Competition

Competition

Is Competition …

 A powerful motivational strategy?

 An effective quality control device?

 A way to develop positive character

traits?

 A fair process that ensures that the

best team normally wins?

 Good?

 America is a highly cooperative

society.

Reward Definitions

 Competition: A situation in which

rewards are distributed unequally on the

basis of performance by the performers.

 Cooperation: A social process through

which performance is evaluated and

rewarded in terms of the collective

achievements of a group of people

working together to reach a particular

goal.

Problems w/ Reward Definitions

 For every winner, there has to be one or

more losers.

 Does not account for differences in

individual reactions to competition.

 Assumes the „reward‟ to be the same for

every competitor.

 Intrinsic vs. extrinsic rewards

Problems w/ Reward Definitions

 Differences between competition and

cooperation are emphasized, rather

than their similarities.

 You have to cooperate in order to

compete.

 Competition requires both within-team and

between-team cooperation.

Competition and Cooperation As

Complimentary

 Competition and cooperation are not

polar opposites.



 The dynamics of how competition and

cooperation complement one another

should be taught.



 Top performers employ a blend of

competition and cooperation strategies.

Competition vs. Cooperation

 Cooperative activities produce more open

communication, sharing, trust, friendship, and

enhanced performance compared with

competitive activities.

 Johnson & Johnson (1985)

 Review of 122 studies

 Cooperation improved performance more than

competition in 65 studies (8 showed opposite

effects)

 Cooperation improved performance more than

individual efforts in 108 studies (6 showed

opposite effects)

 Questionable tasks and contests however

Problems Associated with

Competition

 „Win-at-all-costs‟ mentality

 Promotes youth sport dropout

 Reduces motivation for those that

remain involved

 Reduces enjoyment for „unsuccessful‟

competitors

 Facilitates a short-term focus only

Competition as a Process

 Martens‟ Process Model

4 stages to the competitive process

 Explains why people respond differently to

competition

 Social comparison process

Stage #1:

Objective Competitive Situation

 Four objective criteria that must be present in

order to conclude that competition is

occurring

 1. A standard of comparison is identified for the

team or individual

 2. Another person is present

 3. This person knows the standard

 4. This person evaluates whether the standard has

been obtained

 What are the advantages / disadvantages of

the Objective Competitive Situation (OCS)?

Stage #2:

Subjective Competitive Situation

 How an athlete perceives, accepts, and

appraises the OCS.

 SCS is affected by personality traits,

perceived importance of competition,

perception of the comparison standard, and

perceived response capabilities.

 As a result, athletes seek out

competition, enter it reluctantly, or

attempt to avoid it.

Stage #3: Response

 After the appraisal of the OCS, athletes

experience positive and negative

adaptations, preparing them for

competition.

 Physiologically

 Psychologically

 Behaviorally

Stage #4: Consequences

 Athletes‟ perception of consequence

(e.g., success or failure) is more

important than the actual outcome.

 Athletesperceive positive or negative

consequences as a result of participation.

 These consequences impact:

 Shortand long term emotions

 Perceptions of competence

 Future decisions to compete

Variable Factors in OCS

 Social Environment

 Presence of others

 Who?

 How many?

 Audience or co-actors?



 Attributes of opponents

 Ability

 Age

 Sex

Variable Factors in OCS

 Physical Environment

field conditions

 Playing

 Weather

 Rewards

 Tangible

 Intangible

 Task Characteristics

 Performance demands

 Rules of contest

Martens‟ Motto

 “Athletes first, winning second”

 To broaden Martens‟ earlier motto, a

revised motto, “Personal excellence-

The foundation for success” highlights

the relationship shared between

personal development and success.

Bringing the Motto to Life

 „Striving to win‟ vs. „Actually winning‟

 Appreciating „the journey‟ vs. „the

destination‟

 The challenge becomes practicing what

you preach.

 Community-wide philosophy

development.

Motivation and Competition

High





Anxiety





Level of

Challenge









Boredom



Low





Athletes’

Low High

Skill Level

Myths of Competition

 Myth 1: Competition is a powerful

motivational strategy.



 Truth: Competition provides the greatest

motivation when the level of challenge is

moderately difficult and matches the

current capabilities of the athlete.

Myths of Competition

 Myth 2: Competition is an effective

quality control strategy.



 Truth: Competition leads to short-

sightedness, and athletes sacrifice

long-term improvement and learning in

order to achieve short-term success.

Myths of Competition

 Myth 3: Competition develops positive

character traits.



 Truth: Winning can be a double-edge

sword for teaching character

development.

Myths of Competition

 Myth 4: Competition is a fair process

that insures that the best team

normally wins.



 Truth: The playing field is rarely level,

and even when it is, winning is very

uncontrollable and often pursued via

unfair methods.

Association Model of Competition

Cooperative





Cooperative games

Frisbee Sport

Assembly lines





Noncompetitive Competitive





Hermit War with no rules









Noncooperative

Competition: Good or Bad?

 Competition is neither good nor bad.

Rather, it is simply a neutral process

and depends on the athletes‟

appraisal of the OCS, response, and

perception of consequences.

Taking a Hint from Recess

 Coakly (1997)

 Unorganized games result in increased

cooperation, decision making, creativity,

and action… things that rule-centered

organized sport stifles.

 Coaches, teachers, and sport directors

should take a hint from the behaviors of

children when games are spontaneous.

Taking a Hint from Recess

 Coakly (1997)

 Unorganizedsport behaviors: Kids modify

games to maximize cooperation, success,

and enjoyment.

 Increased action and scoring opportunities.

 More constant involvement during the game.

 Closely-matched teams.

 Friendship development and maintenance.

Competitive Engineering

 The competitive engineering process

 Modifying the structure, rules, facilities,

and equipment of a particular sport to

enhance athletes‟ competitive

experience.

 Benefits include enhanced skill

development, improved enjoyment,

better competitive balance, and reduced

attrition.

Competitive Engineering:

Basic Premises

1. Increased action and scoring will make

sport more enjoyable.

-- Equipment and rule modifications.

2. Create high levels of personal involvement.

-- Increase playing time and opportunities to play

„glamour‟ positions.

3. Keep scores close to maximize interest,

enjoyment, and motivation.

-- Equalize talent across teams.

Competitive Engineering:

Basic Premises

4. Competition should promote positive

relationships between all participants.

-- Utilize joint practices, socialization rules,

and social events.

5. Use multiple-level program and

pyramid-based community models to

better meet the needs of a diverse

group of athletes.

Pyramid-Based Model



V: Regional Travel Team



IV: Local Travel

Team



III: Competitive Leagues





II: Recreational Program





I: Instructional Program

Examples of Competitive

Engineering: Basketball

 Facilities

 Smaller courts

 Shorter free throw line

 Shorter 3 point line

 Lower basket

 Bigger goal

 Equipment

 Smaller ball

 Colored wrist bands to help players know who

they are guarding

Examples of Competitive

Engineering: Basketball

 Rules

 Playing time rules

 Position rotation rules

 Limitations on when pressing is allowed

 No zone defense

 Limit timeouts

 Place a cap on the number of points 1 player is

allowed to score

 Catch-up rules

 Use press entire time, keep possession following a

score, opponent must sit top player

Examples of Competitive

Engineering: Baseball

 Facilities

 Shorter bases

 Shorter fences

 Lower fences

 Closer pitching rubber

 Equipment

 Batting tee or pitching machine

 Softer balls

 Helmets with face masks

 Bat modifications: barrel size, weight

Examples of Competitive

Engineering: Baseball

 Rules

 Playing time rules

 Position rotation rules

 Modification to ball and strike limits

 Pitching machine and tee combinations

 Place a cap on runs scored each inning

 Everyone bats

 Innings pitched limitations

 Catch-up rules

 4 outs per inning, raise the run / inning limit

Examples of Competitive

Engineering: Flag Football

 Facilities

 Smaller fields

 Lower goal posts

 10 yard 1st down markers and chains



 Equipment

 Smaller ball

 Velcro flags on both streamers and belts

Examples of Competitive

Engineering: Flag Football

 Rules

 Playing time rules

 Position rotation rules

 Limit timeouts

 All players are eligible receivers

 Screen blocking only

 Cap scoring by 1 individual player

 Limit rough contact on defense by calling fouls

 Modify downs and distance requirements

 Slow the defensive rush by requiring a waiting

period

 Catch-up rules

 Maintain possession when score, remove rush limitations

Examples of Competitive

Engineering: Soccer

 Facilities

 Smaller fields

 Larger goals



 Equipment

 Softerball

 Shin guards required

Examples of Competitive

Engineering: Soccer

 Rules

 Playing time rules

 Position rotation rules

 Limit timeouts

 Free kicks instead of throw-ins

 Remove goalie

 Modify offsides rules and hand ball rules

 Cap the number of goals allowed by 1 player

 Modify placement of ball on corner kicks

 No penalty kicks

 Catch-up rules

 Maintain possession when score, sub out the leading

teams‟ two top players

Competitive Philosophy

 Your competitive philosophy guides

your everyday actions and helps you

to make the right decision for you by

deciding what‟s important ahead of

time.

Developing Your Competitive

Philosophy

 1. Self-awareness

 Monitor thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

 Ask others



 2. Prioritize competitive objectives

 Personal development versus winning

 How much importance do you place on each of

those objectives?

John Wooden‟s Competitive Philosophy



 John Wooden