COMMUNICATION
The process of sending a message in such a way that the message
received is as close in meaning as possible to the message intended.
DATA
Raw figures and facts
We have 35 working machines
Each machine can produce 1000 widgets in a day
Current demand is 30000 widgets daily
Machine operators earn $20/hour
INFORMATION
Data summarized and presented in such a way that it “makes sense”
…or has logical meaning.
“Our plant has excess production capacity, and is incurring $800 of
unnecessary labor costs per day.”
CHARACTERISTICS OF
USEFUL INFORMATION
ACCURATE
The information is precise…it reflects reality…it can be trusted
…it’s true!
TIMELY
The information can be made available to the manager in time for
appropriate action. If it takes too long to get it…it won’t be helpful.
COMPLETE
The information is all here…nothing important has been omitted.
RELEVANT
Is this information really needed by the manager? Will this knowledge
aid the decision-maker…or will it confuse or distract him/her?
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
KEY PARTS OF THE COMMUNICATION MODEL
• SENDER -- initiator of the message
• ENCODING -- creating a message we want to send
• MESSAGE -- the specific words, signals, and images we send
• CHANNEL -- the method of delivery of the message
• DECODING -- translating, interpreting the meaning
• RECEIVER -- the target of the message
• NOISE -- signals which compete with (disrupt) the intended message
• FEEDBACK -- checking to be sure the message was understood
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
ORAL COMMUNICATION
Managers spend 50 – 90% of their time talking to people.
55% of managers don’t feel their written communication skills are
very good…so they use oral communication to avoid embarrassment.
ADVANTAGES
• Promotes prompt feedback and clarification…listen/watch to see
whether they understand. If not, questions will be asked, etc.
• It’s easy…you don’t need a computer…all you have to do is talk.
DISADVANTAGES
• Sender may leave out important details
• Noise may distort the process
• The receiver may forget part of the message
• There is no permanent record of what has been said
BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
SEMANTIC PROBLEMS (WORD MEANINGS)
LANGUAGE
VOCABULARY
TECHNICAL JARGON
Bits, bytes, bauds, bandwidths...does OB = obstetrics or organizational behavior?
POLITICALLY CORRECT TERMINOLOGY
Follically challenged, people of gender, visually impaired
negative patient outcome, vertically challenged, caloric overload
CLICHES AND FILLER
“That’s the way the cookie crumbles”…“That’s water under the bridge”
Yadda, yadda, yadda”…“Like, you know…”… “sure, whatever”
TECHNICAL PROBLEMS
DISTRACTIONS AND INTERRUPTIONS
PHYSICAL BARRIERS AND DISTANCE
ABSENCE OF FEEDBACK (no signal)
STRUCTURE OF GROUP NETWORKS
POOR CHOICE AND USE OF COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
Upward, downward or lateral?
“Rich” vs “Lean” Channels
SMALL-GROUP COMMUNICATION
NETWORKS
CRITERIA CHAIN WHEEL ALL CHANNEL
Speed Moderate FAST FAST
Accuracy Moderate HIGH Moderate
Emergence of
a Leader Moderate HIGH Low
Member
Satisfaction Moderate Low HIGH
Centralized Decentralized
COMMUNICATION TOPICS
ORAL
• WORK DISPUTES
• DISCIPLINARY ISSUES
• SENSITIVE PERSONAL MATTERS
• ANYTHING THAT CAN BE EASILY MISUNDERSTOOD
WRITTEN
• GENERAL REPORTS
• ROUTINE ANNOUNCEMENTS
• GENERAL INFORMATION (FYI)
COMBINATION (USE BOTH)
• DIRECTIVES OR ORDERS
• PERFORMANCE APPRAISALS
• POLICY OR RULE CHANGES
CHOICE OF CHANNELS
DOWNWARD
FOLLOWS THE CHAIN OF COMMAND – FORMAL HIERARCHY
LESS LIKELY TO BE FILTERED OR DISTORTED
LEAVES LITTLE OPPORTUNITY FOR FEEDBACK (ONE-WAY)
UPWARD
ACHIEVEMENT OF OBJECTIVES, PERFORMANCE REPORTS
UNRESOLVED PROBLEMS …unless the Boss will be upset!
SUGGESTIONS AND IDEAS FOR IMPROVEMENT
ATTITUDES AND FEELINGS OF WORKERS
LATERAL
ESSENTIAL FOR COORDINATION AND INTEGRATION
SAVES TIME BY SHORT-CUTTING THE VERTICAL HIERARCHY (TO
EXPEDITE ACTION)
FORMAL vs INFORMAL
USE OF OFFICIAL CHANNELS
GRAPEVINE
Usually is 75-95% accurate
COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
ARE THESE DOWNWARD, UPWARD, LATERAL, FORMAL OR INFORMAL?
REPORTS
PROCEDURES & HANDBOOKS
NEWSLETTERS
PERSONAL LETTERS
PAY INSERTS
POSTERS & BULLETIN BOARDS
MEMOS & FLYERS
E-MAIL
VOICE MAIL
INTERCOM (LOUDSPEAKERS)
SPECIAL MEETINGS
INFORMAL DISCUSSIONS
ONE-ON-ONE MEETINGS
MORALE QUESTIONNAIRES
GRAPEVINE
SUGGESTION BOXES
GRIEVANCE SYSTEM
HIERARCHY OF CHANNEL RICHNESS
ROUTINE, CLEAR, UNAMBIGUOUS MESSAGES (LEAN MEDIA)
FLYERS
BULLETINS
GENERAL REPORTS
MEMOS
LETTERS
ELECTRONIC MAIL
INSTANT MESSAGING
VOICE MAIL
TELEPHONE
VIDEOCONFERENCE
GROUP MEETINGS
FACE-TO-FACE
NONROUTINE, AMBIGUOUS, SENSITIVE MESSAGES (RICH MEDIA)
HOW “RICH” DOES THE CHANNEL HAVE TO BE?
WHAT IS THE POTENTIAL FOR MISUNDERSTANDING?
BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
PSYCHOLOGICAL & PERCEPTUAL PROBLEMS
CONFLICTING, INCONSISTENT MESSAGES
PERCEIVED CREDIBILITY OF THE SENDER (can the source be trusted?)
RELUCTANCE TO COMMUNICATE (suppress “bad news”)
POOR LISTENING SKILLS
Filtering – only “hearing” what you want to hear
A “tired” Receiver – psychological readiness to listen
OVERLOAD -- Too much, too fast, can’t comprehend…
CULTURE & GENDER DIFFERENCES
Men v. Women
Asian v. North American
INDIRECT ORAL COMMUNICATION*
Voice Intonations, Prompting Mannerisms and Pseudo-questions
NON-VERBAL CUES*
Performance, Artifactual, Contextual, and Mediational codes
*One study showed as much as 55% of the message was received through
nonverbal means and another 38% from voice inflection and tone. Words
themselves accounted for only 7 % of the content of the message.
CULTURE & GENDER DIFFERENCES - 1
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
USA To “TABLE” something means to postpone it
ENGLAND To “TABLE” means to move it up for discussion
USA “INCONVENIENT” means distasteful, but do-able
CHINA “INCONVENIENT” really means downright impossible!
USA People are quick to fill silence with words
OTHER Silent spaces are not to be interrupted
USA Expressions of anger and frustration are often public
OTHER It is not only unacceptable, it’s taboo!
USA Get straight to the point, get down to business right away
OTHER This is an insult and is resented. We do social things first
IS THIS A “HIGH CONTEXT” OR A “LOW CONTEXT” CULTURE?
LEARN TO BE EMPATHETIC & SENSITIVE TO CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
CULTURE & GENDER DIFFERENCES - 2
GENDER DIFFERENCES
MEN --- EMPHASIZE STATUS & INDEPENDENCE
WOMEN --- MAKE CONNECTION & ESTABLISH INTIMACY
EXAMPLES
Women want support and understanding, but men offer advice instead.
Women say men don’t listen, but men say women just talk on and on.
Women often approach problems indirectly, while men are more direct.
Men often speak in ways that establish their independence and status.
When women say “I’m sorry” are they apologizing unnecessarily?
Or, are they saying “I know you feel bad about this, and so do I.”
INDIRECT ORAL COMMUNICATION - 1
INFLECTIONS OF VOICE
TONE – THE WAY YOUR VOICE “SOUNDS”
Irritated or impatient?
Do you sound sympathetic?
Do you sound like you mean it?
EMPHASIS – WHICH WORDS ARE STRESSED?
WHY DON’T I TAKE YOU TO DINNER TONIGHT?
“YOU” I was going to take someone else
“I” Instead of the guy you were going with
“DON’T” I’m trying to find a reason why I shouldn’t take you
“WHY” Do you have a problem with me?
“TAKE” Instead of going on your own
“DINNER” Instead of lunch tomorrow
“TONIGHT” Not tomorrow night
INDIRECT ORAL COMMUNICATION - 2
PROMPTING MANNERISMS
Prompts to keep the conversation going
“UH-HUH,” “YES,” and “ OH REALLY”
PSEUDO-QUESTIONS
IMPERATIVE -- A COMMAND
“Have you mowed the grass yet?”
“Has the garden been weeded?”
SCREENED -- THINLY VEILED MOTIVES
“How would you like to work overtime tonight?”
GOT-CHA -- A TRAP OR SET UP
“Didn’t I see you and Cindy at the theatre last night?”
“Didn’t you say that ….. ?”
NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
PERFORMANCE CODES (Body Language)
PHYSICAL MOVEMENTS, POSTURE, FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
THE WAYS I USE MY BODY TO COMMUNICATE
ARTIFACTUAL CODES
SIGNS, DRESS, FURNISHINGS, POSSESSIONS, COSMETICS
THE WAY I DRESS AND THE TRINKETS I KEEP AND DISPLAY
CONTEXTUAL CODES
USE OF TIME AND SPACING
THE WAY I REGULATE MY TIME AND ARRANGE MY SPACE
MEDIATIONAL CODES
HANDWRITTEN NOTES v. TYPED; USE OF COLOR, ETC.
IMAGES AND CHANNELS THROUGH WHICH I COMMUNICATE
ONE CANNOT CEASE TO COMMUNICATE…
EVEN SILENCE AND INACTIVITY HAVE MEANING
MODEL OF COMMUNICATION STYLES
POLSKY
---------------------------------------------
HIGH EXPOSING ACTUALIZING
OPENNESS IN
EXPRESSING
FEELINGS AND BARGAINING
SHARING
INFORMATION
LOW DENYING PROTECTING
---------------------------------------------
LOW HIGH
LISTENING & GIVING FEEDBACK
CONTINGENCIES IN COMMUNICATION
SELF-CONCEPT
SELF-DISCLOSURE
EXPRESSION ABILITY
LISTENING ABILITY
JOHARI WINDOW
LUFT & INGHAM
FOUR COMMUNICATOR TYPES
TYPE A - Low in openness and low in feedback
UNCOMMUNICATIVE
PERCEIVED AS TERSE, ALOOF, IMPERSONAL
(The UNKNOWN window)
TYPE B - Low in openness, but high in feedback
CONSTANTLY SEEKS OUT INFORMATION FROM OTHERS
RARELY PROVIDES INFORMATION IN EXCHANGE
DOESN’T TRUST OTHERS WITH IMPORTANT INFORMATION
(The HIDDEN window)
TYPE C - High in openness, but low in feedback
GIVES OUT LOTS OF INFORMATION
RARELY REQUESTS INFORMATION FROM OTHERS
PERCEIVED AS AUTOCRATIC, ARROGANT
DOESN’T VALUE OTHERS’ OPINIONS AND IDEAS
(The BLIND window)
TYPE D - High in openness and high in feedback
IMPORTANT INFORMATION IS FREELY EXCHANGED
COMMUNICATION IS EFFECTIVE
(The OPEN window)
TO FACILITATE COMMUNICATION…
• LISTEN CAREFULLY TO THE MESSAGE…STAY FOCUSED
• RESIST DISTRACTIONS
• WITHHOLD INITIAL JUDGMENT…KEEP AN OPEN MIND
• LISTEN FOR FEELINGS
• PAY ATTENTION TO NON-VERBAL CUES
• USE SIMPLE LANGUAGE
• ASK QUESTIONS FOR CLARIFICATION
• GIVE FEEDBACK – RESTATE WHAT YOU UNDERSTAND