Emergency Response to Terrorism
TC: Hazardous Materials
Unit 3: Chemical and Physical
Properties
3-1
Terminal Objective
Given chemical and physical properties of an
unknown material, the students will be able to
estimate risk and to determine appropriate
response actions and precautions.
3-2
Enabling Objectives
The students will:
Identify chemical and physical properties of
terrorist agents that relate directly to providing
a safe and effective response.
Identify the mechanisms of harm for
Biological, Nuclear, Incendiary, Chemical, and
Explosive (B-NICE) agents.
Identify various B-NICE dissemination methods
and devices.
3-3
Introduction
Chemistry has existed for thousands of years.
Properties have not changed.
Our perception of chemical hazards may need
to change.
Base response on chemical and physical
properties, not hysteria.
3-4
Properties Overview
States of matter Molecular weight
Concentration Vapor pressure
Melting and Volatility
freezing point Persistency
Vapor density
3-5
States of Matter
Biological agents--solids or liquids
Chemical and blister agents--solids, liquids, or
gases
Blood and choking agents--gases
3-6
Concentration
Low probability of finding pure agent
Nearly impossible to produce pure agent
Two primary reasons--ability and safety
Ability--must be produced following exact
procedures, pure compounds needed for
quality agents
Safety--dangerous to produce pure
substances, packaging and transportation
dangerous
3-7
Melting & Freezing Point
3-8
Vapor Density
Relationship of materials to air (air=1)
Materials with vapor density 1 will stay at ground
level.
Except hydrogen cyanide, all warfare agents are >1.
Those with higher numbers have difficulty
escaping their containers.
3-9
Molecular Weight
Based on chemical formula and structure
Can be used to determine vapor density
Partially determines how much material goes into
the air (volatility)
3-10
Vapor Pressure: Definition
Pressure exerted on a container from the
vapor coming from a liquid
Pressure exerted by surface of liquid against
atmospheric pressure
Ability of a material to produce vapor that can
cause severe human problems
Respiratory
Skin
3-11
Vapor Pressure: Importance
One of the most important physical properties
and a key to survival
High vapor pressure may require high levels of
personal protective equipment (PPE)
Low vapor pressure may dictate lesser levels
Materials with little or no vapor pressure present
only a contact risk
3-12
Vapor Pressure: Measurements
Usually expressed in one of three terms
Pounds per square inch (14.7 psi)
Atmospheres (1 atm)
Millimeters of mercury (760mm/Hg)
3-13
Volatility
Ability to evaporate
Sometimes used in conjunction with vapor
pressure
Materials with high vapor pressure = volatile
Amount of material going into the air
Helps us understand the agent’s ability to do
harm
3-14
Persistency
Military term
Combination of vapor pressure and volatility
Persistent agents remain in place for a period of
time when released
Nonpersistent agents disperse
Generally described in days (not hours)
Most vapor pressure or volatilities are measured at
20°C (70°F)
3-15
Vapor Risk
Chemicals begin to evaporate rapidly at
40mm/Hg
H2O evaporates in a few days; gasoline in a
couple of hours; ether in a few minutes
In an open cup at standard temperature and
pressure (STP) (68°F)
3-16
Vapor Pressure / Volatility
3-17
Vapor Pressure / Volatility (cont'd)
3-18
Characteristics of Terrorism Agents:
Biological
Some similarities to chemical agents
Onset of symptoms is the big difference
Route of entry
Sensitive to environmental conditions
Toxicity comparisons
Invisible to our senses, difficult to detect
3-19
Manufacture of Bio Agents
Obtained from nature
Detection probably will occur after the fact
Someone with little training can, with a small
amount of a culture, grow larger quantities
Relatively easy to produce
Only “relatively”
Hard to produce high grade
Must be able to survive the distribution
3-20
Biological Agents--Weapon
Delayed effects are to the terrorist’s advantage
Variety of dispersal methods possible
Aerosol dispersion via agricultural sprayer
Contaminated water, food, or medicine
Bombings with little damage may signal biological
agent dissemination
Containers from labs or bio supply are clues
3-21
Biological Terrorism Agents
Biological and toxins
Greatest risk to our community.
Toxins--second most popular.
Ricin is easy to produce without
suspicion.
Biological agents are difficult to
detect, so rely on labs.
3-22
Biological Terrorism Agents
(cont'd)
Bacteria
Single-celled microscopic organisms
Direct pathogenic effects
Dangerous to humans
Anthrax
Plague
Tularemia and cholera
3-23
Biological Terrorism Agents
(cont'd)
Viruses
Submicroscopic agent
Contain protein coat of ribonucleic acid
(RNA) or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Dangerous and sometimes deadly
Viral hemorrhagic fevers
Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE)
Smallpox
In most cases, require a host to reproduce
3-24
Biological Terrorism Agents (cont'd)
Toxins
Ricin--derived from beans of the castor plant
Abrin--similar to ricin, but 75 times more
powerful
Botulinum toxin--made from bacterial
byproducts; highly potent
3,000 times more powerful than ricin
100 times more powerful than sarin
3-25
Biological Terrorism Agents (cont'd)
Mycotoxins
Dangerous biological toxins
Can be introduced by almost any route
including absorption through the skin
Effects similar to those of blister agents except
symptom onset is faster, usually minutes
Not sensitive to heat or ultraviolet light and can
be used effectively as a weapon
3-26
Overview
Nuclear Agents
Radioactive materials
Three types of radiation injuries
External irradiation
Contamination
Internal (target organs)
Ionizing radiation: alpha, beta, gamma
3-27
Comparing Radiation Particle
Types
Alpha particles
Heaviest
Least penetrating
Hazardous if inhaled, swallowed, or entered via wound
Beta particles
High speed
Moderate penetrating power
Travel 10 times farther than alpha
Penetrate into skin and cause severe skin burns
Require fairly thin shielding for protection
3-28
Comparing Radiation Particle
Types (cont'd)
Gamma particles
Most penetrating type
Can travel miles in the air
Can penetrate many centimeters into tissue,
damaging deep organs
Also called “penetrating” radiation
Both internal and external hazard
3-29
Measuring Radioactivity:
Units of Quantity
Units of quantity
Curie (Ci)--old term but still common; measures
amount of radiation emitted
System International (SI)--new terminology that uses
meter, gram, liter
SI unit is becquerel (Bq)
1 Ci = 37 gigabecquerel (GBq)
GBq = 1.000.000.000 Bq
3-30
Measuring Radioactivity:
Units of Dose
Dose--amount of radiation absorbed
Absorbed dose--energy imparted to matter by ionizing
radiation per unit of mass of irradiated material
Radiation absorbed dose (rad)--measure of energy
deposited in matter by ionizing radiation
Indicator of immediate damage
SI unit is the Gray (Gy)
100 rad = 1 Gy
1 rad = 0.01 Gy
3-31
Measuring Radioactivity:
Units of Exposure
Roentgen (R)--how much charge due to
ionization is produced in a volume of air
Roentgen equivalent man (rem)--damage
caused by radiation passing through living
tissue
The SI unit is the sievert (Sv)
1 rem = 0.01 Sv
100 rem = 1 Sv
3-32
Elements of Protection
Time
Distance
Shielding
3-33
ALARA
As Low As Reasonably Achievable
Take all reasonable steps to minimize exposure.
Should guide all activities involving radiation.
3-34
Responder Exposure Limits
Recommended limits established by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Not considered safe limits because they still
present some risk
Recommended: Maximum 25 rem total dose
for any single life-threatening emergency
3-35
Emergency Response
Exposure Limits
3-36
Common Radiation Exposures
3-37
Common Radiation Exposures
(cont'd)
3-38
Incendiaries
General info
Used for centuries
Flexible
IRA used for years and use is on the rise here
Used in 20 to 25 percent of all U.S. bombing incidents
Fewer than 5 percent of actual or attempted
bombings have been preceded by a threat
3-39
Incendiary Device Components
Ignition source
Combustible filler
Housing
3-40
Materials Used for Incendiary
Devices
Roadway flares
Gasoline and motor oil
Light bulbs
Common electrical components and devices
Matches
Household chemicals
Fireworks
Propane and butane cylinders
Plastic pipes, bottles, and cans
3-41
Chemical Weapons
Categories Overview
Nerve agents
Blister agents
Blood agents
Choking agents
Riot control agents (irritants)
Industrial chemicals
3-42
Chemical Weapons:
General Information
Liquids when containerized
Disseminated as aerosols or gases
Effects from irritation to death
Onset of symptoms: seconds to several hours
Influenced by weather
Can be protected against, treated and
decontaminated
3-43
Military Designations
Military has its own designations even for
chemicals in common industrial use.
Often named after the inventor.
Military detection equipment uses military
designations.
3-44
Military Designations (cont'd)
3-45
Military Designations (cont'd)
3-46
Military Designations (cont'd)
3-47
Military Designations (cont'd)
3-48
Toxicity Terms
Standard exposure values provided for
chemical agents
Military may add some terms
Toxicity derived from extensive military studies
Standard exposures and military use: Dose =
Concentration X Time
3-49
Lethal Dosage
LD50--Lethal Dose
LC50--Lethal Concentration
LCt50--Time expression, in minutes
LDt50--Lethal dose per time
ICt50--Incapacitating concentration
AEL--Airborne Exposure Limit
3-50
Choking Agents
Most common: chlorine and phosgene
Widely used in industry and can be found in
every community
Used in World War I
Nonpersistent and move away quickly
3-51
Blood Agents
“Blood” agent is a misnomer
Attack the cell’s ability to use oxygen
Example: hydrogen cyanide
Ingredients can be found in some industrial
locations and labs
3-52
Blister Agents
Used during World War I
Affect both skin and respiratory system
Examples: mustards, lewisite
Effects may be delayed
Higher concentrations act more quickly
At low concentrations, symptoms may be delayed
4 to 24 hours
3-53
Blister Agents (cont'd)
Both mustard and lewisite carcinogens
Lewisite and phosgene oxime cause irritation
and pain upon contact
If liquid or vapors inhaled, blister agents cause
respiratory damage
3-54
Nerve Agents
Act on the nervous system quickly and are
composed of chemicals similar to
organophosphate pesticides
Examples: GA, GB, GD, and VX
Have high vapor density and low volatility
3-55
Incapacitating Agents
Also known as irritants
Nonlethal
Four basic categories
Tear gas--CR or CS
Mace--CN
Pepper spray--OC
Combination mace/pepper--none designated
3-56
Other Toxic Gases
Texts suggest additional agents
Most are common industrial chemicals
Adaptable for large-scale attack
Include
Carbon monoxide
Carbon dioxide
Arsine
Phosphine
3-57
Obstacles to Effective Terrorist
Use of Chem Agents
Vapor pressure
Vapor density
Molecular weight
Volatility
Instability in water/humidity
3-58
Obstacles to Effective Terrorist
Use of Chem Agents (cont'd)
Producing nerve agents
Aum Shinrikyo cult example:
Full-scale sarin production area
Backed by millions of dollars
Chemicals required for sarin not easily obtained or
manufactured
Production takes expertise, equipment, facilities,
and ability to produce undetected
Hoax more likely than actual agent
3-59
Chemical Weapons
Dissemination Methods
Aerosol--suspension or dispersion of small
particles (solids or liquids) in a gas
Hand-held spray bottles
Backpack pesticide spray equipment
3-60
Chemical Weapons
Dissemination Methods (cont'd)
Dissemination is difficult
Most scenarios have limited effectiveness
Military dissemination uses explosive detonated in air.
Most serious injury to those in physical contact with
product.
Persons in immediate area most affected.
Very difficult to produce building-wide or large-scale
effects.
3-61
Dissemination Devices:
Electrical Box
Can be mounted on a
wall. Box has a hole in
the side and spray device
mounted inside. Can be
placed on a timer or
remotely activated.
3-62
Dissemination Devices:
Electrical Box (cont'd)
Inside the box:
spray device
container
plunging
mechanism
battery
remote
activation
system
3-63
Dissemination Devices:
Fire Extinguisher
Fire extinguisher
with a solenoid
and four spray
nozzles using a
timer mechanism
3-64
Dissemination Devices:
Cylinder
Pressurized cylinder with a
holding tank, which provides
agent delivery through Venturi
effect
Can be used with a timer or
remote activator
3-65
Dissemination Devices:
Spray Paint and Milk Carton
Spraypaint delivery
bottle (left)
Delivery
device hidden in milk
carton activated by
remote control (right)
3-66
Dissemination Devices:
Briefcase
Contains fans for
bio agent dispersal
or could house a
spray device for
chemical agents
Newer models have
concealed fans
3-67
Dissemination Devices:
Leaf Blower
Container
added to bottom,
provides
mechanism for
biological
distribution
3-68
Render Safe Considerations
Using a water cannon,
explosive ordnance
division (EOD) attempted
to
breach this device.
It was not
successful in opening
the box, and broke
the chemical container
on the inside. 3-69
Explosives
Terrorist weapon of choice
70 percent of all terrorist incidents in the United
States
Can deliver death themselves or disperse an agent
of death
IED's
Vehicle bombs
Pipe bombs
Satchel devices
3-70
Activity 3.1
Ranking Hazardous Agents
3-71
Summary
Key chemical and physical property is vapor pressure, and
by understanding vapor pressure, you can identify the true
risk of chemicals, making responses easier.
Basic chemical properties of terrorism agents work against
their successful use in most cases.
By understanding the relationship of vapor pressure,
volatility, and vapor density, a responder can make informed
decisions regarding tactics and PPE.
By using science, fear can be conquered.
3-72