ISLAM
THE FIRST TRANS-
REGIONAL CIVILIZATION
CURRENT MUSLIM WORLD
PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIA
• The Arabian peninsula
– Largely deserts with mountains, oases
– Fertile areas in the southern mountains around Yemen
– Nomadic Bedouin
• Lived in the desert-covered peninsula for millennia
• Kept herds of sheep, goats, and camels
• Organized in family and clan groups
• Importance of kinship and loyalty to the clan
• Many tribes seem to have been matrilineal with some rights for women
• Post-classical Arabia
– Romans (Byzantines) and Persians had client kingdoms in area
– Active in long-distance over land trade
• Trade from Damascus to Mecca/Medina to Yemen
• Trade across desert to Persian Gulf and along coast
• Part of Red Sea trade system; links between Yemen and Abyssinia
• Trade includes gold, frankincense and myrrh
– Religion was polytheist
– Groups of Jews in Arabia; Monophysite Christians in cities
6TH CENTURY ARABIA
PHYSICAL MAP OF ARABIA
MUHAMMAD’S EARLY LIFE
• Muhammad ibn Abdullah
– Born in a Mecca merchant family, 570 C.E.
– Difficult early life: orphaned, lived with uncle
– Married a wealthy widow, Khadija, in 595
– Became a merchant at age 30, exposed to various faiths
• Muhammad's spiritual transformation
– At age 40, he experienced visions
• There was only one true god, Allah ("the god")
• Allah would soon bring judgment on the world
• The archangel Gabriel delivered these revelations to Muhammad
• Did not intend to found a new religion, but his message became appealing
• The Quran
– Followers compiled Muhammad's actual revelations after his death
– Quran ("recitation"), became the holy book of Islam
– Suras are chapters; organized from longest to shortest
– A work of magnificent poetry
• The Hadith
– Sayings attributed to Muhammad; not included in Quran
– Three levels from most accurate/likely to highly suspect
THE HIJRA (FLIGHT)
• Conflict at Mecca
– His teachings offended others, especially ruling elite of Mecca
– Attacks on greed offended wealthy merchants
– Attacks on idolatry threatened shrines, especially the Kaa'ba
• The hijra
– Under persecution, Muhammad, followers fled to Medina, 622 C.E.
– The move, known as hijra, was starting point of Islamic calendar
• The umma
– Organized a cohesive community called umma in Medina
– Led commercial adventure
– Sometimes launched raids against Mecca caravans
– Helped the poor and needy
• The "seal of the prophets"
– Referred himself as "seal of the prophets," - final prophet of Allah
– Held Hebrew scriptures and New Testament in high esteem
• Referred to followers as “Peoples of the Book”
• If they did not threaten umma, were to be protected
– Determined to spread Allah's wish to all humankind
CONQUEST OF ARABIA
• Muhammad's return to Mecca
– Conquered Mecca, 630
– Imposed a theocratic government dedicated to Allah
– Destroyed pagan shrines and built mosques
• The Kaa'ba
– The Kaa'ba shrine was not destroyed
– In 632, Muhammad led the first Islamic pilgrimage to the Ka'ba
• The Five Pillars of Islam
– Obligations taught by Muhammad, known as the Five Pillars
– The Five Pillars bound the umma into a cohesive community of faith
– Profession of faith, prayer, tithing, pilgrimage, fasting at Ramadan
• Islamic law: the sharia
– Emerged during the centuries after Muhammad
– Detailed guidance on proper behavior in almost every aspect of life
– Drew laws, precepts from the Quran
– Drew traditions from Arabic culture, Hadith
– Through the sharia, Islam became a religion and a way of life
SYMBOLS OF ISLAM
EXPANSION OF ISLAM
• The caliph
– Upon Muhammad's death, Abu Bakr served as caliph ("deputy")
– Became head of state, chief judge, religious leader, military commander
– First four called Orthodox caliphs because they were original followers
• The expansion of Islam
– 633-637, seized Byzantine Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia
– 640's, conquered Egypt and north Africa
– 651, toppled Sassanid dynasty
– 711, conquered the Hindu kingdom of Sind
– 711-718, conquered northwest Africa, most of Iberia
– Success due to weakness of enemies, vigor of Islam
– Referred to Islamic world as Dar al Islam
• The Shia and Sunnis
– The Shia sect supported Ali (last caliph and son in law of Muhammad)
• A refuge for non-Arab converts, poor; followers in Irag, Iran
• Felt caliphs should be directly related to Muhammad
– The Sunnis ("traditionalists") accepted legitimacy of early caliphs
• Were Arab as opposed to Islamic
• Did not feel caliphs had to be related to Muhammad
– Two sects struggled over succession; produced a civil war, murder
SPREAD OF ISLAM
UMAYYAD DYNASTY
• The Umayyad dynasty (661-750 C.E.)
– New caliph won civil war; murdered Ali; established dynasty
– Established capital city at Damascus in Syria
– Ruled for the interests of Arabian military aristocracy
• Policy toward conquered peoples
– Dhimmis were the conquered Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians
– Levied jizya (head tax) on those who did not convert to Islam
– Even the converts did not enjoy wealth, position of authority
• Umayyad decline
– Caliphs became alienated from Arabs by early 8th century
– By the mid-century, faced strong resistance of the Shia faction
– The discontent of conquered peoples also increased
– Umayyad family slaughtered; only one son escaped to Spain
– Formed breakaway Umayyad Dynasty in Spain
ABBASID DYNASTY
• Abu al-Abbas
– A descendant of Muhammad's uncle; allied with Shias and non-Arab Muslims
– Seized control of Persia and Mesopotamia during 740's
– Shattered Umayyad forces at a battle in 750; annihilated the Umayyad clan
• The Abbasid dynasty (750-1258 C.E.)
– Showed no special favor to Arab military aristocracy
– Empire still growing, but not initiated by the central government
• Abbasid administration
– Relied heavily on Persians, Persian techniques of statecraft
– Central authority ruled from the court at Baghdad, newly built city
– Governors ruled provinces; Ulama, qadis (judges) ruled local areas
• Harun al-Rashid (786-809 C.E.)
– Represented the high point of the dynasty
– Baghdad became metropolis, center for commerce, industry, and culture
• Abbasid decline
– Struggle for succession between Harun's sons led to civil war
– Governors built their own power bases, regional dynasties
– Local military commanders took title of Sultan
– Popular uprisings and peasant rebellions weakened the dynasty
– A Persian noble seized control of Baghdad in 945
– Later, the Seljuk Turks controlled the imperial family
AN URBAN CIVILIZATION
• Arab Urban History
– Pre-Islamic Arabs were both urban, bedouin
• Mecca, Medina, Yemeni cities, cities of Palmyra, Arab Petropolis
• Center of the city was a market place often shared with religious center
• Cities designed with human-environment interaction in mind
• Nomads came to city to trade, city often settled by whole tribes
• Arabs had settled in cities in Syria, Iraq, Jordan
– Arabic cities linked to wider world through merchants, trade
– Arab cities exposed to Jews, Persians, Monophysites, Sabeans
• Arabic Empire and Urban Growth
– Islam as a culture requires mosque, merchant: very urban in outlook
• Capital moved from Mecca to Damascus by Umayyads
• Arabs founded military cities on edges of desert to rule empire
– As empire grew, needed something more permanent
• Abbasids moved capital from Damascus, Kufa to Baghdad
• Other designed for purpose cities include Fez, Cairo, Tunis
– Increasing agricultural production contributed to growth of cities
• Cities: centers for administration, industry, trade, education, faith
• Many different ethnic minorities settled in Muslim cities (quarters)
• Mosque at center surrounded by suk, square, in decreasing social order
CHANGED ECONOMICS
• Merchants, pilgrims, travelers exchanged foods across empire
• The exchange and spread of food and industrial crops
– Indian plants traveled to other lands of the empire
– Staple crops: sugarcane, rice, new varieties of sorghum and wheat
– Vegetables: spinach, artichokes, eggplants
– Fruits: oranges, lemons, limes, bananas, coconuts, watermelons, mangoes
– Industrial crops: cotton, indigo, henna
• Effects of new crops
– Increased varieties and quantities of food
– Industrial crops became the basis for a thriving textile industry
– Foodstuffs increased health, populations of cities
• Agricultural experimentation
– Numerous agricultural manuals
– Agricultural methods and techniques improved
– Improved irrigation
A VAST TRADE ZONE
• Camels and caravans
– Overland desert trade traveled mostly by camel caravan
– Caravanserais (motel, corrals) in Islamic cities
– Trading goods usually luxury in nature
• Maritime trade based on technological borrowing
– Arab, Persian mariners borrowed
• Compass from the Chinese
• Lateen sail from southeast Asian, Indian mariners
• Astrolabe from the Hellenistic mariners
– Organization and dominance of trade
• In North Africa across Sahara, down Nile, SW Asia, to India
• Eastern Mediterranean, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Arabia Gulf down coasts
• Many cities grew rich from trade
• Entrepreneurs often pooled their resources in group investments
• Different kinds of joint endeavors
• Banks
– Operated on large scale and provided extensive services
– Letters of credit, or sakk, functioned as bank checks
• Exchange of Ideas included Islam, technology, culture
ISLAMIC TRADE
OTHER ISLAMIC REGIONS
• Al-Andalus
– Islamic Spain, conquered by Muslim Berbers
– Claimed independence from the Abbasid dynasty
– Participated in commercial life of the larger Islamic world
– Products of al-Andalus enjoyed a reputation for excellence
– Cordoba was a center of learning, commerce, architecture
– After death of Abd al Rahman III broke up into petty kingdoms
– A unique blended culture
• Arab, Latin, German, Islamic, Christian, Jewish
• Very tolerant and integrated society
– Warred for 700 years with Christian kingdoms in north
• North Africa
– Strong followers of Shia, broke with Abbassids
– Berbers followed many puritanical Shia like movements
– Eventually Fatimids conquered Egypt, formed rival caliphate
• Central Asia
– Largely Turkish, Persian and Islamic but not Arabic
– Tended to be distant from Baghdad and more tolerant
– Integrated into trans-Eurasian trade network
MUSLIM SPAIN
MUSLIM CENTRAL ASIA
WOMEN’S CHANGING STATUS
• Pre-Islamic Arab Women
– Arabs as nomads allowed women many rights
– Women often poets, tribe leaders
– Some evidence of matrilineal tribes
• The Quran and women
– Quran enhanced rights, security of women
– Forced husbands to honor contracts, love women
– Allowed women to own property, protected from exploitation
• What produced the change
– Foreign Contacts changed the perspective
• Adopted veiling from Mesopotamia, Persia
• Isolation from India through purdah, harem
– Muslim rights for women
• Often weaken through Hadith, traditions
• Often reduced, ignored
• Patriarch beliefs reinforced by conquest
• Yet Quran, sharia also reinforced male domination
• Role of Hadith, Arab traditions reinforced male domination
IMAGE OF WOMEN
ISLAMIC CULTURAL TRADITION
• Quran, sharia were main sources to formulate moral guidelines
• Constant struggle between what is Arabic and what is Islamic
– Use of Arabic script as only language of Islam strengthened trend
– Persians, Turks, Indians, and Africans struggled for acceptance
• Promotion of Islamic values
– Ulama, qadis, and missionaries were main agents
– Education also promoted Islamic values
• Sufis
– Islamic mystics, effective missionaries
– Encouraged devotion by singing, dancing
– Led ascetic, holy lives, won respect
– Encouraged followers to revere Allah in own ways
– Tolerated those who associated Allah with other beliefs
• The hajj
– The Kaa'ba became the symbol of Islamic cultural unity
– Pilgrims helped to spread Islamic beliefs and values
ISLAM & OTHER CONTACTS
• Persian influence on Islam
– After Arabs most prominent of Muslims, resisted Arabization
• Cultural traditions often borrowed heavily by Islam
• Became early followers of Shia
– Government and regionalism
• Many advisors (vizer is Persian word) to Caliphs were Persian
• Cultured, diplomatic language of Abbassid court became Persian
– Literary achievements
• Omar Khayyam was greatest of Medieval Muslim poets
• The Arabian Nights largely in a Persian style
• Turkish influences
– Central Asian nomads converted to Islam, developed literary culture
– Invaded SW Asia and made caliphate dependent on Turkish nomads
– Formed military might, leadership of late Abbassid state
• Indian Influences
– Purdah and harem borrowed from Hindus
– "Hindi numerals," which Europeans called "Arabic numerals"
• Greek Influences
– Muslims philosophers especially liked Plato and Aristotle; Greek math
– Effort of harmonizing two traditions met resistance from Sufis