy. Furthermore, air

quality has greatly improved since the 1960s. The critical pollution episodes have not recurred:

doctors and physicists are working on very small-scale phenomena.



 Finally, the Placebo effect should not be neglected when compared with the real effect.





3.11- What are the taxation levels on automobiles in European countries.

 Taxes are incurred at the time of purchase of the automobile, during its use (fuels taxes, highway

fees, etc.) and annually for its possession.



 Taxes on fuels vary widely from one country to another.









(1) - ACEA (European Automobile Manufacturer’s Association), Tax guide, Motor Vehicle Taxation in

Europe (1996 edition), April 1997.



(2) - Pétrole informations, Le moniteur du pétrole et du gaz 1998, October - November 1997.









66

3.12- Why is Diesel non-existent in the USA and so insignificant in Japan?

 In the USA, energy savings are not encouraged through taxation. The difference in savings between a

gasoline-powered vehicle and a Diesel-powered vehicle is not enough to justify an individual’s

purchase of a Diesel automobile. Furthermore, the quality of Diesel is better in Europe than in the

United States of America (specifically, a cetane rating of 50 vs. 40).



 Light-duty Diesel-powered vehicles are more developed in Japan than in the USA. However, Diesel

engines remain limited by the low mean mileage of individual Japanese users.



 However, these two countries are becoming more interested in the Diesel engine because of its good

fuel efficiency.



(1) - Jean-Claude GUIBET (French Petroleum Institutes), Carburants et Moteurs, éditions TECHNIP,

1997.





3.13- The Americans initiated large-scale research programs for the “cleanest Diesel in the

world” in the context of the PNGV, partnership for a new generation of vehicles. What is

the explanation for this in a country where energy is so inexpensive and where there are

almost no Diesel automobiles?

Ten years ago in the USA, the CAFE (Corporate Average Fuel Emission) standards were

implemented. Their goal was to lower consumption. In order to reach these goals, it seems that

development of Diesel engines is essential.



3.14- In European countries, will there likely be a decrease in gasoline taxes to reach the rate of

Diesel taxation?

 These countries rarely significantly reduce taxes on products for mass consumption.



 This said, taxing gasoline at the same rate as diesel fuel would have very little influence on economic

activity if the rescaling were to take place based on the price of gasoline: Persons with great traveling

needs have already, for the most part, switched to Diesel-engined vehicles. But, a tangible decrease

in the price of a fuel would allow consumers to increase their purchasing power elsewhere.









67

 On the other hand, if the price of Diesel fuel were to be increased to that of gasoline, business, be it

professional or private, would be in danger of being greatly diminished. Economic transactions

would probably be the first affected. Compared to their international competitors, the price of

European products would be too high, with foreseeable consequences: decreased exports. But the

expenses of families that had opted for a Diesel engine would also be greatly changed because an

increase in the cost of transportation for the latter category would result in great travel expenses, the

mileage traveled annually being considerable.



 This increased cost would more particularly affect a sizable category of motorists who must use their

vehicle daily to go to work. This would not be without effect on the decrease in other areas of

consumption.







(1) - Philippe THALMANN, Impôts écologiques, l’exemple des taxes CO2, Presses Polytechniques et

Universitaires Romandes, 1997.



(2) - ACEA (European Automobile Manufacturers’ Association), Tax Guide, Motor Vehicle Taxation in

Europe (1996 edition), April 1997.



(3) - Jean-Claude GUIBET (French Petroleum Institute), Carburants et Moteurs, éditions TECHNIP,

1997.





3.15- Does France tax Diesel less than other countries?

No: France is the one European country, after Great Britain and Italy, that taxes diesel the most;

the gap with the other countries has, furthermore, increased with the increase of the domestic tax

on petroleum products that took place in France in January 1998. France is also the country

which taxes unleaded gasoline the most heavily.







(1) - Pétrole informations, Le moniteur du pétrole et du gaz 1998, October - November 1997.



(2) - ACEA (European Automobile Manufacturers’ Association), Tax guide, Motor Vehicle Taxation in

Europe (1996 edition), April 1997.



(3) - Highway Union of France (URF), La route et la qualité de l’air, (www.urf.asso.fr), 1997.



(4) - Les Echos, Friday 9 and Saturday 10 January 1998.









68

4- AIR QUALITY AND EMISSIONS DUE TO TRANSPORT

4.1- Does knowledge of automobile emissions allow evaluation of air quality?

No, because many elements should be considered; they are important on a world-wide scale and

on a local level.



 Major Earth movements, for example, should not be neglected: What are the effects of El

Nino on the temperature of the planet for example? What are the local emissions caused by

enormous volcanic emissions?



 What are the effects of nitrogenous fertilizer and quantities of nitrogen oxides released by

these products, including in urban areas?



 What are the emissions in urban areas resulting from waste-processing plants?



 What is the impact of industries that still exist in certain cities?



 Knowledge of meteorological effects is developing, but it is still difficult to make

satisfactory forecasts between emissions/winds/sunshine and UV radiation.



 There are still statements about the effects of precursors to the formation of ozone at low

altitudes that are contradicted by many models, in brief, statements still open to scientific

discussion.



 What is the relative impact of particulates coming from certain combustive activities

compared to all particulates emitted from all human activities?



Many lines of questioning currently require great care when faced with phenomena that are not

easily accessible.



It is therefore quite impossible currently to evaluate air quality based on a single measure of a

few pollutants coming from a few sources.



Encouraging investigations have been initiated in order to calculate and best model the

phenomena so as to be able to approach evaluations pertaining to the future based on concrete

readings. The first results are of great interest. At times, they yield results that are not evident.

Thus, a decrease in nitrogen oxides can lead to an increase in ozone formation depending on the

composition of the atmosphere, in periods favorable to the formation of this oxidizer!









69

5- EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY

5.01- Can new technologies contribute to the reduction of pollution?

Progress in heat engines has been significant, specifically in the domain of emissions which have been

considerably reduced in all new vehicles.

This progress in engine design has been masked in part by the increase in fleet size, as well as by changes

in automobiles produced with respect to quality, safety, and changes in services.



Future progress shall be quite significant.

Thus, in several years no one should be speaking about pollution problems, given the provisions

implemented or planned for 2000 and 2005.



The fundamental criteria - which should dispense with current sensitivity about pollutant

emissions - should be those of energy, consumption, and carbon dioxide emissions.



Progress made tomorrow in this domain will be due to new commitments in several important

areas:

1 - changes in engine design, including changes in transmissions,

2 - the new Diesel engine,

3 - changes in materials and the reduction in mass of all components in automobile products,

4 - progress made in post-treatment mechanisms (particulate filters, deNOx, etc.).

Engines offering the best fuel efficiency will be best placed in this world competition.



The Diesel engine with compression ignition providing the most efficient energy yield should

take first place in this competition for energy and for CO2.







L’automobile et la réduction de la consommation: un enjeu à l’aube du XXIième siècle, presentations at

the IFP in October 1996 with seminars by Messrs. G. DOUIN from RENAULT, P. PINCHON from IFP,

Ando HIROSHIMITSU from Mitsubishi Motors Corporation, Hidetaka NOHIRA from Toyota.





5.02- Can automobile emissions be further reduced?



Three approaches should be considered:

a) - The case of new vehicles,

b) - The desirable balance between emissions and fuel efficiency,

c) - The fleet.









70

a) Two new steps in emissions are planned, first for 2000 then for 2005. With the level attained in 2005,

that is to say a considerable reduction compared with emissions from the years 1990 - 1993, it should

no longer be reasonable to plan a new step (physically measurable?) in emissions reduction.



Progress may always be considered … but at what price? And for what goal?



b) Taking the public good as a goal, it would be good to investigate the best compromise between the

two requirements, which are emissions and fuel efficiency or carbon dioxide exhaust.

It has already been demonstrated that having a small tolerance for certain emissions whose actual

health effects are not known could allow a few percentage points to be obtained in terms of carbon

dioxide exhaust (IFP work).

It would be reasonable to speak of combined objectives for emissions and fuel efficiency, and not to

retain independent approaches.



c) The third point concerns the fleet and leads to two remarks:



* Keeping very old vehicles in use is not a good idea with respect to the environment.



* An improvement in the quality of fuels, both gasoline and Diesel, would affect the entire fleet

and would allow currently read emissions to be reduced.



5.1- Fuels

5.1.1- How many cars can be powered by alternative energy sources (electric, NGV, LPG,

etc.) as of now and in the future?

First, what is meant by alternative energy source should be clarified.



Normally, petroleum-related energy sources are used: gasoline, Diesel, liquid petroleum gas, for

example.

An alternative energy source then does not come from petroleum:

It would be hydrogen, wind power, hydroelectric or nuclear electricity, use of methanol, ethanol, also the

use of natural gas, or the use of renewable resources such as rapeseed methyl ester.



Regardless of the alternative energy considered, one should not expect extensive use in the short term

given the enormous advantages associated with conventional liquid fuels in weight, available energy, and

technology price.

Some of the various alternative energies will, however, be developed very seriously considering their

potential for the future.

It is difficult to speak of commercial volumes in the domain of alternative fuels where taxation schemes

take on an essential dimension.









71

5.1.2- What is the interest of a car running on LPG?

LPG is a variable mixture of propane and butane in Europe. In the USA it is mainly propane, as

in northern Europe.

LPGF or LPG Fuel presents an interest in emissions compared to gasoline or Diesel liquid fuels in the

context of current engine design.

This beneficial effect will diminish because of progress already mentioned with traditional liquid fuels,

but it should remain significant over time.

In terms of CO2 emissions and other greenhouse gases, Direct injection diesel retains a marked 40%

advantage compared to LPG.



5.1.3- What is the interest of natural gas for highway transport?

Natural gas is mainly constituted of methane. This is the gas found in almost every kitchen in France

where distribution networks have been developed. Every city in France is supplied with natural gas.

Natural Gas for Vehicles, NGV, represents an alternative energy source that is available in large

quantities. Natural gas is the second largest natural energy source available after coal and before

petroleum.



With well-adjusted combustion, there are very low emissions both of pollutants and CO2.



It presents multiple points of interest, but its use requires compression to have a sufficient amount of

energy in reserve. Compression is at 200 bars, necessitating reservoirs that are a bit heavy, even using

composite materials. Furthermore, there is not currently a distribution network in France.



Next to us, in Italy, a network is beginning to be developed with almost 300,000 passenger cars using this

energy source.

It is probable that in France, this alternative energy will develop, in priority for public or private fleets,

before becoming accessible to individuals.



(1) - P. HUPPERICH and M. DURNHOLZ (FEV Motorentechnik Gmbh and Co. KG), Exhaust

Emissions of Diesel, Gasoline and Natural Gas Fueled Vehicles, SAE Publication 960857 in 1995.



(2) - The Volkswagen environment report, Volkswagen AG, research and transportation, Wolfsburg,

1995.









72

5.1.4- What is the interest of a car running on methanol?

There is no clear answer to this question. Methanol is a toxic product. It is expensive. It presents

an invisible flame capable of forming nitrogen oxides unless it is in a perfect stoichiometric

mixture.



Methanol may be used to produce MTBE, methyl-tertio-butyl-ether, commonly used as an

additive in gasoline to increase the octane rating, that means, in order to obtain unleaded fuels

with octane ratings near 98 without difficulty.



MTBE is used at heightened percentages, in the area of 10 to 13% in unleaded fuels in Europe

today.



A concurrent “natural” product is ETBE, ethyl-tertio-butyl-ether, obtained from agriculturally

produced ethyl alcohol, which itself was obtained, for example, from beet sugar. It also presents

an excellent octane rating and its use is authorized in large quantities by the European

Community.







Volkswagen AG, the Volkswagen environment report, Research, Environment, and Transportation

Department, 1995.



5.1.5- What is the situation for emissions from biomass fuels?

There is no absolute answer due to the diversity in biomass fuels. Each needs to be spoken of on

a case by case basis for the various energy sources under consideration. The fundamental

difficulty remains the production price for these energy sources compared to the inexpensive

prices of technology for gasoline and Diesel, if taxation systems are excluded from the equation.



In the future, the situation in emissions should integrate the situation in CO2, depending on the

composition of the product considered, in carbon and hydrogen.



Biomass fuels may lead to astute uses. Consider, RME, rapeseed methyl ester, which is a high

quality, refined product which yields good results in Diesel engines.







(1) - Paul GATEAU, Effets de l’ester méthylique de colza sur la pollution urbaine (ADEME Study

9601023, June 1996).



(2) - MM. F. STAAT and G. VERMEERSCH. Les esters méthyliques d’huile de colza comme carburants:

bilan énergétique. Revue française des corps gras. May-June 1993.



(3) - Ecobilan du Diesel, 1991 - 1993









73

5.1.6- What can be done to reduce odors from exhaust gases?

These problems may be resolved with some changes in the composition of the petroleum

products used:



 A reduction in sulfur content would allow a very significant reduction in emissions of sour gas and

hydrogen sulfide, which are well-known in the case of gasoline engines equipped with catalytic

converters.



 A decrease in content of aldehydes and aromatics would also allow unpleasant emissions from Diesel

engines to be greatly reduced.



Overall, it is possible to say that these problems should disappear with improved fuel quality,

expected for all of Europe by 2005 at the latest.



M. HUBLIN, Renault SA - P.G. GADD, Shell International - D.E. HALL, BP Oil - and K.P.

SCHINDLER, Volkswagen - European Programs on Emissions, Fuels and Engine Technologies - Light

Duty Diesel Study - SAE Publication 96 10 73.



5.1.7- Can an impact on air quality in cities be expected through the use of alternative fuels?

The impact, in one direction or another, will be reduced due to the modest share of these fuels in the

overall fleet.

The use of these fuels could attenuate a poor image associated with old technologies and contribute to

better perception of people who use buses or commercial vehicles - for example, with reduced emissions,

a disappearance of black smoke and less noise and vibration.

In the case of urban buses, the results obtained with the use of natural gas are significant in these

domains.



5.1.8- Will improving the quality of fuels allow a reduction in emissions?

Fuel formulation has a great impact on emissions. Reductions may reach values of 30%.



These improvements are immediately beneficial to the entire fleet, while technological

improvements made by manufacturers can only be felt through the naturally slow transformation

and progressive modernization of the fleet.



European programs known as “auto-oil” have clearly shown the potential benefits possible with

improved fuel quality.



Recent works have shown, furthermore, that it is possible to achieve new advances

simultaneously in polluting emissions and in CO2 with a significant reduction in sulfur content.

Sulfur is, in effect, a poison from catalytic converters, which are now generally present in

automotive transport, whether powered by gasoline or Diesel. These positive effects are

recognized by the European Community, which is asking for sulfur levels to be reduced to 50

ppm by 2005, and manufacturers are asking for values of 30 ppm quickly (ppm = parts per

million).









74

5.1.9- Does fuel quality have an effect on CO2

No, not initially since a kilogram of fuel during combustion will release the same weight of

carbon in the form of carbon dioxide. In effect, the relative weight of 2 essential molecules for

fuels - carbon and hydrogen - allow the weight in hydrogen to be set aside, in a simple approach.



However, with a better quality fuel, it is possible to perform better adjustments, to better adapt

engine operation in the compromise emission/fuel efficiency, and consequently to win in yield, in

CO2 emissions.



Traditional, substitute, or alternative fuels are mainly constituted of carbon and hydrogen,

combustion transforms these molecules into carbon dioxide and water. It is therefore logical to

examine the potential of fuels with respect to carbon dioxide by considering the carbon/hydrogen

ratio. There, one finds non-negligible differences as a function of the products.







(1) - J.C. GUIBET, Carburants et Moteurs, éditions TECHNIP, 1997.



(2) - OECD, CO2 Emissions and Transport, European Conference of Ministers of Transport (ECMT)

OECD Publications, 1997.



5.1.10- Is it possible to travel with an energy source that is a 100% biomass fuel?

Yes, it is quite possible without any major difficulty.



A rapeseed methyl ester can provide quite reasonable operation of a Diesel engine. The controls

simply have to be adjusted to take the biomass fuel into account, and components sensitive to the

chemical composition of the fuel must be adapted.







P. GATEAU, Effets de l’ester méthylique d’huile de colza sur la pollution urbaine, ADEME Study 96 01

023 from June 96.









75

5.1.11- Is traffic flow important for emissions and fuel efficiency?

Yes, regardless of the engine.



Traffic burdened by poor flow leads to “stop and go” driving. Each acceleration means more

consumption and more emissions than found during normal traffic with good flow conditions.



Additionally, engine efficiency varies widely with the load demanded.



With very light loads, efficiency is greatly reduced and consumption increased. This situation is

typical of gasoline engines, while consumption at low loads for Diesel engines offers better

efficiency and promotes low consumption, especially in these operating conditions.



Between the two energy sources, gasoline and Diesel, the results in consumption are quite

different. Diesel engines operate with better efficiency, which leads particularly to a strong

reduction in consumption during city driving, a situation clearly felt by many users.



Union Routière de France (URF), La route et la qualité de l’air (www.urf.asso.fr), 1997.



5.1.12- Do traffic restrictions have any impact on air quality?

That is why they were implemented, however their effect was never correctly demonstrated.



Automobiles represent only a fraction of the considered emissions.



A restriction placed on a source not entirely significant cannot lead to a totally satisfactory result.

We did have the chance to specify the real need to consider all major emitters such as urban

waste incinerators or other industries.



Tests conducted at The Hague with a complete interruption of traffic did not yield an

improvement in air quality.



There the real problem of atmospheric chemistry can be seen: the result of complex chemical

mixings between anything and everything which can be found in a given area, unlike the context

of emissions from an automobile product taken individually. What is found in the air is never

what is found when trapping gases from a tail pipe during traditional pollutant measurements.

The entire subject of air chemistry must be used in order to understand “emissions” from real

chemistry of the air that we can breathe.



Sunlight and wind conditions encountered on a given day may very well not be the same the next day.

Also, a predictive evaluation is needed in order for such measurements to be effective during a critical

period. Studies and models are underway to try to achieve local meteorological forecasts. Thus far, they

are not entirely satisfactory.









76

In certain cases, a reduction in emissions of certain pollutants, for example - nitrogen oxides, may lead to

an increase in ozone levels. There too, for the public good, precise forecasting studies are needed so that

errors are not made.

Finally, restrictions should be placed on the most emitting products: mopeds or motorized bicycles (this

type of product pollutes as much as 10 automobiles or more), the oldest cars, and old delivery vehicles,

for example.



M. ANDRE, INRETS - C. PRONELLO, Politecnico di Torino - Speed and acceleration impact on

pollutant emissions, SAE 96 11 13.





5.1.13- Would a 60 km/hour speed limit along the Parisian beltway influence air quality in

Paris?

Yes, if the speed was constant. Minimum emissions are obtained in a range of speed located from

50 to 70 km/h.



5.1.14- Is Diesel inappropriate for short distances in the city?

No, the Diesel engine is most efficient and is particularly well-suited to light loads, which is the

case in urban use. Regardless of the test cycle chosen, Diesel engines always perform well in

cities.



5.1.15- What is a test cycle?

Engines are either tested on test benches - which is the case for truck engines - or with the

vehicle on a chassis dynamometer - which is the case for automobiles.



Test conditions are finely specified. During these tests, the emissions and consumption of a part

or the entire operating interval are measured.



A test cycle cannot be expected to reproduce perfectly the conditions of use for a vehicle in a

given use. However, these cycles allow reasonable comparisons and attempt to give a good

enough representation of the mean reality, specifically in the case of an automobile where the test

on a chassis dynamometer includes gear box, weight, and tires.



5.1.16- Are there different test cycles?

Yes, there are many cycles and many laboratories that come up with new experimental cycles.



The world, however, uses a limited number of cycles that are now well-known. In the case of

automobiles, these are:

* the European cycle,

* the American cycle,

* the Japanese cycle.







77

For automobiles, these cycles are defined based on encountered traveling conditions, which are

therefore quite different in Europe, the USA, and Japan.



The Japanese requirements are not very strict.



Those requested in the context of 49 American states are moderately strict.



The American requirements in the state of California are high.



Now, the European requirements have reached a level of strictness close to that, or more so, than

what is called for in California.



Above all, the emission values obtained in the international cycles should not be compared. They

are not directly comparable. The American cycle is plotted starting from measurements made on

the road, while the European cycle is a sketch, a plotting of right angles, reproducing 4 small

urban cycles followed by an extra-urban curve known as the EUDC “Extra Urban Driving

Cycle.”



In the EUDC phase of the European cycle, the maximum speed is 120 km/h. In the U.S. cycle,

the maximum speed is 91.2 km/h. The accelerations required in these two cycles are completely

different.



It should be remembered that the regulations associated with the European cycle are leading

toward the highest level of requirements in the world.

5.1.17- Do the methods for measuring automotive emissions represent reality?

Yes, knowing well that it is possible to have operating conditions quite distinct from the

European cycle, which would lead to different assessments.



In general, however, the current European cycle yields values that are recognized as being

representative of the mean of the fleet.



5.2- Post-treatment

5.2.1- What is the effect of a catalytic converter on particulate size?

No influence of catalytic converters on particulate size has been observed: the median particulate

size is still on the order of 0.1 m (1).







(1) - David J. RICKEARD et al. (Esso Petroleum Co. Ltd. And A.E.A Technology), Exhaust Particulate

Size Distribution: Vehicle and Fuel Influences in Light Duty Vehicles (SAE publication 961980),

SAE 1996.









78

5.2.2- Which Diesel-engined vehicles today come with catalytic converters?

Since 1997, only those vehicles not meeting the standards without post-treatment are equipped

with catalytic converters. In fact, almost all passenger cars have catalytic converters except for a

few low-emissions automobiles.



5.2.3- Why do Diesel engines not have particulate filters?

There are no production-line vehicles produced with particulate filters. Oxidation catalytic

converters when burning HC also burn a part of the particulates.



The reprocessing of all particulates by different processes is being studied (recycling process,

diesel additives, filter heating by microwave resistance). The industrial solutions should appear

starting early in the next century.



5.3- Refining

5.3.1- Do the French and European refineries have the means to meet the demand for diesel

and remain profitable?

 French refineries are not well prepared to meet the demand for Diesel. The lag is flagrant with

respect to other European countries, especially when compared with German and Dutch refineries.



 The directives requiring a decrease in sulfur content and a reduction in aromatics shall necessitate

adaptation of the French refining system.



 Solutions do exist in order to guarantee supplies with low sulfur content for which the investment,

though high, can be made profitable through an increase of a few centimes per liter.







(1) - Jean-Luc KARNIK, Eléments d’économie pétrolière, ENSPM, Centre Moteur et Utilisations des

Hydrocarbures, September 1996.









79

5.3.2- Is the production and distribution of Diesel a source of profit or loss for the

refineries?

 Several situations may take place very rapidly. The factors influencing the balance of diesel’s

production and distribution are:

* The listing of the dollar and that of various marker crude oils,

* The quality of supply crude oils,

* The supply and demand of Diesel in a region,

* The geographic location of the refinery.



 Thus, although in 1996 margins for refiners and distributors were quite reduced, they reached a

comfortable level in 1997.







(1) - Jean-Luc KARNIK, Eléments d’économie pétrolière, ENSPM, Centre Moteur et Utilisations des

Hydrocarbures, September 1996.



(2) - European refineries day 1997.



5.3.3- Are Diesel and gasoline complementary?

Yes, from the point of view of the refiner, gasoline and Diesel are complementary: in order to

save energy during conversion of different loads of crude oil, the distribution of finished products

is heterogeneous.







(1) - M. Pierre BICHET, Le raffinage du pétrole, 1ère partie. Les produits pétroliers, ENSPM,

Applications des produits pétroliers et énergétiques, September 1996.



5.3.4- Can Diesel and gasoline be easily replaced in automobiles immediately and in the

medium term?

No. Alternative energies can only be considered for individual fleets.



5.3.5- Are there sufficient petroleum reserves to provide enough Diesel supplies in the years

ahead?

Yes, especially considering the new (or improved old) processes for conversion of natural gas,

coal, or heavy fuel into Diesel, the hydrocarbon reserves are sufficient to ensure supplies of

Diesel for decades to come.







- Pétrole informations



- IFP







80

5.3.6- Are petroleum producers disturbed by increased fuel efficiency in automobiles?

In the short term, an increase in automobile fuel efficiency may disturb petroleum producers,

since that limits the progress of their net sales.



But over the long term, this decrease in consumption by each vehicle extends the range of their

product despite any progress made in other energy sectors; gasoline and diesel fuel remain the

best large-scale solution for the economy and the environment.



5.3.7- Why do French petroleum producers import Diesel?

The nuclear energy policies lead to a decrease in fuel consumption. Petroleum producers invested

in refineries, which were favorable to the production of gasoline to the detriment of fuel oil

(catalytic conversion instead of hydrocracking), but this decrease in the consumption of fuel oil

did not compensate the increase in highway Diesel. This error was not committed by the other

European countries.







(1) - Jean-Luc KARNIK, Eléments d’économie pétrolière, ENSPM, Centre Moteur et Utilisations des

Hydrocarbures, September 1996.



(2) - Mathieu ZAJDELA (Enerfinance Downstream Services), Raffinage et distribution en Europe: la

crise est-elle finie?, AFTP Conference, October 1997.





5.4- Supercharging

5.4.1- Why are there fewer gasoline turbo cars than Diesel turbos?

Currently, Diesel engines represent 25% of all car sales in Europe, and 78% of these Diesel

engines are supercharged. Among gasoline engines, the rate of supercharging is approximately

4% and concerns high performance, high-end vehicles.



Nonetheless, the necessary reduction in emissions and consumption have caused a new tendency

toward reduction of the gasoline cylinder in favor of supercharging, starting from 600 cm3

displacement.



Furthermore, direct-injection engines for gasoline will also make use of supercharging. The

production of the turbo gasoline engine should therefore increase once again and contribute to the

balance of 40% Diesel and 60% gasoline.







Aimé PAROIS, La suralimentation par turbocompresseur des moteurs pour véhicules routiers

automobiles, ENSPM. (Centre Moteur et Utilisations des Hydrocarbures, 1997).









81

5.4.2- What is the impact of the turbocharger on pollution from a direct or indirect Diesel

engine?

The turbocharger, enabling better combustion, decreases particulates. Through the compromise

existing between particulates and nitrogen oxides, it is possible, by making adjustments upstream

from the injection, to decrease nitrogen oxides by moderating the drop in particulate emissions.



The turbocharger also decreases fuel consumption at equal engine powers, which decreases

carbon dioxide emissions.







INRETS





5.5- Injection system

5.5.1- Will direct-injection gasoline engines kill Diesel engines?

No: Direct-injection Diesel will allow progress even more considerable in consumption than

direct-injection gasoline.







(1) - Terutoshi TOMODA et al., Development of direct injection gasoline engine - Study of stratified

mixture formation (SAE publication 970539), Toyota Motor Corporation, 1997.



(2) - Jun HARADA et al. Development of direct injection gasoline engine (SAE publication 970540)

Toyota Motor Corporation, 1997.



(3) - Jean-Louis FROMENT, Combustion Diesel “injection directe” ENSPM, Centre Moteur et

Utilisations des Hydrocarbures, October 1996.









82

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88