1
Jacqueline Russell
American Intellectual and Cultural History since 1865
Dr. Kevin Sheets
Due: April 19th, 2011
“Does Edgy Achieve Equality? Second-Wave Feminist Art in Mainstream America”
In the late twentieth century, the United States of America was experiencing times of
extreme political unrest with the Vietnam War and backlash of antiwar protests, assassinations of
important figure heads including John F. Kennedy, Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X, and
Robert F. Kennedy, as well as social and racial conflicts with the Civil Rights movement and a
growing counterculture advocating peace, love, freedom, and experimentation. The nation was
developing technologically through space exploration and advancements in broadcast and media.
In the midst of change and conflict emerged a feminist culture. In the early 1960s, “The
Feminine Mystique,” by Betty Friedan was published and sparked the women’s liberation
movement. A few years later the feminist group called National Organization for Women
(NOW) formed. Ideas of gender equality were on the rise and served as a continuation of the
earlier phase of feminist activity involving women’s suffrage. The second-wave of feminist
activity was influenced in part by the roles of 1950s housewives and the limitations and
oppression they endured from being domestically bound. Female artists adapted feminist values
because of the struggles they faced in a male-dominated art world. Though it is uncertain exactly
when the feminist art movement began, strong actions were taken by female artists, namely in
1969 when the New York Women Artists in Revolution (WAR) broke away from the Art
Workers’ Coalition (AWC) because they would not protests on behalf of women artists. In the
early 1970s, many protests occurred in which women artists lashed out against gallery owners
2
for excluding artwork produced by females.1 The movement inspired women artists and the way
in which they made art rather than influencing a specific style. Feminist art has been compared to
surrealism which focuses more on dreams and oddities as opposed to reality. Feminist artists
played with ideas of gender, identity, and form, and often created pieces that reflected female
experiences and oppression, and illuminated female sexuality.2 The movement flourished from
the late 1960s until the 1980s in correspondence with second-wave feminism.
Female artists made bold expressions through their artwork and worked to raise
awareness about the struggles they faced in a male-dominated art world. They demanded
recognition, as well as equality in the art world. The Guerrilla Girls, an anonymous group of
feminist artists who work to expose corruption and discrimination, released a statistic to give
notice to the sexual exploitation of women in art that states, “Do women have to be naked to get
into the Met. Museum? Less than 5% of the artists in the Modern Art sections are women, but
85% of the nudes are female.”3 It wasn’t even until 1986 that women received mention in the
standard college textbook, H.W. Janson’s History of Art, when 19 female artists were admitted
compared to the 2,300 artists discussed within the text.4 Women artists in the movement worked
to unify their goal of equality and publicize their cause. They received much attention, however,
their bold messages were not always well-received. In fact, some women artists rejected feminist
readings of their art and may have felt such criticism would be another way of marginalizing
1
Linda Napikoski, “The Feminist Movement in Art: The Development of the Feminist Art Movement,”
http://womenshistory.about.com/od/feminism/a/feminist_art.htm (accessed April 16, 2011).
2
Ibid.
3
William Poundstone, “Guerrilla Girl,” Artinfo, February 21, 2011,
http://blogs.artinfo.com/lacmonfire/2011/02/21/guerilla-girl/ (accessed April 16, 2011).
4
Richard Cayaco, “What Women Have Done to Art.” Time, March 22, 2007,
http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1601840,00.html (accessed April 17, 2011).
3
women artists. The rejection of the label by some of the artists presented an important issue of
whether the art being created and associated with feminist values would reward positive attention
and recognition to individual artists. In achieving equality, it has been argued to be most
important for women to have their work viewed as separate from their gender and rather in
context to their own personal background. In addition, feminist art within the movement received
negative criticism due to misrepresentations of the female experience that were expressed in
pieces. Much of the work created during the second-wave feminist period focused on the
experiences of white, middle-classed women, which worked against goals of unification. People
in society developed negative associations with the bold statements emerging from feminist
artwork, including ideas that feminists were “man-hating,” or “lesbian,” which did not align with
much of the experiences of women in society.5 The messages female artists intended for viewers
to receive were often lost due to negative stigma and overwhelming depictions that distracted
and overwhelmed viewers. It can be argued that the movement worked to publicize the
oppression and has resulted in more female artists than ever pursuing careers in the arts, but it
can also be argued that the creation of feminist art placed too much emphasis on gender and was
counterproductive towards achieving recognition for talent regardless of an artist’s gender. The
labels placed on feminist art during the movement raise the question: Is it possible that by
exposing viewers to overtly “female-created” artwork that expressed feminist ideals may have
been detrimental to the the goals of the movement? By interpreting six pieces of artwork that are
considered feminist, conclusions about the effectiveness of the movement may be unveiled.
The first piece was created by Judy Chicago along with hundreds of volunteer artists and
is entitled The Dinner Party, and was completed after five years of work spanning from 1974-
5
Linda Napikoski, “The Feminist Movement in Art: The Development of the Feminist Art Movement,”
http://womenshistory.about.com/od/feminism/a/feminist_art.htm (accessed April 16, 2011).
4
1979. The piece features a triangular table with each length measuring to 48 feet that presents 39
place settings representative of 39 women in history. The table rests on a ceramic-tiled floor with
the names of 999 women inscribe in gold. Chicago headed the first feminist art program in 1970
at the University of California, Fresno. It is important to mention this piece when talking about
the feminist art movement because the piece gave recognition and celebrated the
accomplishments of women in history.6 However, the piece sends mixed messages in
recognizing textile art and domestic craft as celebrated. This does not align with the goals of
feminism which works to acknowledge such traditions as oppressive. It was difficult to find a
home for the piece namely because of its size and some controversy surrounding appropriate
recognition for the hundreds of artists who contributed their time without pay. It is now on
permanent display at the Elizabeth A. Sackler Center for Feminist Art at the Brooklyn Museum.
The piece is meaningful and gained much attention, but the message is not wholly supportive of
the movement’s ideals.
The second piece was created at the end of the movement in 1981 and is entitled Your
Manias Become Science, by Barbara Kruger. The artists is famed for her black and white images
with deep red text bars that express bold statements that illuminate issues of feminism, power,
racial and gender stereotypes, consumerism, sex, and more.7 The image she has created depicts a
mushroom cloud of smoke with the “in your face” phrase, “Your manias become science.” She
has produced pieces that truly move viewers and much of her artwork has been widely
6
Richard Cayaco, “What Women Have Done to Art.” Time, March 22, 2007,
http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1601840,00.html (accessed April 17, 2011).
7
The Art History Archive- Feminist Art. “Barbara Kruger: Feminist Artist.” Lilith Gallery Network, n.d.
http://www.arthistoryarchive.com/arthistory/feminist/Barbara-Kruger.html (accessed April 17, 2011).
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distributed in the form of T-shirts, mugs, etc. While her iconic images and messages are popular,
the use of violence and crude statements in many of her can sometimes evoke unintended
emotions leaving viewers feeling bullied, overwhelmed, confused, and often missing the
intended message.
The third and sixth pieces in the exhibit feature works by Cindy Sherman. The third piece
is entitled Untitled Film Still #3, and was photographed in 1977. The sixth piece is entitled
Untitled #137, and was photographed in 1984. Cindy Sherman is a photographer and film
director known for her self-portraits. While she doesn’t consider her work feminist, much of her
work calls attention to the stereotyping of women in films, television, and magazines.8 The third
piece, Untitled Film Still #3, does just that by portraying an image of a 1950s housewife and the
idea of being bound to the kitchen. To view this image separate from its blatant feminist themes
makes it difficult to find a purpose in such an ordinary photo. This film still was produced in
1977 in the midst of the feminist art movement. Regardless of her intended message, the feminist
art movement causes viewers to overlook Sherman’s purpose. In the sixth piece the image is of a
woman who appears frazzled, dirty, dazed, and perhaps pained or numbed. It is difficult to
understand the meaning of her photograph without applying feminist values onto the image.
Seeing this woman evokes feelings of oppression and hopelessness from hardships she appears
to have faced, and these feelings coincide with common themes of feminist art. Cindy Sherman’s
pieces require interpretation and analysis in order to understand the message, and while she is
trying to stand separate from the movement, her expressions are overlooked and feminist values
8
The Art History Archive- Biography & Art. “Cindy Sherman.” Lilith Gallery Network, n.d.
http://www.arthistoryarchive.com/arthistory/photography/Cindy-Sherman.html (accessed April 17, 2011).
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are imposed on her pieces, which disables viewers to search for further meanings and
interpretations of her work.
The fourth and fifth pieces in the exhibit are part of separate series created by Martha
Rosler. The fourth piece is entitled Nature Girls (Jumping Janes) from the series Body Beautiful
or Body Knows No Pain, and was created within 1966 and 1972. In this image, Rosler focuses
on the females form and may be perceived as a surrealist piece. The “jumping Janes” are
positioned in different poses and at different heights. Some of the females seem to be soaring in
the air while other are sprawled on the ground. The scenery is bright and depicts an open field, a
small pond, and far off forestry. The piece also plays with various shapes and patterns. Though
interpretation is objective to each viewer, something to recognize is the hump-shape made in the
air by the way the women are placed. The forestry in the background also forms a hump shape
and these images together may depict a womanly figure as the center of attention and a manly
figure off in the distance. This interpretation gives way to a bold statement. The excessive use of
the female form may be distracting to viewers. The statement may therefore be missed because
the nature girls are so demanding of the viewer’s attention and this reminds viewers that the
piece is made by a female artist. The attention should not be placed on the label of the art, but
rather in context to the artist’s background. The fifth piece is entitled Cleaning the Drapes from
the series Bringing the War Home, and was created between 1969 and 1972. In this image,
Rosler is depicting a housewife who is oblivious to the war going on right outside her window
because she is too caught up in household chores and duties. This image works with issues of
politics and war, along with female isolation in the home. Women are expected to “hold down
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the fort” at home and remain ignorant to the terrors of war. 9 However, the message is not clear
at first glance. The political distress during the feminist art movement would often overshadow
the actions and efforts of feminist artist. If the viewer was not given a definite time frame of the
piece, it could be overlooked and considered to be war propaganda. Pieces like this have been
criticized because while the woman in the image does not depict the lives and experiences of all
women in society during the movement, many viewers thought each individual’s experience was
claimed to be universal even if the artist did not intend to assert essentialism. If the piece’s
message does not get overshadowed by the militaristic qualities, then it may fail to ignite with
viewers because they cannot relate to the image. Pieces like Rosler’s Cleaning the Drapes may
be ineffective in reaching the goals of unifying women and female artists in support of their
cause.
The pieces presented in the exhibit shed light on the issue of the effectiveness of the
feminist art movement. It can be argued that women artists may not have succeeded without
recognizing feminism and oppression. The goal for female artists has been to achieve gender-
blindness interpretation of art. This is necessary in order to achieve true equality. However it was
crucial to acknowledge the masculinity that has dominated the art world because in not doing so
would be a form of approval. As previously mentioned in publicizing the difficulties of
oppressed women, today, more women than ever pursue careers in art. The art movement
therefore may indeed have been necessary to gain attention, but in focusing more on gender
politics than art may have been harmful towards the goals of equality. While the statements were
bold and inspirational, it’s uncertain whether working against the patriarchal world was the most
9
Carter B. Horsley, “Open End at the Museum of Modern Art, New York,” The City Review, n.d.
http://www.thecityreview.com/momopen.html (accessed April 17, 2011).
8
effective way to gain recognition and attain equality. When labels cloud a viewer’s perception of
a piece of art, the focus is taken off the artist and their talents and put onto a cause that may or
may not evoke positive emotions. Without strong viewer support, it is difficult for artists to
advance to their ultimate goal in achieving equality in the world of art.
Bibliography:
Brooklyn Museum. “Elizabeth A. Sackler Center for Feminist Art: The Dinner Party.” Brooklyn
Museum, n.d. http://www.brooklynmuseum.org/eascfa/dinner_party/home.php (accessed
April 17, 2011).
Cayaco, Richard. “What Women Have Done to Art.” Time, March 22, 2007,
http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1601840,00.html (accessed April 17,
2011).
Collard, Holland. “Art in Review: Barbara Kruger: Pre-Digital 1980-92.” New York Times, April
2, 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/03/arts/design/03gall.html (accessed April 17,
2011).
Horsley, Carter B. “Open End at the Museum of Modern Art, New York.” The City Review, n.d.
http://www.thecityreview.com/momopen.html (accessed April 17, 2011).
Napikoski, Linda. “The Feminist Movement in Art: The Development of the Feminist Art
Movement.” http://womenshistory.about.com/od/feminism/a/feminist_art.htm (accessed
9
April 16, 2011).
Poundstone, William. “Guerrilla Girl.” Artinfo, February 21, 2011,
http://blogs.artinfo.com/lacmonfire/2011/02/21/guerilla-girl/ (accessed April 16, 2011).
The Art History Archive- Biography & Art. “Cindy Sherman.” Lilith
Gallery Network, n.d.
http://www.arthistoryarchive.com/arthistory/photography/Cindy-Sherman.html (accessed
April 17, 2011).
The Art History Archive- Feminist Art. “Barbara Kruger: Feminist Artist.” Lilith
Gallery Network, n.d.
http://www.arthistoryarchive.com/arthistory/feminist/Barbara-Kruger.html (accessed
April 17, 2011).
The Art History Archive- Feminist Art. “Martha Rosler: Embracing Controversy.” Lilith
Gallery Network, n.d.
http://www.arthistoryarchive.com/arthistory/feminist/Martha-Rosler.html (accessed April
17, 2011).