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GEOG 100
Overview and notes for chapters that we are going to cover this quarter
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Geography
After carefully studying this chapter, students should have an understanding of the following:
· What geography is
· Geography’s many subfields and their topics
· Geography’s historical development
· How the location of places is described
· Different types of regions
· How geographic patterns are described using attributes of distribution and movement
· Relocation, contiguous, and hierarchical diffusion
· Physical systems including the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere
· Culture and cultural landscape
· Interactions between the physical environment and human activities
· Characteristics of latitude and longitude
· Use of maps, remote sensing, GPS, and geographic information systems to examine
patterns
· What GIS is
· How geography can help with the critical issues of the next century
Chapter Outline
I. Geography
A. Study of the interaction of physical and human phenomena at individual places
B. Interaction
1. Forms patterns
2. Organizes space
C. Subfields
1. Physical geography
2. Human geography
3. Cultural geography
4. Cartography
5. Geographic information systems
D. Historical development
1. Eratosthenes was a Greek scholar
a. Earth is round
b. Accurate calculation of Earth’s circumference
2. Non-European
a. Islamic advances
b. Chinese writings
c. Korean Kangnido
3. Revival of European geography
a. Regional geography
b. Systematic geography
4. Human-environment tradition
a. Two-way interaction
b. Begun by Alexander von Humboldt
E. Why study geography
II. Contemporary approaches in geography
A. To analyze geographic information
B. Three approaches are used
III. Area analysis
A. Two kinds of location
1. Absolute (site)
a. Exact location and its characteristics
b. Measured by latitude and longitude
2. Relative (situation)
a. Influences accessibility
b. Related to globalization
B. Types of regions
1. Formal regions are based on some uniformity
2. Function regions are based on interaction
3. Vernacular regions are based on popular perceptions
IV. Spatial analysis
A. Distribution
1. Position, placement, arrangement of phenomena throughout space
2. Measured by
a. Density
b. Concentration
c. Pattern
B. Movement
1. Distance is measured by
a. Units of length (miles)
b. Time
c. Cost
2. Friction of distance
3. Distance decay
4. Diffusion
a. How something spreads over space through time
b. Relocation diffusion
c. Contiguous diffusion
d. Hierarchical diffusion
e. Barriers to diffusion
V. Physical and human systems
A. Systems
1. Interdependent group of items that interact in a regular way to form a unified whole
2. Shows interrelationships
B. Earth’s physical systems
1. Atmosphere
2. Hydrosphere
3. Lithosphere
4. Biosphere
5. All four “spheres” interact with each other
6. Humans interact with each “sphere”
7. Ecosystems and ecology
C. Human-environmental interaction
1. Two-way process
2. Culture
3. Cultural landscape is the result of human modifications of the natural landscape
VI. Describing Earth
A. The geographic grid
1. Latitude and longitude
2. Greenwich Mean Time and time zones
3. International Date Line
4. Global positioning systems
B. Maps
1. Two-dimensional representation of a portion of Earth’s surface
2. Show only selected information
C. Features of maps
1. Scale
a. Small-scale shows a large area with less detail
b. Large-scale shows a small area with more detail
2. Projection
a. Distortion occurs when making a flat map
b. Conformal maps distort size
c. Equal-area maps distort shape
3. Other features
D. Geographic information technology
1. Transformations of computers
2. Automated cartography
3. Remote sensing uses satellites and airplanes
a. Collects large amounts of data
b. Many uses
E. Geographic information systems
1. Store, analyze, display data including spatial information
2. Raster versus vector data
3. Acquiring digital geographic information
4. Powerful tool with many applications
VII. Critical issues for the future
A. Issues for the next century
1. Global environmental change
2. Effects of population growth
3. Disparities in wealth leading to conflict
4. Food production and distribution
B. Geography contributes important perspectives
1. Interdisciplinary
2. Global
3. Applied research
CHAPTER 2
Weather and Climate
After carefully studying this chapter, students should have an understanding of the following:
· Difference between weather and climate
· How solar radiation creates atmospheric patterns
· Earth’s rotation and orbit
· Convectional, orographic, and frontal precipitation
· Four zones of global atmospheric circulation
· Global circulation patterns in January compared to July
· Various kinds of storms and severe weather
· The use of temperature and precipitation information to classify climates
· Major climate types and their global locations
· Information shown on a climograph
· Climate change
· How humans interact with weather and climate
Chapter Outline
I. Introduction
A. Weather is the day-to-day changes
B. Climate is the long run summary of weather
II. Energy and weather
A. Solar energy
1. Makes the atmosphere and its processes function
2. Derived from thermonuclear reactions in the Sun
B. Amount of incoming solar radiation varies
1. Earth’s orbit and tilt
a. Time of day
b. Latitude
c. Season
2. Amount intercepted at a given location
a. Angle of incidence
b. Day length
c. Distance from the Sun
3. Equinoxes (March and September) and solstices (June and December)
C. Storage of heat
1. Water stores large amounts
2. Land stores small amounts
3. Land temperature changes faster than water temperature
D. Heat transfer between the atmosphere and Earth
1. Radiation
a. Radiant energy is transmitted by electromagnetic waves
b. Most incoming solar radiation is shortwave
c. Most outgoing energy is longwave
d. Most shortwave passes through the atmosphere
e. Some longwave is trapped by greenhouse gases
2. Latent heat
a. Heat stored in water and water vapor
b. Transfers large amounts of energy
E. Heat exchange and atmospheric circulation
1. Convection
a. Movement in any fluid when part of the fluid is heated
b. Warm air (and water) rises
2. Advection
a. Horizontal movement of air
b. Moves large amounts of air and latent heat
III. Precipitation
A. Variations in precipitation affect human activities
B. Condensation
1. Water from vapor to liquid
2. Relative humidity
3. Leads to precipitation
a. When the pressure of moisture exceeds the saturation vapor pressure
b. When clouds contain tiny particles (condensation nuclei)
C. Causes
1. Convection
a. Rising air leading to adiabatic cooling
b. Clouds form and condensation occurs
c. Thunderstorms with gusty winds and intense rain develop
d. Major cause of precipitation
2. Orographic precipitation
a. Mountains force air upward
b. Cooling, clouds, condensation, precipitation
c. Windward side has precipitation
d. Leeward side is rain shadow with less precipitation
3. Frontal uplift
a. Cold air mass pushes under a warm air mass
b. Warm air rises
c. Cooling, clouds, condensation, precipitation
d. Cold fronts and warm fronts
IV. Circulation patterns
A. Fundamental causes
1. Differences in atmospheric pressure
2. Coriolis effect
B. Global atmospheric circulation
1. Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)
a. Much solar radiation causes air to rise creating low pressure and rain
b. Creates the trade winds
c. Pushes warm, dry air toward the midlatitudes
2. Subtropical high-pressure zones
a. Air descends causing high pressure
b. Creates arid climate
3. Midlatitude low-pressure zones
a. Convergence of warm air and polar air
b. Causes the westerlies
4. Polar high pressure zones
a. Cold causes high pressure
b. Very little moisture
C. Seasonal variations
1. January
a. ITCZ is a few degrees south of the equator
b. Pattern of the other zones is more consistent in the Southern Hemisphere
2. July
a. ITCZ is north of the equator
b. Low pressure over Asia causing the monsoon circulation
D. Global ocean circulation
1. Winds as well as differences in seawater temperature and salinity cause currents
2. Currents form circular patterns (gyres)
a. Warm water moved toward the poles
b. Cold water moved toward the equator
E. Storms
1. Vary from huge monsoons to local thunderstorms
2. Modified by El Niño/La Niña
3. Tropical cyclone (hurricane or typhoon or cyclone)
a. Intense low pressure
b. Strong winds, much rain, and storm surges
c. Weakens over land
4. Midlatitude cyclone
a. Low pressure along polar fronts
b. Weaker than tropical cyclones
c. Sometimes leads to tornadoes
V. Climate
A. Summary of weather conditions over many years
B. Two main components
1. Temperature
a. Varies over time and space
b. Affected by elevation and topography
2. Precipitation
a. Varies over time and space
b. Transpiration and potential evapotranspiration
VI. Classifying climate
A. Uses patterns of temperature and precipitation as related to water availability for
vegetation
B. Köppen system
1. Most recognized system
2. Used distribution of vegetation to reflect temperature and precipitation
3. Uses A, B, C, D, E to identify five main types
VII. Earth’s climate regions
A. Humid low-latitude tropical climates
1. Humid tropical (Af, Am)
a. Beneath the ITCZ
b. Warm, humid, rainy
c. Little seasonal variation
d. Tropical rainforests
2. Seasonal humid tropical (Aw)
a. Has a distinct dry season
b. Often caused by shifts in the ITCZ
c. Sometimes caused by the monsoon circulation
d. Less plant growth during dry season
B. Dry climates
1. Desert (BWh, BWk)
a. Beneath subtropical high-pressure zones
b. Very dry, especially on western sides of continents, high temperatures
c. Little vegetation
2. Semiarid (BSh, BSk)
a. More rainfall
b. Between deserts and humid regions
c. Steppes or grasslands
C. Warm midlatitude climates
1. Humid subtropical (Cfa, Cw)
a. Beneath subtropical high-pressure zones, especially on eastern sides of continents
b. More seasonal variations
c. Mostly deciduous vegetation
Marine west coast (Cfb, Cfc)
a. On west coasts
b. Moderate temperatures
c. Plentiful precipitation, drizzle
d. Mostly evergreen vegetation
3. Mediterranean (Cs)
a. Dry summers
b. Cool, rainy winters
c. Vegetation has to survive dry period
D. Cold midlatitude climates
1. Humid continental (Dfa, Dwa, Dfb, Dwb)
a. Only in Northern Hemisphere
b. Warm summers
c. Cold winters
d. Deciduous and some evergreen vegetation
2. Subarctic (Dfc, Dwc, Dfd, Dwd)
a. Very cold winters
b. Modest precipitation
c. Conifers (boreal forest)
E. Polar climates
1. Tundra (ET)
a. Cold throughout the year
b. Permafrost
c. Treeless tundra vegetation
2. Ice-cap (EF)
a. Very cold, quite dry
b. No vegetation
VIII. Climate change
A. Over geologic time
1. Glacial periods during the Pleistocene Epoch
a. Shifts in climate back and forth
b. Most recent colder episode was about 18,000 years ago
2. Little Ice Age from 1500 to 1750
B. Causes
1. Astronomical and geologic hypotheses
2. Human activities
a. Changing the atmosphere
b. Removing vegetation
C. Global warming
1. Many uncertainties making predictions difficult
2. Caused by increased carbon dioxide
3. Consequences
a. Sea level rise
b. New patterns of precipitation
c. More storms
4. Controversy over how to respond to global warming
IX. Critical issues for the future
A. Understand the atmosphere more completely
B. Evaluate possible human responses to climate change
CHAPTER 3
Landforms
“Landforms” initially describes how plate tectonics has helped to shape Earth’s landforms.
Earthquakes and volcanoes are associated with different types of plate boundaries. The next
section explains the three types of rocks and how they are formed. Weathering, mass movement,
and water erosion emphasizing stream drainage are followed by explanations of
the effects of glaciation, wind, and waves. The chapter finishes with a discussion of rates of
landform change.
There is a Regional Focus box on the possibility of the Mississippi River finding a new route to
the Gulf of Mexico and a Critical Thinking box concerning people living in areas prone to
natural hazards.
After carefully studying this chapter, students should have an understanding of the following:
· Endogenic and exogenic processes
· The varied consequences of plate tectonics
· Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks
· Differences between sima and sial rocks
· How weathering and gravity create and modify landforms
· Effects of glaciation
· Processes of coastal erosion
· Rates of landform change including sudden events like earthquakes and landslides
Outlines
I. Introduction
A. Geomorphology
1. Study of landforms
2. Study of geoprocesses
a. Endogenic or internal
b. Exogenic or external
II. Plate tectonics
A. Moving crust
1. Tectonic plates
2. Move with the mantle
3. Driven by Earth’s interior heat
4. Consequences
a. Location of the continents
b. Earthquakes
c. Volcanoes
B. Boundaries between plates
1. Divergent
a. Very slow movement
b. Usually with the sea floor spreading
2. Convergent
a. Sea floor crust goes beneath lighter continental crust
b. Melted crust leads to volcanic activity
3. Transform
a. Plates are sliding past each other
b. San Andreas fault and earthquakes
4. Upward plate movements create mountains
C. Rocks
1. Igneous
2. Sedimentary
3. Metamorphic
Minerals
a. Substances that comprise rocks (metalic and non-metalic)
b. Distribution is caused by plate tectonics
c. Continental shields usually have rich deposits
d. Affect the kinds of soil
III. Slopes and streams
A. Weathering
1. Breaking rocks into pieces
2. Chemical methods
a. Acids attack rocks
b. Leaching
c. Oxidation
3. Mechanical methods
a. Temperature changes
b. Freezing water
B. Moving weathered material
1. Gravity
2. Mass movement
a. Soil creep
b. Landslides
3. Surface erosion
a. Runoff
b. Creates streams, rivers
4. Streams, drainage, and erosion
a. From groundwater
b. From overland flow
c. Drains a drainage basin
d. Discharge is the volume of water carried per unit of time
e. Erode and deposit material
f. Floodplains
g. Meanders
h. Deltas
5. Erosion in dry areas
a. Relatively rapid
b. Creates Alluvial fans
6. Human activities increase erosion
a. Removing vegetation
b. New agricultural lands
c. More intensive agriculture
d. Urban development
IV. Ice, wind, and waves
A. In some places, other forces are more
powerful than running water
B. Glaciers
1. Layers of moving ice
2. Types
a. Alpine
b. Continental
3. Grinds and scrapes
4. Deposits
5. Melting
a. Moraines
b. Outwash plains
C. Past glaciations
1. Variations in temperatures cause more or less glaciation
2. Much glaciation 20,000 years ago
3. Many effects on today’s’ topography
4. Effects on human activities in North America
a. Soils
b. Water supply
c. Transportation routes
D. Wind
1. Most important in dry areas
2. Stronger when vegetation is lacking
3. Features
a. Sand dunes
b. Desert pavement
c. Loess
E. Coastal erosion
1. Waves
a. Powerful force
b. Caused by winds
c. Can travel long distances
2. Longshore current
a. Caused by wave action
b. Carries sediment
3. Features
a. Beaches
b. Spits
c. Barrier islands
4. Sea-level changes
a. Tides
b. Storms
c. Climate change
d. Crust movement
5. Human activities
a. Many humans, much development along coasts
b. Efforts to protect human development
V. Dynamic Earth
A. Rates of landform change
1. Usually very slow
2. Faster when processes are strong and materials are weak
3. Eventually affects human activity
B. Environmental hazards
1. Common over geologic time
2. Uncommon over human time frames
3. Damage
a. Humans deciding that risk is worth it
b. Often made worse by protective measures
4. Humans adapt to the environment
5. Humans modify the environment
VI. Critical issues for the future
A. People need to live with landforms, not
try to change them
B. There are many hazards that people
should try to avoid
CHAPTER 5
Population, Population Increase, and Migration
“Population, Population Increase, and Migration” starts by describing the distribution and
density of human settlement across the world. Environmental conditions are the principal
determinants. Population growth is examined by explaining numerous demographic variables
and concepts including the demographic transition. The next section examines new
developments that affect population growth, such as better contraceptives or new diseases. The
question of Earth being overpopulated is investigated. Then sex ratios and aging populations are
discussed. The final portion of the chapter focuses on migration, including push and pull factors,
refugees, illegal immigrants, major migrations of the past, current migration flows, and
controversies surrounding migration.
The chapter has two Focus boxes explaining national censuses and U.S. Census Bureau methods
of categorizing ethnic backgrounds along with a Critical Thinking box on retirement
uncertainties, the uneven spread of diseases during European colonization, and immigration
being a substitute for education.
After carefully studying this chapter, students should have an understanding of the following:
· The uneven distribution of human population
· Arithmetic density versus physiological density
· How demographic variables like crude birth rate and dependency ratio describe and
explain population patterns
· Why fertility is declining in many parts of the world
· Demographic and epidemiological transitions
· Characteristics of HIV/AIDS
· How sex ratios and average age of populations are changing
· Migration terms
· Patterns of migration from Europe
· Movement of slaves out from Africa
· Characteristics of refugees
· Migration to the United States and Canada
Outlines
I. Introduction
a. Uneven global distribution of population
1. Differences in births and deaths
2. Variations in emigration and immigration
b. Demography
II. Global population patterns
a. Statistics
1. Six billion total
2. Major concentrations
1. East Asia with about 1.6 billion
2. South Asia with about 1.3 billion
3. Europe with almost 1.0 billion
3. 90 percent of the people about 20 percent of the land
4. More than half of the Earth’s has less than 1 person per square kilometer
b. Population density
1. Measures
1. Arithmetic density
2. Physiological density
3. Carrying density
2. Determinants
1. Temperature
2. Precipitation
3. Topography
4. Soils
5. History
6. Politics
3. Location of high densities
1. Moderate climate
2. Koppen’s C climates
3. Intensive rice cultivation
4. Flat topography
5. Fertile soils
6. Stable history
III. World population growth
a. Statistics
1. Population in 1930 was two billion
2. 78 million added each year
3. Growth is slowing
1. Average growth 1965 and 1970 was 2.06 percent
2. Between 1995 and 2000 it was 1.31 percent
b. Basic demographic concepts
1. Crude birth rate
2. Crude death rate
3. Natural increase or decrease
4. Total fertility rate
5. Replacement rate
c. Population projections
1. Prediction based on trends and assumptions, but not difficult to do
2. One United Nation’s prediction says a stable population of 10 billion in
2020
d. Population growth varies
1. Poor countries are faster than rich countries
2. Doubling time
e. Population pyramids
1. Age and gender
2. Young at the bottom, elderly on the top; females on one side, males on
the other
3. Indications
1. Future population growth
2. Dependency ratio
f. Demographic transition
1. Historical pattern of growth
2. Infant mortality rate
3. Stage one
1. High birth rate and death rates
2. Little population growth
4. Stage two
1. Death rates decline because of higher incomes and better medical
care
2. Birth rates stay high because of a lagging desire to have children
(as workers, care-givers)
3. Growth is high
5. Stage three
1. Low birth and death rates
2. Birth rates decline because of urbanization, industrialization
3. Low growth
6. Suggests economic development as a means of slowing population
growth
g. Is the demographic transition still relevant
1. Fertility is decreasing faster than expected
2. Decreases found in countries that are not experiencing economic
development
3. New reasons for decreased fertility
1. Family planning programs
2. Modern contraceptive technology
3. Mass media
4. Factors against population control
1. Costs of contraceptives, etc.
2. Religion
3. Low status of women
4. Preference for male children
5. Lack of education
5. Selected birth control programs
1. China’s is successful, restrictive, controversial
2. India’s is fairly successful, relies on advertising and sterilization
3. Iran’s is fairly successful and represents a change in policy
4. Mexico’s family planning clinics have reduced fertility
5. Brazil has urbanization and women working outside the home
h. Increases in death rates
1. Epidemiology is the study of the incidence, distribution, and control of
diseases
2. Wars and natural disasters
3. Russia because of chaos associated with many changes
4. Increase of known diseases
5. More smoking
i. Is Earth overpopulated
1. Some say yes; others say no
2. Malthus and Malthusian theory
1. Population will grow faster than food
2. Positive checks
3. Preventative checks
4. Pessimistic view
5. Incorrect so far, but the future is not known
IV. Other demographic patterns
a. Sex rations
1. More males than females born naturally
2. Vary widely from area to area
3. Reasons for variation
1. Preference for male children
2. Use of medical methods to determine the sex of the fetus before
birth
3. Abortion of unborn females; female infanticide
4. Government policy
5. Women tend to live longer
6. Wealth
7. Medical care
8. Status of women
b. Aging
1. Earth’s population is becoming older for the first time in history
2. Changes to society
3. Programs to care for the elderly are needed
V. Migration
a. Basic ideas
1. A common human action
2. Causes
1. Push factors
2. Pull factors
3. Voluntary
1. Migration chain
2. Sojourners
4. Involuntary or forced
1. Slavery
2. Refugees and internally displaced persons
5. Illegal
6. Indigenous peoples (natives) are often harmed
b. Prehistoric migrations
1. Humans are all one species
2. Humans eventually migrated globally
c. Migrations since 1500
1. Europeans to the Americas
1. Massive numbers came and settled
2. Much death and poor treatment among native populations
3. Uneven assimilation of natives today
2. African Diaspora
1. Voluntary and involuntary
2. Slaves to the Islamic world and the Americas
3. Blacks are significant population group in many countries
4. Black American culture important in Africa today
3. Europeans to Asia and Oceania
1. Relatively few settled in Oriental Asia
2. Russian overland expansion
3. British migration to Australia and New Zealand
4. Europeans to Africa
1. Went to places with favorable and familiar conditions
2. South Africa and apartheid
5. Migrations from India
1. Many destinations and new homes
2. Often very successful, sometimes persecuted
6. Overseas Chinese
1. Similar to Indian migration
2. Many destinations, economically successful, face hostility
VI. Migration today
a. Large numbers of international migrations
b. Economic and political push and pull forces remain strong
c. Countries want to keep their people
d. Refugees
1. Fear persecution
2. Hard to distinguish from those wanting better economic opportunities
e. Consequences of international migration
1. Immigrants often not welcomed
1. Too many of them
2. Possess cultural differences
3. Take jobs
2. Migrants are increasingly exploited
3. Push and pull forces are likely to grow in the future
f. Migration to Europe
1. Large numbers
2. Problems lead to restrictions including making citizenship harder to
obtain
g. Migrations of Asians
1. Loss of educated, skilled people
2. Send money (remittances) to home country
3. Japan’s very restrictive immigration may change as need for workers
grows
h. Migrations to the United States and Canada
1. Remain important destinations
2. More from Asia and Latin America
3. Rapid increase in Hispanic population
4. Current issues
1. Economic impacts of immigrants
2. Will an American culture survive
3. Melting pot idea versus multiculturalism
VII. Critical issues for the future
a. Poor countries lose talented, educated scientists and others
b. United States and other advanced countries gain substantially from foreign born
students
CHAPTER 6
Cultural Geography
“Cultural Geography” introduces the distinction between cultural evolution and cultural diffusion
and then discusses the grouping of people by culture, race, ethnicity, and personal identity.
Behavioral geography is explained. Culture realms or regions, along with all the problems in
defining such areas, are explained next. Conditions that change and maintain cultural realms are
outlined. Discussion of how diffusion and trade affect culture is followed by examples from the
global diffusion of European culture. The chapter continues by explaining cultural imperialism
and westernization. America’s role in dominating the contemporary world finishes the chapter.
The isolated and distinctive village of Lahic (Azerbaijan) is a Regional Focus box. The diffusion
of religious folk songs in the United States, the idea that children all over the world are becoming
more alike, and the renewed interest in American Regions are additional Focus topics. The three
Critical Thinking boxes question how Latin America got its name, if cultures can be preserved,
and how governments control the news by controlling the media.
After carefully studying this chapter, students should have an understanding of the following:
· Theories of cultural evolution
· Differences between folk and popular culture
· Methods and consequences of cultural diffusion
· How culture realms or regions are defined
· How inertia stabilizes culture realms and trade changes culture realms
· Effects of new communication technology
· Diffusion of European culture throughout the world
· Commercial, Industrial, and Agricultural Revolutions of Europe
· The global impact of European culture
· Why some foreign people dislike the United States
Outline
VIII. Introduction
a. Cultural evolution or evolutionism
1. Cultures evolve from within
2. Varro’s stages of cultural evolution
1. Hunter-gatherers
2. Pastoral nomadism
3. Settled agriculture
4. Urbanization and industry
3. Historical materialism
1. Technology advances allowing greater control over the
environment
2. Technology is the important part of cultural evolution
3. Opposes environmental determinism
4. Cornucopian, not Malthusian
b. Cultural diffusion or diffusionism
1. Cultures evolve through contact with other cultures
1. Acculturation
2. Powerful force
3. Copy, modify, use an idea
2. Reasons why diffusionism is very strong today
1. Improved transportation and communication
2. More trade of goods and ideas
3. Some ideas develop independently at two or more places
4. Folk culture
1. Preserves traditions
2. Relatively isolated
3. Less affected by diffusion
4. Amish
5. Popular culture
1. Welcomes new innovations
2. Mass appeal and mass consumption
3. Much diffusion
c. Grouping humans together
1. Identifying or labeling people
1. Important and significant to understanding
2. Often used by the media and others
3. Difficult to be accurate
2. Culture groups and subculture groups
1. Based one or many cultural attributes
2. Culturally similar people may not see themselves as being grouped
together
3. Culturally different people may see themselves as being grouped
together
3. Races
1. Biological concept
2. Based on skin color, shape of eyes, blood types, and other
characteristics
3. Racism
4. Ethnic groups
1. Biological and cultural concept
2. Negative connotation
3. Ethnocentrism
4. There is not necessarily any “right” or “wrong” cultural
characteristics
5. Personal Identity
1. Religion, region, language, gender, economic status, etc.
2. Determined by the individual
3. Modified by the group and society
IX. Cultural realms
a. Area throughout which a culture is found
b. Large, global
c. Definition problems
1. Lack of agreement
2. Criteria
1. Vary according to purpose
2. Should be meaningful
3. Accurate, consistent mapping
4. Important because people are labeled by their cultural realm
d. Visual characteristics
1. Posed signs
2. Clothing
3. Goods in stores
4. Building materials
5. Architecture
1. Climate
2. Preferred styles
6. Status and monuments
7. Rural settlement patterns
1. Clustered in villages
2. Scattered individual farmsteads
e. Forces that stabilize patterns
1. Inertia
2. Infrastructure
1. Fixed assets
2. Transportation, utilities, housing, schools, etc.
3. Hard to move
3. Historical geography
4. Historical consciousness
1. Preserve the past
f. Trade
1. Important force for diffusion
1. Exports of one culture are imports of another
2. People interact and make choices
2. Reduces self-sufficiency
3. Increases economic possibilities
1. Draw on the larger world and its resources
2. Specialize on your best products
3. Higher standard of living
4. Part of economic geography
g. Trends
1. More trade, more diffusion
2. Nearly all parts of the world affected
3. Little isolation remains
4. More multinational corporations
5. Popular culture overwhelming folk cultures
6. Friction of distance is less
7. Activities are footloose
8. Communication advances
1. Electronic highway
2. Cyberspace
3. The Internet
9. Huntington’s “civilizations”
h. Patterns change continuously
X. Global diffusion of European culture
a. Widespread
b. Massive impact
c. Progress or unwanted acculturation
d. Europe’s explorations, discoveries, and conquests
1. Early civilizations were relatively isolated from each other
2. Europe’s voyages connected the world
3. Led to Commercial Revolution
1. Much increased trade
2. Improved ships and navigation
4. Europe as a clearing house
1. Ideas and products
2. Borrowed from other cultures
3. Diffused ideas and things form culture to culture
4. Redistributed ideas and people
e. Economic growth and power
1. Industrial Revolution
1. 1750 to 1850
2. Inanimate power
3. New machines
4. Pushed Europe ahead of the rest of the world
2. Agricultural Revolution
1. More food production
2. Released labor to the industrial cities
3. Commercial activities
1. European contacts led to demand for foreign goods
2. Plantations
3. New port cities
4. Better transportation
4. Conquests
1. To protect trade and investments
2. Almost every country was conquered
3. Legacy lingers in many places
f. Cultural imperialism
1. Substitution of one set of cultural traditions for another
2. Reasons
1. Christianity
2. European ways are superior
3. Methods
1. By force
2. Training and schooling of local elites
3. Reference group behavior
4. By degrading the weaker culture
4. Many aspects were evaluated through European eyes
5. Self-westernization
1. European ways were the reference point for the entire world
2. Non-Western leaders follow European ways
3. Turkey, China, Japan too (non-colonies)
6. After independence
1. Still based on European ways
2. Internal colonialism
g. Westernization today
1. Diffusion continues
1. Wealthy all over the world buy Western products
2. Young all over the world adopt Western styles
3. Media and television quicken the process
2. Tourism
3. Non-Western educated professionals
1. Educated in Europe and the United States
2. Live all over the world
4. Flows of capital
5. United States’ dominance
1. Very strong
2. American economic and military power
3. Center of information
4. American freedoms are admired
5. Borrowing ideas from the rest of the world
6. Backlash
XI. Critical issues for the future
a. Preservation of non-Western cultures
b. Weakness of Western culture
c. New cultural combinations
CHAPTER 8
The Human Food Supply
“The Human Food Supply” begins by explaining how the food supply has been able to increase
faster than population over the last 200 years. Additional cropland in the New World and the
Green Revolution are two reasons. The next section presents information on the various types
of subsistence and commercial agriculture (crops and livestock) used in today’s world. The
question of how much food production can continue to be increased and the problem of the
world distribution of food supplies follows. New technologies to increase food supplies are
emphasized. The chapter ends with a discussion of the contribution of fishing to the food supply.
Von Thünen’s model, the demise of the banana, and U.S. legislation to reduce farm subsidies are
the subjects of the Focus boxes in this chapter. Quinoa, a South American crop, is the topic for
Critical Thinking.
After carefully studying this chapter, students should have an understanding of the following:
· Factors associated with increasing past food supplies
· Green Revolution
· Various types of subsistence and commercial agriculture
· Production of livestock and their products
· The potential of new crops and technology to increase food production
· Pros and cons of genetically modified crops
· Problems to overcome
· Land ownership and land distribution issues
· Characteristics of traditional and modern fishing
Outline
I. Introduction
A. Scientific knowledge may add greatly to food supplies
B. Geographic variations in availability
C. Economics and politics are important
II. Food supplies over the last 200 years
A. Malthus was wrong
B. Reasons for increased supplies
1. Added croplands
a. North and South America, Australia, South Africa
b. New irrigation projects
2. Introduction of new crops to new areas
a. Potato
b. Maize
3. Transportation improvements
a. Refrigerated vehicles
b. Larger, faster equipment
c. Allows movement to hungry areas
d. Allows areas to be more productive because they can specialize
4. Better Storage
5. Green Revolution
a. Better varieties
b. Higher yields
6. Scientific revolution in agriculture continues
a. New fertilizers, pesticides
b. Genetic engineering
c. New farm machinery
III. Agriculture today
A. The success of agriculture varies geographically
B. Hunting and gathering to subsistence agriculture to commercial agriculture
C. Subsistence agriculture
1. Food for oneself and family
2. Few farmers who are entirely subsistence
3. Characteristics
a. Much labor
b. Low technology
c. Little machinery
D. Commercial agriculture
1. Food for sale
2. Most subsistence farmers sell or trade at least a little of their production
3. Characteristics
a. Little labor
b. Much capital investment in machinery, fertilizers, etc.
c. Larger and larger farms
d. Products sold to large food-processing companies
E. Types of agricultural systems
1. Cereals and potatoes are often staple crops
2. Bases of definition and differentiation
a. Characteristics of the natural environment
b. Most productive crops
c. Technology being used
d. How market oriented
e. How much crops are used as feed for animals
3. Types
a. Nomadic herding
b. Low-technology subsistence farming
c. Intensive rice farming
d. Asian mixed cereals and pulses
e. Mixed farming with livestock
f. Prairie cereal farming
g. Ranching
h. Mediterranean agriculture
i. Plantation farming
F. Determinants of agricultural productivity
1. Natural environment
2. Capital investment
IV. Livestock
A. Domesticated along with plants
B. About 20 billion
C. Uses
1. High quality protein in meats and dairy products
2. Hides, wool, and other materials
3. Draft animals to pull plows, etc.
D. Consumption of grains
1. Indirect
a. 37 percent of all grains fed to livestock
b. Economic development leads to more meat consumption
c. More people could be fed if less was fed to livestock
d. Chickens are the most efficient
e. Some religions restrict the consumption of meat
2. Direct by humans
E. Problems in animal production
1. Pollution from feedlots
2. Desertification
3. Deforestation
4. Greenhouse gases produced
5. Overgrazing
F. Dairy farming and value added
1. Mostly in developed regions
2. Perishable, so expensive to transport
3. Value added by manufacturing
a. Cheese-making is an example
b. Wealth is built by adding value
V. Von Thunen model
A. Land use around an isolated city
B. Isotropic plain
C. Transport costs most important factor
D. Circular pattern results
1. Crops with higher transport costs close to the city
2. Grazing in outermost zone
VI. Future food supplies
A. Food supplies can probably continue to keep pace with population growth
B. Reasons
1. Many advanced methods are not yet widely diffused
2. Current conditions and technology can still be improved
a. More and better irrigation
b. Better transportation and storage
3. New crops
a. Most food is from about 20 plants
b. Thousands of other species might be used
c. Halophytes (saltwater crops)
d. Green Revolution applied to other crops
e. Use of many varieties offers protection from disease
f. Cultures have to be willing to eat new foods
4. New technologies
a. Biotechnology
b. Recombinant DNA (gene splicing)
c. Genetically modified
d. Cloning
5. Resistance to new technologies
a. Fears that genetics is tampering too much with nature
b. Creates new problems
c. Trade issues
d. Religious concerns
C. Uneven availability of improvements and new crops and technologies
VII. Distribution and production of food
A. Amount of calories and nutrients needed varies
B. Nearly all countries import and export at least some food
C. Food is often poorly distributed
1. Hunger results
2. Causes
a. Civil war and conflict
b. Political instability
c. Poverty
D. Problems in increasing food production
1. Diminishing returns for fertilizers
2. Lack of financial incentives
a. Heavy taxed discourage farming
b. Government controlled process for food are low
3. Land ownership
a. Farmers do not own their own land so there is little reason to
improve it
b. Land ownership is concentrated in the hands of a few elites
c. The wealthy elites do not farm as productively as possible
d. Collective farming is Communist areas
e. Communal ownership reduces incentive
f. Obtaining leans is hindered by the ejido system in Mexico
g. Privatization can help a lot
4. Civil wars
5. Commercial crops in poor countries
a. Farmers grow cash crops for sale instead of food crops
b. Usually, farmers are eventually better off
c. Infrastructure is needed
d. Illegal drugs are the world’s most successful cash crops
E. Agriculture policies in rich countries
1. Tariffs on imports
2. Subsidies to farmers
3. Reasons
a. Protect domestic farming
b. Increase national security
c. Preserve traditional agricultural communities
d. Farmers have political clout
e. Urban consumers do not protest
4. Consequences
a. Low process in world markets
b. Farmers in poor countries cannot compete
c. Distort the patterns of agricultural production and trade
5. Calls to reduce tariffs and subsidies
VIII. Fishing
A. Important source of protein
B. Traditional fishing
1. Supports about 40 million people
2. Little capital and technology
3. Hard and dangerous
4. Being replaced by modern fishing
C. Modern fishing
1. Commercial activity
2. Demand
a. Increasing
b. Direct consumption, but also fishmeal and oils
3. A few countries fleets catch most of the fish
4. Problems
a. Over fishing
b. Every important species threatened
c. Pollution
5. International agreements
a. Attempts to control fishing, but many arguments
b. Exclusive economic zones of coastal countries
6. Aquaculture
a. Domestication of fish
b. Promising
IX. Critical issues for the future
A. New agricultural technology has great potential
B. Technology not affordable for many poor countries
CHAPTER 9
Earth’s Resources and Environmental Protection
“Earth’s Resources and Environmental Protection” begins by defining a natural resource and
outlining the characteristics of resources. Mineral and energy resources including properties, use,
locations, consumption, depletion, substitution, disposal, and recycling are then explained. A
section on fossil fuels, nuclear power, and renewable energy follows. Issues related to air and
water resources like acid deposition and biological oxygen demand are presented next. After
discussing pollution prevention, forest resources and their management conclude the chapter.
The one Focus box examines how meat production (feedlots) affects water quality, and the one
Critical Thinking box considers the popularity of energy conservation in the United States.
After carefully studying this chapter, students should have an understanding of the following:
· How cultural values, technological level, and economic system define what a resource is
· Substitutability
· Renewable and nonrenewable resources
· Patterns of mineral use
· Options in the disposal and recycling of solid waste
· Advantages of the different kinds of energy resources
· Pollution of the air and water
· How air and water pollution can be reduced
· The uses and importance of forests
Outline
I. Resources
A. Anything from nature that people need or want
B. Specific elements from the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere
C. Determinants
1. Cultural values
a. What people choose to use and value
b. Wood, mud, or brick buildings
c. Swamps are now wetlands
2. Technological level
a. Have to be able to use something
b. Potential resources are not resources now because technology is
lacking
c. Need and desire drive the development of technology
3. Economics
a. Supply and demand
b. Some resources are currently economically not feasible to use
c. Externalities from pollution
D. Substitutability
1. For many needs and desires there are several resources that could be
used
2. Sometimes there are no substitutes
E. Nonrenewable resources
F. Renewable resources
II. Minerals and energy
A. Introductory ideas
1. Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age
2. Minerals and energy are essential to modern industrial societies
3. Valuable properties
a. Strength
b. Malleability
c. Weight
d. Chemical properties
e. Power, force
f. Supply heat
g. Beauty
4. A given mineral’s importance changes over time and place
a. Demand changes
b. Technology changes
c. Economic conditions change
5. 92 naturally occurring elements, plus thousands of combinations
B. Variations in mineral use
1. Changes in demand and prices
2. Uneven distribution of deposits
3. Cartels
C. Effects o high process
1. Demand falls
2. Complete depletion does not occur
3. Substitutes are encouraged
4. New deposits are brought into production
5. Recycling is more feasible
D. Solid waste
1. People in rich countries throw away a lot
2. Sanitary landfills
a. Daily layer of soil
b. Difficult to find sites for new ones
c. Environmental dangers
3. Incineration
a. Reduces the bulk of the waste
b. Creates energy
c. Release of toxic substances
4. Recycling
a. Reduces pollution and resource depletion
b. Expensive
c. Lack of market
E. Energy resources
1. Renewable energy forms are not used so much
2. Much use of fossil fuels
F. Fossil fuels
1. Nonrenewable
2. Formed in swampy conditions over geologic time
3. Represent stored sunlight
4. Distribution
a. Uneven
b. China and the United States lead in coal
c. The Middle East, Venezuela and Mexico have much oil
d. Russia has large amounts of natural gas
5. Use is much higher in rich countries
a. Domestic production is falling
b. Substantial imports are needed
6. Oil prices
a. Historically were low
b. OPEC drove process upward
c. High prices were harder on poor countries
d. Prices are rising now
7. Future for fossil fuels
a. Rates of depletion
b. Finding new reserves
c. Unconventional sources like oil shale
d. Coal and natural gas substitution for oil
e. Coal is especially environmentally damaging
G. Nuclear power
1. Fission or fusion
2. Small amount yields much energy
3. Problems
a. Possible accidents
b. Disposal of radioactive waste
c. Public opposition
d. Expensive
H. Renewable energy resources
1. Biomass
a. Burned
b. Fuel for vehicles
2. Hydroelectric power
a. Important, clean source of electricity
b. Land use impacts
3. Solar
a. Has the most long run potential
b. Collection of heat for buildings, etc.
c. Photovoltaic cells
I. Transition from fossil fuels
1. New options emerging
2. Fossil fuels are more versatile
3. Market driven
4. Shortages of electricity
III. Air and water resources
A. Pollution
1. Impurities in the environment
2. Caused by humans
B. Air pollution
1. Caron monoxide
2. Sulfur oxides
3. Nitrogen oxides
4. Hydrocarbons
5. Particulates
6. Acid deposition
a. Sulfur and nitrogen oxides become acids in the atmosphere
b. Damage to lakes, fish, and plants
c. Associated with industrial regions
d.
7. Urban air
a. Concentrated mixture of pollutants
b. Photochemical smog
c. Weather factors
8. Improvements in rich countries
9. Worsening conditions in developing countries
C. Water pollution
1. Water is crucial
2. Sources
a. Point
b. Nonpoint
3. Concentration and dilution
4. Oxygen in water
a. Crucial to aquatic plants and animals
b. Biochemical oxygen demand
5. Drinking water
a. Untreated wastewater is a problem
b. Contamination causes many diseases
6. Toxic substances
a. Very harmful
b. Love Canal
c. Expensive to clean up
D. Reducing air and water pollution
1. Pollution control
a. Common approach
b. Removal of pollution before it reaches the environment
2. Pollution prevention
a. Becoming more common
b. Not producing as much pollution in the first place
IV. Forests
A. Uses
1. Valuable resources
a. Wood and pulp
b. Sustained yield
c. Cutting causes environmental damage
2. Ecology
a. Habitat for other organisms
b. Erosion prevention
c. Biodiversity
d. Carbon storage
3. Recreation
a. Place for hiking, camping, and solitude
b. Relief from urban life
B. Management
1. Conflict over multiple uses
2. Governmental involvement
3. Marketplace forces
V. Critical issues for the future
A. Increasing depletion
B. More environmental damage
C. Greatest concerns in the developing countries
CHAPTER 10
Cities and Urbanization
“Cities and Urbanization” opens with an explanation of cities, urbanization, and urban
geography. Then it continues with urban functions like cities being centers of knowledge and
production. The primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors are explained as is economic base and
central place theory. The next portion outlines the history of world urbanization emphasizing
reasons for the growth of cities.
This long chapter continues by describing models of the internal geography of cities, climatic
effects of cities, and the role of government. Urban and regional planning is discussed. After
examining urban forms found outside of North America, several mostly American urban patterns
and issues such as suburbanization, central city decline, new urbanism, urbanization of African
Americans, and urban government are presented.
Public versus private property rights is the subject of the Critical Thinking box.
After carefully studying this chapter, students should have an understanding of the following:
· The three topics of urban geography
· Urban functions
· Reasons why people concentrate in cities
· How cities are centers of economic activity
· Central place theory
· Reasons for early urbanization compared to reasons for modern urbanization
· Concentric zone, sector, multiple-nuclei, and peripheral models of urban development
· Latin American, Southeast Asian, and Islamic models of urban growth
· Suburbanization in the United States
· Characteristics of service economies
· Efforts to improve central cities in the United States
Outline
I. Cities and urban geography
A. Introductory concepts
1. City
a. Concentration of people and activities
b. Provides a variety of services
2. Hinterland
3. Primate city
4. Urbanization
a. People clustering in cities
b. Nearly half of the world’s population
lives in urban areas
B. Urban geography
1. Study of functions and roles
2. Study of urbanization
a. At different times
b. In different places
3. Study of internal patterns
II. Urban functions
A. Early functions
1. Centers of worship
2. Home for women and children
3. Centers of government
4. Protection
5. Agglomeration
a. Advantages to clustering
b. Causes division of labor
B. Economic sectors
1. Primary
2. Secondary
3. Tertiary
C. Economic sectors
1. Basic sector
2. Nonbasic sector
3. Multiplier effect
III. Location of cities
A. Site
1. Characteristics of the location
2. Becoming less important
B. Situation
1. Relative location
a. Other cities
b. Transportation routes
c. Break-of-bulk points
2. Causes large city even though site may be poor
a. Asian coastal cities
b. Mexico City
C. Central place theory
1. Isotropic plain
2. Market towns surrounded by hinterlands
3. Hexagons
a. Hinterlands
b. Fill in the entire area
c. Distances for customers are minimized
4. Hierarchies
a. Different sized of places
b. Different sized of hinterlands
c. Fewer large places and hinterlands
d. More small places and hinterlands
e. Nested pattern of hexagons
5. Disruptions of the pattern
IV. World urbanization
A. Early urbanization in Europe
1. Reasons in Britain
a. Improvements in agriculture released
workers
b. Labor-intensive industries in cities
c. Tertiary activities in cities
d. Many hardships
2. British experience repeated around the world
3. Migration to colonies relieved some of the problems
B. Contemporary urbanization
1. Rapid
2. Problems
a. Not enough jobs
b. Infrastructure overwhelmed
c. Poor living conditions
d. Cultural tensions
3. Concentrations of low cost labor
C. Government policies to reduce rural to
urban migration
1. Forcibly restrict
2. Bull-doze squatters’ settlements
3. Make cities less desirable
a. Limit housing
b. Limit jobs, new business
4. Send people back
5. Improve rural areas
a. Agriculture
b. Education
c. Other infrastructure
D. Vitality of cities
1. Positive aspects of urbanization
2. Powerful force
a. Many entrepreneurs
b. Informal or underground economy
V. Internal patterns
A. Basic models and patterns
1. Concentric zone
2. Sector
3. Multiple-nuclei
4. Peripheral
5. Social factors
a. Congregation
b. Segregation
6. Environmental concerns
a. Lack of natural vegetation
b. Air pollution
c. Urban heat islands
d. Rapid runoff
7. Government
a. Effects on land use
b. Zoning
B. Planning
1. The ideal city
a. Howard and garden cities
b. Le Corbusier and skyscrapers surrounded by open space
c. More humane environments
2. Latin America
a. Commercial spine extending outward
b. High income in the central city
c. Poor on the outskirts
3. Western forms superimposed on traditional forms
4. Islamic
a. Importance of religion and the central
mosque
b. Housed face inward toward courtyards
c. Winding streets
d. Quarters
VI. American cities and suburbs
A. Suburbanization
1. Important feature of American urban areas
2. Reasons
a. Dirty and noisy industries
b. New immigrants were different
c. Lure of the countryside
d. Transportation advances
e. Federal Housing Administration
programs
f. Veterans Administration housing
programs
g. Income tax advantages with home ownership
3. Consequences
a. Many suburbs
b. Much home ownership
c. Sprawl
d. High infrastructure cost
e. High energy costs
f. Leapfrogging
g. Loss of farmland
h. Social homogeneity and marketing
i. Restrictive covenants
j. Jobs created
k. Exurbs and edge cities
l. New commuting patterns
m. Rush hour traffic
n. Air pollution
o. Health concerns
4. Census Bureau terms
a. Metropolitan statistical area
b. Consolidated metropolitan statistical area
B. New patterns
1. New urbanism
a. Less use of automobiles
b. Create small town life
2. Suburbanization continues
3. Shopping from home
a. Growing
b. Damages traditional retailing
4. Virtual shopping
5. Telecommuting
a. Twelve million the United States
b. Flexible
c. Saves energy, reduce congestion, etc.
C. Central cities
1. Conditions
a. Less of economic activity
b. Population decline
c. Loss of many entry-level jobs
d. Influx of additional unskilled migrants
e. Worsening housing and neighborhoods
f. Some increases in white-collar jobs
g. Gentrification
h. Immigrants have helped
i. Service jobs are low paying
j. African American successes and problems
2. Explanations
a. Spatial mismatch hypothesis
b. Network hypothesis
3. Efforts to redistribute jobs and housing
a. Urban enterprise zones
b. Move poor to the suburbs
c. Transportation to suburban jobs
D. Governing urban areas
1. Annexation issues
2. Special purposes
a. Very numerous
b. Confusing to citizens
3. Metropolitan area governments
VII. Critical issues for the future
A. Continued rapid urbanization
B. Numerous urban problems
C. Creating healthy and sustainable urban
environments
CHAPTER 12
National Paths to Economic Growth
“National Paths to Economic Growth” emphasizes the many difficulties in comparing the wealth,
level of economic development, quality of life, and well-being of the countries of the world. For
example, gross domestic product does not yield the same results as the human development
index. The chapter continues by explaining why some countries are richer than others. A long
section covering industrial patterns, industrial location factors, and technological change follows.
Next is a discussion of policies that affect the economic system (like laissez-faire capitalism and
privatization). Then transportation and communication infrastructures are explained. Lastly,
national trade policies and the formation of the global economy, including the role of
multinational corporations, are examined.
How Norway uses its oil resources and South Korea’s changing political economy are the two
Regional Focuses. Other Focus boxes describe competition between Thailand and Philippines to
win a General Motors assembly plant and the impact of high-tech foreign investment in Costa
Rica.
After carefully studying this chapter, students should have an understanding of the following:
· Making comparisons of the economic development of countries
· Gross domestic product, gross national product, and the human development index
· Preindustrial, industrial, and postindustrial societies
· Reasons for variations in wealth
· Location determinants for manufacturing
· How new technology affects the location of manufacturing
· The influence of government on economic activity
· Transportation issues and impacts
· National trade policies
· Globalization
· How foreign direct investment affects the formation of the global economy
Outline
I. Analyzing and comparing national economies
A. Labels
1. Rich and poor
2. Developed and underdeveloped of developing
3. First World and Third World
4. Others
B. Measures of output and standard of living
1. Gross domestic product
a. Total value of all goods and services produced
b. Preferred statistic
2. Gross national product
a. GDP and flows of investment income
b. Can be larger or smaller that GDP
3. Problems
a. Amounts are underestimated when households are more self
sufficient
b. Overstates the importance of modern areas
c. Illegal activities are missed
d. Exchange rates vary
e. Environmental damage not included
f. Leads to green imperialism
g. Does not cover non-economic aspects of life
4. Improvements
a. Purchasing power parity
b. Gross sustainable product
5. Human development index
a. Per capita purchasing power GDP
b. Life expectancy
c. Adult literacy rate
C. Sectoral evolution
1. Preindustrial societies
2. Industrial societies
3. Postindustrial societies
4. New economy
a. Software and hardware
b. Internet
5. Contributions to GDP
D. Reasons for differences in wealth
1. Good resource endowment
a. Helpful
b. Not essential
2. Adding value to raw materials
a. Key factor
b. Manufacturing adds value
c. Services add value
d. Just selling raw materials does not build much wealth
3. Economic development
a. A process
b. More and more value added
c. Diversification
4. Culture and poverty
E. The Third World
1. First World
2. Second World
a. Communist countries
b. Seldom used today
3. Poor label
4. Originally, countries that did not align with either side during the Cold
War
5. Connotations
a. Underdeveloped
b. Overpopulated
c. Irrational
d. Chaotic
e. Inferior
6. Masks many variations
II. Industrial location
A. Countries want industry
B. Weber’s ideas
1. Transportation costs
a. Material-oriented manufacturing
b. Market-oriented manufacturing
2. Labor force
3. Still relevant
C. Additional location factors
1. Transportation is relatively less expensive
2. Factors
a. Capital availability
b. Technology
c. Government regulations
d. Political stability
e. Inertia
D. Poor countries
1. Problems
a. Small markets
b. Competing with rich countries
c. Political instability
d. Lack of capital
e. Low levels of education
2. Advantages
a. Raw materials
b. Cheap labor
c. Friendly government regulations
E. Changes in location factors
1. Factors change their patterns
2. Manufacturing changes in response
F. Japan
1. Lack of natural resources
2. Much value adding
a. Hard-working, cooperative people
b. Helpful government
G. Technology and Manufacturing
1. Technology becoming more important
2. Makes industry mort footloose
III. National economic policies
A. Political economy
1. Government system
a. Government owns the natural resources
b. Government owns the production units
c. For the workers
2. Capitalist system
a. Private enterprise
b. Stock market
c. Profit maximization
d. Laissez-faire capitalism
e. State-directed capitalism
f. Crony capitalism
3. Most countries have mixed economies
4. Other government roles under capitalism
a. Provide infrastructure
b. Secure property rights
c. Manage national budget and spending
5. Privatization is growing around the world
6. Problems
a. Spending on immediate needs
b. Corruption
B. Variations in wealth within states
1. Attempt to have equality throughout the country
a. Single market for raw materials, good, labor
b. Mobility of the population
2. Frontier areas
a. Underdeveloped regions
b. Parts of the Amazon Basin, Siberia, and China
3. Inequality
a. Centrifugal force
b. Secessionist ideas
4. Programs to help lagging region
a. Subsidies to business
b. Loans
c. Tax breaks
d. Location of government facilities
e. Construction of infrastructure
f. Improvements in accessibility
g. Improvements in communication
IV. National trade policies
A. Variations in the amounts of international trade
B. Goals
1. Economic growth
2. National security
3. Protection of national culture
C. Two methods of using trade for economic growth
1. Import-substitution
a. Protect domestic infant industries
b. Eventually domestic industries grow and can compete
c. Economies of scale help
d. Inefficient production persists
e. Consumers pay more
2. Export-led
a. Encourages foreign investment
b. Sell to the international market
c. Free trade
d. Laissez-faire approaches
e. Exports need to be in demand
f. More successful method
3. China’s policies
4. Taiwan’s policies
V. Global economy
A. Globalization
1. Operating internationally
2. Thinking internationally
3. Caused by easier transportation and communication
4. Becoming more common
B. International investment flows
1. Foreign stocks and bonds
2. Foreign direct investment
a. Foreign ownership of businesses
b. Major part of economic globalization
c. Creates multinational or transnational corporations
d. Sought by many developing countries
e. Countries using the export-led method are more attractive
f. More countries investing and seeking investment
C. Tertiary activities
1. International trade of services
2. Substantial amounts of money
3. The global office
D. Financial systems
1. Very large international flows of money
a. Trade in stocks and bonds
b. Trade in currencies
2. Many global cause and effect linkages
3. Government regulation
a. Banks, stock markets, investments, etc.
b. Some countries are lenient
E. Tourism
1. Large international flows of money
2. Tourist potential
a. Accessibility
b. Accommodations
c. Attractions
3. Ecotourism
4. Possible damage to culture and environment
F. Regulation of the global economy
1. GATT
2. WTO
3. International Standards Organization (ISO)
VI. Critical issues for the future
A. Disagreements over international economic policies
B. American policies
CHAPTER 13
Political Regionalization and Globalization
Political Regionalization and Globalization covers how many regions were once part of
powerful empires, but that many of the empires collapsed, creating independent nation states.
But in recent years many nation states are coming together in new international organizations.
The British, Russian, and American empires are discussed with the most attention given to the
break up of the Soviet Union. Among the newer international organizations, many details of the
European Union and North American Free Trade Agreement are outlined.
Next the United Nations as a possible global government, impacts of terrorism, the “axis of evil,”
control over the world’s oceans, jurisdiction over the polar regions, being landlocked, and
airspace issues are explored. Finally, cooperation to protect the global environment in order to
improve quality of life is covered.
Labeling of products and drug patents and costs are the two Critical Thinking boxes. Defining
Canadian music, food safety including Mad Cow and other diseases, politics and conflicts in
Afghanistan, America’s role as world policeman, regulation of whaling, and possible use of DDT
to control malaria are the topics of the Focus boxes.
After carefully studying this chapter, students should have an understanding of the following:
· The British Empire becoming the Commonwealth of Nations
· Russian Empire, the Soviet Union, and the new republics of today
· History of the European Union
· Economic and political characteristics of the European Union
· Ramifications of the North American Free Trade Agreement
· The United Nations and its policies
· The “axis of evil”
· How to govern the oceans, the Arctic, and Antarctica
· How to avoid continued increases in pollution in poor countries
· Sustainable development
Outline
I. Introduction
A. International cooperation
1. Essential
2. On many topics or concerns
B. Types of groupings
1. International organization
2. Supranational organization
3. Blocs
II. Disappearance of Empires
A. British
1. Huge empire is largely gone
2. Many former colonies in the Commonwealth of Nations
3. Northern Ireland issue
B. French
1. Lost colonies to the British
2. Gained new colonies especially in Africa
3. Now most are independent
C. Ottoman
1. Lost areas to British and French
2. Legacies of border disputes and conflict
D. Russian
1. Across Asia, not the oceans
2. Becomes the Soviet Union
a. Russification
b. Fifteen ethnically based republics
c. Self sufficiency
d. Centralized state control
3. Soviet Union breaks apart
a. Gorbachev
b. Glasnost and perestroika
c. Events and policies could not be controlled
d. Fifteen new countries
e. Economic struggles
f. Ethnic tensions
4. Commonwealth of Independent States
5. Baltic States
6. Recent developments
a. Social and economic decline
b. Corruption
c. Resistance to change
E. American
1. Most areas became states
2. Panama
a. Intervention
b. Canal
c. Drug trafficking
3. Liberia
4. Puerto Rico
a. Possible 51st state
b. Poor compared to the other states
III. New unions
A. European Union (1993)
1. Background
a. Divided region
b. Iron Curtain
c. North Atlantic Treaty Organization
d. Warsaw Pact
e. Marshall Plan
f. Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
g. European Coal and Steel Community (1952)
h. European Economic Community (1957)
i. European Atomic energy Community (1957)
j. European Community (1967)
k. Share common cultural characteristics
l. Fifteen members currently
2. Types of economic organizations
a. Free trade area
b. Customs union
c. Common market
3. Rationale
a. Prevent war
b. Encourage economic growth
c. Increase role in world affairs
4. Government and administration
a. European Commission
b. Council of Ministers
c. European Parliament
d. European Court of Justice
5. Integration
a. One market for goods
b. One market for capital
c. One transport system
d. Thinking as a region
e. Common social policies
f. Common environmental policies
6. Future
a. Additional members
b. Eastern Europe
c. Complete unification and integration
B. North American Free Trade Agreement
1. 1994
2. Canada, Mexico, and the United States
3. Background
a. Canada and the U.S. are world’s largest trade partners
b. Free Trade Act between Canada and the U.S.
c. Canadian fears of more domination by the U.S.
d. Desire to help Mexico
e. Controversial in all three countries
4. Free trade
5. Easier investment flows
6. Mexico
a. More difficult to integrate
b. Cheaper labor
c. Maquiladoras
d. Politics
7. Overall results
a. More trade
b. More investment
c. Mixed results concerning employment levels
d. More transportation connections
e. Continued opposition by environmental groups and labor
organizations
f. Caribbean economies hurt
C. Other groups
1. Free Trade Area of the Americas (in progress)
2. Andean Pact
3. Caribbean Union and Common Market
4. MERCOSUR
5. Association of Southeast Asian Nations
6. Organization of African Unity
7. Arab League
IV. Global government
A. Goes against state sovereignty
1. Can states do whatever they want within their borders
2. Should some international organizations intervene
B. League of Nations
C. United Nations
1. 1945
2. 189 countries are members
3. General Assembly
4. Security Council
a. Most Powerful
b. Permanent members
5. Secretariat
6. International Court of Justice
7. Special agencies
a. Universal Postal Union
b. Food and Agriculture Organization
c. Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
d. Many others
8. Activities
a. Discussions of global issues
b. Promoting peace
c. Military actions
d. Monitoring of elections
e. Regulation of business practices
f. Protecting persecuted peoples
g. Promoting human rights
h. International justice
D. Global agreements on the Artic, Antarctica, and the oceans
1. The Artic and Antarctica
a. Competing claims
b. Arctic Council
c. Antarctic treaty
d. Develop or preserve
2. Oceans
a. Open waters, the high seas
b. Territorial waters
c. Sovereignty to three mile limit
d. Exclusive economic zone of 200 miles
e. Jurisdiction over fishing and mining
f. Innocent passage
g. Disputes between coastal countries
3. Landlocked states
a. 42 countries, plus others with no ports
b. Use navigable river
c. Obtain corridor of land to the coast
d. Negotiate to use a port and transportation to that port
e. A significant disadvantage
4. Airspace rights
V. Protecting the global environment
A. Patterns
1. Rich countries still pollute more
2. Poor countries share of pollution is increasing
a. Industrialization
b. Population growth
3. Poor countries are using more and more resources and energy
4. Rich countries are increasing energy efficiency
B. Development, pollution, and quality of life
1. Quality of life
a. Income buys goods and services
b. Environment provides air, water, space, etc.
c. Both are needed
2. Balancing economic development and environmental quality
a. Often cannot have both
b. Choices have to be made
c. Poor countries and people have fewer choices
d. Costs of production being moved to poor countries
3. Need sustainable development
a. Wealth-building without environmental damage
b. Hard to do
C. Ozone depletion
1. Damage to the protective ozone layer
2. Montreal Protocol
D. Global warming
1. Greenhouse gases raise temperatures
2. Controls on emissions of greenhouse gases
3. Disagreements
a. Emission targets
b. United States versus Europe
VI. Critical issues for the future
A. Overcoming differences in cultural values
B. Disparities between poor and rich countries
C. Use of geography’s broad perspective
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