GENDER
Stereotype: rigid belief, generalization from
few experiences, hearsay. Gender
stereotypes one type among many.
Gender roles: behaviours, prescribed by
society, reflect cultural stereotypes.
Gender role identity: self-perception as
masculine or feminine: characteristics,
abilities and behaviours are included.
Gender typing: socialization process based
on the belief that there is a cause-effect
relationship between biological sex and
behaviour, preferences, thinking, etc..
Sex: anatomical and physiological
categories
Gender: more inclusive term: differences
and similarities due to interaction
biology/environment: feminine and
masculine
NOT opposites but overlapping
Feminine: expressive traits: warm, caring,
sensitive
Masculine: instrumental traits: rational,
competent, assertive.
GENDER
Gender role identity:
Good predictor of psychological adjustment
Masculine and androgynous children better
off, good self-esteem
Feminine children lower self-esteem
Androgynous: score high on both femininity and
masculinity scales
GENDER
Kohlberg:
1. Gender labeling stage – early preschool. Think
it’s changeable.
2. Gender stability stage: permanent in the
present but changeable in the future.
3. Gender consistency stage: late preschool and
early school years: constancy of gender.
Correlates with conservation (Piaget)
If given opportunity to see genitals of both sexes,
attain stage 3 earlier.
GENDER
Observable differences:
At birth:
Boys cry more, neural and digestive
immaturity
Girls easier to soothe
GENDER
Adult expectations affect perceptions:
Boys: strong, big, loud, physical
Girls: sweet, dainty, pretty
Physical perceptions lead to psychological
attributions
• nursery decoration
• toys
• clothes
• style of play
GENDER STEREOTYPES (Cont’d)
Even egalitarian parents
Experiment varying baby clothes
Lewis and Goldberg 13 month olds
GENDER
Moms hold and touch baby sons more,
talk more to baby girls
More acceptance of anger in boys
Rough play accepted and encouraged in
boys, discouraged in girls
Girls seen as needing more help
GENDER
Encouraged in boys:
• assertiveness
• exploration
• acting on the physical world
• emotional control
GENDER
Encouraged in girls:
• dependency
• emotional sensitivity
• emotional expression
• obedience
GENDER
Toddlers and preschoolers:
By one year children choose gender
consistent toys!
Acquisition of gender stereotypes happens
before it can be tested: “women can’t
drive trucks”.
Television: 25 hrs. vs. 10 hrs. per week
GENDER
Cognitive immaturity: rigid classifications,
no exceptions or deviations, overregulation
Sitters, daycare: more stereotyping
Toys: very important for spatial skills,
perception, dexterity, action, competence
GENDER
Fathers: stereotype more.
Afraid to let boys play with dolls – homophobia
Tomboys and sissies
Rough play accepted and encouraged in
boys, not in girls!
GENDER
School years:
Increased stereotyping:
• space allocation (boys get more)
• sports (boys more)
• labs (boys better in sex segregated
schools)
• teachers’ attention (boys get more)
GENDER
• interruptions
• reinforcements
• restrictions
• differential acceptance of socially
unacceptable behaviours
• expectations
GENDER
Learn avoidance, rejection and devaluation
of the other sex: must actively unlearn any
behaviour associated with the other sex.
Severe peer punishment for deviants,
particularly for boys.
GENDER
Different ways of exerting influence:
Girls: verbally – but doesn’t work for boys
Boys: physically – works for both
Boys’ use of aggression encouraged by
culture.
GENDER
By middle school cognitively sophisticated:
can understand incidence of gender-
inappropriate behaviour but still disapprove.
Boys more rigid in their stereotypes.
GENDER
Differences in play:
Girls: more structured games, use less space
Boys: spread out, messy, unstructured
Girls: ask for help from adults, seek approval
Boys: initiate, command, compliance with
peers more important than with adults.
*Not surprisingly, boys prefer to play with boys and
girls with girls.
GENDER
Is there a biological base?
Hormones:
1. In utero influences: congenital adrenal
hyperplasia (CAH) causes secretion of
high levels of androgens by the adrenal
glands. Girls masculinized at birth.
Behaviourally “tomboys”, weak
identification with feminine role.
GENDER
Catch:
Parents and kids told of the condition and
given a prediction of masculine preferences.
Even told that possibly infertile.
Similar cases inconclusive or contradictory.
GENDER
2. Testosterone: only consistent
behavioural relationship is with level of
aggression.
Catch: a two-way street
GENDER
3. Cross-cultural data: Margaret Mead
research in New Guinea.
• Arapesh: both sexes “feminine”
• Tchambouli: women and men “reversed
roles”
• Mungdugumor: both sexes “masculine”
GENDER
4. Animal models: ample evidence for
diversity.
Conclusion: no conclusive evidence
for gender differences being biologically
based.
Major difficulty: all studies methodologically
flawed.
GENDER
Watch out for:
1. File drawer statistic: studies that contradict
accepted trend rarely published.
2. Boundary variables: variables that explain why
two seemingly identical studies reach
contradictory results. (Ex: whether kids think
they are being observed or not.)
GENDER
Have any true differences been found?
Mental abilities:
3 areas studied: math, verbal and spatial
Small differences found in all.
GENDER
Math:
• girls do better up to Grade X
• only for Whites in U.S., Canada and Australia,
not for other countries e.g. Europe
• more boys drop out of high school (skewed
distribution)
• therefore, boys get better SAT scores (top
heavy sample)
GENDER
• boys more likely to be directed to
advanced math courses
• boys helped and encouraged more
• math word problems biased with
masculine content (sports, cars, etc.)
• girls perceive math as male
GENDER
Spatial abilities:
Mental manipulation of visual information.
Many types. Only a few types studied, which
favour boys’ experiences.
Differences appear in mid-childhood.
GENDER
Brain lateralization hypothesis: earlier in
girls for left brain.
Later for boys for right brain.
This would allow boys to use both brains
for spatial manipulations.
Too many flaws and exceptions.
GENDER
Prenatal androgen hypothesis: promote
spatial abilities.
Contradictory data.
Even when present, differences very weak.
Uncontrolled variable: type of problem
Early influence: toys
GENDER
Mostly, girls slower but accurate: less
experience, more anxiety.
Difference disappears with training.
Brain use determines growth: London
cabbies, posterior hippocampus.
GENDER
Language:
Girls ahead first 2 years.
Talked to more by moms.
Brain lateralization (left) not convincing.
Culture: in North America reading not seen
as “masculine”.
Disappears with training.
GENDER AND AGGRESSION
Biological hypotheses:
Androgens facilitate more physical activity.
Combined with environmental influences,
can lead to aggression
OR
GENDER AND AGGRESSION (Cont’d)
Prenatal hormones affect later emotional
reactions, can lead to more anger,
excitement or anxiety.
Combined with environment, can lead to
aggression.
ALSO
GENDER AND AGGRESSION (Cont’d)
Adolescent hormone surge in boys.
Boys with high testosterone seem to act
more aggressively.
However, aggressive behaviour can
increase levels of testosterone!
GENDER AND AGGRESSION (Cont’d)
SO – are genes unimportant?
NO. But genes are “turned on” by
environment. (epigenetics)
Genes can be altered by environment at
critical stages.
GENDER AND AGGRESSION (Cont’d)
Experiment with rats:
2 groups: stress/no stress as pups.
Stress group: both the receptors for
neurotransmitters and the genes that
control them were altered!
GENDER AND AGGRESSION (Cont’d)
Other differences:
Emotional sensitivity: girls higher, but boys
can be equally sensitive with the “approved”
object (e.g. an animal).
Compliance and dependency: girls higher –
environment.
GENDER AND AGGRESSION (Cont’d)
Depression and aggression: two sides of
the same coin.
Depression: aggression turned toward self.
Social conditioning (environment).
GENDER AND AGGRESSION (Cont’d)
Two types of aggression:
• overt, physical (mostly boys)
• relational (mostly girls)
Lately, many girls engaging in the first type,
as gender barriers are torn down.
Also: instrumental and hostile aggression.
Family influences: see chapter 11.
GENDER AND AGGRESSION (Cont’d)
Inverse relationship to language
development.
Frustration/aggression hypothesis. E.g. case
studies of child with auditory handicaps.
GENDER AND AGGRESSION (Cont’d)
Factors in developing aggression:
• difficult temperament
• cognitive deficits
• ADDH
GENDER AND AGGRESSION (Cont’d)
• conflict in the home
• inconsistent discipline
• rejection by average peers
• academic failure
• association with deviant peer group
• social tolerance of aggression
• cultural climate, glorification of violence
GENDER SCHEMA THEORY
Information processing approach
Combines social learning and cognitive
developmental approaches.
Organizes self-perception and perceptions
of others.
GENDER SCHEMA THEORY (Cont’d)
Children select congruent gender schemas
E.g. shown picture of boy using stove
they later recall a girl.