Chapter 13: Gender Stratification
Chapter Objectives: at the end of the chapter, students should be
able to understand the social construction of gender and
sexuality, explain the sex-gender systems from different
perspectives, describe the gender inequality existed both in
America and in the world.
Topic outline:
1. the social construction of gender and human sexuality
2. why does the sex-gender system exist?
3. gender inequality
4. the perpetuation of gender inequality in the U.S.
Summary of the Basics:
1. the social construction of gender and human sexuality: every
human society prescribe behavior based on sex (the biological
characteristics), divide labor based on sex (sex-role typing),
regulate and channel human sexual behavior. This institutionalized
gender inequality is termed as the sex-gender system. Hence gender
is a social term, referring to social definition and cultural
expectation of behavior such as femininity and masculinity.
People’s gender identity is developed by internalizing the social
norms and expectation on one’s bahaviro. Gender role refers to the
socially prescribed behavioral pattern and expectations for male
and female. Society tends to give male more important roles and
positions (patriarchy). Society regulates human sexual behavior by
setting up sexual scripts which give preference to heterosexuality
over homosexuality (heterosexism), give men more behavioral
freedom than women, and lower level of moral standards (double
standard), which allows more criminal, violent/aggressive behavior
and indulgent lifestyle among men and consequently responsible for
men’s shorter life expectancy. The sex-gender system also causes
sexism (people are judged and treated based on sex only),
homophobia (hatred and discrimination against homosexuals), Human
Sexuality (sexual orientation) is socially constructed and
controlled.
2. Why does the sex-gender system exist? The sociobiology theory
argues that gender differences in roles, behavioral
characteristics and sexuality are biologically based. Genetic
differences are responsible for gender differences. However the
feminist theorists argue that 1. gender inequality is socially
determined, has little to do with biology; 2. Human society is a
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gendered society, every sphere of human society has women
oppressed by men. They point out that human sexual behavior is
totally learned through socialization; 3. different culture and
society have varied gender characteristics, the definition changes
and varies across time and culture; 4. The change and variation
has a lot to do with a society’s economic and political
organizations. In some societies, multiple gender exist or
reversed from the western societies. The functionalist
sociologists considers that women’s lower position is due to
women’s reproductive ability, the theory of complementary roles
(female role and male role are complimentary to each other in
human efforts to survive) is used to explain the sex-role typing
and gendered social organization. The conflict theory looks at
gender inequality such as male domination in terms of economic
inequality, emerge with the rise of private property. Symbolic
interactionist theory emphasizes gender role and gender identity
are learned in society.
3. Gender inequality: sexism (one sex is superior than the other),
mascular characteristics is more valued than feminine
characteristics), patriarchy (male domination) systems in most
human societies. occupational sex segregation, (male and female
are concentrated in different jobs). Gender gap in income exists
(women’s income is only 75% of men. Glass ceiling (an invisible
obstacle) block women’s progress in social status, whereas men
ride glass escalator (get promoted without making effort), split
labor market, which put women in the peripheral secotor of the
economy which is dual in nature and has a core sector (big
company) and peripheral sector (small firms). Some people use the
human capital theory (view women choose to invest more on family
and children) to explain the differences, however critics of the
theory point out that it is socially-imposed factors such as lack
of support and discrimination in society that are responsible for
women’s low wage and job status, and there is no correlation
between number of children and job achievement of women and some
found positive relation between number of children and job
achievement. The human capital theory is not supported.
American women has lower representation in government, More
likely to be poor, than women in other countries.
4. the perpetuation of gender inequality in the U.S.:
Family: gender role socialization, girls are asked to do more
housework than boys, women has a second shift, women has low
marital satisfaction than men. Gendered curriculum in school and
sexual harassment in the job place.
Start to Work (Assess your learning)
I. Multiple Choice
1. The ____________ theory argues that gender roles are based on
complimentary roles performed by the two sexes 1
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A. conflict theory b. functionalist
c. interactionist d. feminist
2. A competitive situation in which workers are differentiated
by sex and race/ethnicity, and job location in the different
sectors of the economy causes the differences in wage returns
for education, is referred to by sociologists as _______.
a. split labor market b. scapegoat
c. stereotyping d. culture of poverty
3. According to the split labor market theory, women and
minorities tend to be trapped in the _______________ sector
of the job market.
a. core b. peripheral c. primary d. low
4. Which one of the following is NOT a component of sex/gender
system?
a. a sexual division of labor.
b. the social regulation of sexuality.
c. the social construction of gender categories.
d. the similarities in the historical and cross-cultural
acceptance of gender expectations.
5. Which one of the following does NOT comply to the feminist
perspective of gender:
a. examines how social expectations for women and men are
reproduced through socialization.
b. examine gender in cross cultural contexts and found
multiple genders.
c. argues that gendered expectations change dramatically
over time.
d. found that there exist multiple genders in human
societies, e. concludes that gender prescriptions have a lot
to do with the reproductive ability of women.
6. All of the following structural factors contribute to a high
rate of sexual assault in the United States EXCEPT:
a. the view of women as sexual property.
b. a conquest mentality toward sex.
c. women's social and economic powerlessness relative to men.
d. men's naturally aggressive tendencies.
7. The degree to which men and women are concentrated in
occupations in which workers of one sex predominate is known
as:
a. the sex/gender system.
b. glass ceiling.
c. occupational sex segregation.
d. establishment sex segregation.
8. The theory that women choose to invest less time than men do
in employment outside the home is known as:
a. industry sex segregation
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b. occupational sex segregation.
c. invisible ceiling.
d. human capital theory.
9. Contrary to Feminist arguments, the ___________ theory
argues that the related gender differences may be genetically
programmed in human beings.
a. social Darwinism b. sociobiology
c. cultural evolution theory d. subculture
10. According to the textbook, which one of the following is NOT
true concerning the sex-gender system in America?
a. parents are more likely to assign domestic chores to girls
rather than boys.
b. in college classrooms, professors tend to give more
attention to men than to women.
c. Most African American professional women are concentrated
in public sector employment.
d. Female peer groups place more pressure on girls to do
feminine things than male peer groups place on boys to do
masculine things.
11. Bob and Sonja were classmates in college and both of them
were among the top students in class. Bob is a white male
and Sonja is a black female. They both got college degree
and found jobs. Several years later it turns out that Bob is
a department director under a big company and has much
higher income than Sonja, who works for a small firm. The
difference in the economic return of education can be better
explained by
a. the split labor market theory. b. scapegoat theory.
c. individual discrimination. d. the sex-gender system.
12. Which of the following is True?
a. the difference between sex and gender is that the former is
biologically determined, whereas the latter is socially
constructed.
b. Gender roles refers to socially prescribed behavior and
social expectations based on society’s sex/gender system.
c. Gender roles are biologically determined.
d. Gender identity is based on the physical characteristics of
men and women.
e. a and b are true.
13. Sociologists see sexual identity and behavior as
a. biologically given at birth and inherently controllable.
b. purely a private concern.
c. socially constructed and controlled.
d. essentially formed by the family during the first two
years of life.
14. In the corporate world, the term _________ refers to the
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blocking of women from climbing the corporate ladder and
enter the upper-echelon positions beyond a particular point.
a. corporate sexism b. glass ceiling
c. glass escalator d. gender gap
15. Which one of the arguments does not pertain to the feminist
perspective of gender:
a. Gender roles and social expectations for women and men are
reproduced through socialization.
b. Gender identity should be studied in cross cultural
contexts and multiple genders exist in human societies.
c. Gendered expectations change dramatically over time.
d. Behavioral differences between men and women have a lot to
do with social structural characteristics of the groups.
e. Women’s physical differences from men such as reproductive
ability are responsible for their subordinate social
position
16. The idea that one sex is superior than the other and people’s
ability can be judged by their sex is termed as _______.
a. gender role b. sexism
c. gender identity d double standard
17. Society applies different moral standards on women and men,
the term for the practice is ____________.
a. double standards b. gender gap
c. sexism d. hetereosexism
18. The unreasonable fear and hatred towards people who prefer
same-sex behavior are called:
a. homosexual. b. patriarchal
c. androgyny d. homophobia
19. Which one of the following is true?
a. American women have more political power than women in
most other countries in the world.
b. Men’s shorter life expectancy is due to the fact
that men take more social responsibility and
live a more stressful life than women.
c. Gender is a term referring to biological and physical
differences between males and females.
d. women themselves choose to invest more time with family
and children
e. none of the above is true.
Answers:
I. 1. b, 2. a, 3. b, 4.d, 5.e, 6.d, 7.c, 8. d, 9.b, 10.d,
11.a, 12.e, 13.c, 14.b, 15. e, 16. b, 17.a, 18.d, 19.e,
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Chapter 14: Age Stratification
Chapter Objectives: By learning the chapter, students should
understand age as a social product, and describe and understand
ageism and age inequality existing in human societies, be able to
explain the problems from different theoretical perspectives, and
recognize the problems related to the aging population in America
as well as in the world.
Topic outline:
1. the social construction of age
2. gerontology and social gerontology
3. ageism, and age stratification
4. explain the problems
5. the aging America
Summary of the Basics:
1. the social construction of age
Life course: (different stages (age related) people goes
through in their lifetime) studies show that age is a social
product, because people have to act out their age according to
society’s expectation for different age grade, and social
expectation and cultural definition change for different age
grade, different society define people’s age in different way,
for example preindustrial societies did not tend to have
separate expectation for children and adolescence, social
environment affect the aging process. Then sociology considers
age is a social construction.
2. gerontology (scientific study of aging and the elderly),
social gerontology, on the other hand, study how social
factors such as economy, politics, culture affect aging
process.
3. ageism, and age stratification” Ageism: the prejudice,
discrimination, and hostility that are directed against people
because of their age.
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Stereotypes of Aging and the Aged:
e.g. senility? (decline in ability, intelligence, memory and
creativity) Studies show that only a small percentage of
elderly suffer from senility, and most caused by disease.
sexless? The sex life of the elderly parallel pattern of
younger age, older people still enjoy sex life.
conservative? Life outlook and political attitude have
more to do with socialization and social environment, not with
age.
decline in life quality? The elderly feel more satisfied
with their life than younger people.
4. explain the problems:
Activity theory: the view that satisfaction during old age
is related to a person’s level and quality of life.
However, the theory does not find support by sociological
study: critics point out that older people are not
necessarily less active than younger ones.
Disengagement theory (functionalist perspective): the view
that society prevents disruption by having the elderly
vacant their positions of responsibility so they younger
generation can step into their shoes. The theory also lack
empirical support:
Criticism: 1. no correlation found between job opening left by
retirement and employment of the younger one. 2. Old people are
disengaged because employers want cheap labor and keep a
reserve labor force. 3. Older people are not disengaged, but
change roles.
The modernization theoy: An explanation of ageism that
maintains that as a society industrializes, the status of
the elderly will progressively decline.
Reason: Elderly lose control and power, younger people more
independent, Older people’s experience has no use
The theory also has several flaws:
Criticism: 1. Devaluation of the elderly existed prior to
industrialization. 2. Not all industrial societies devaluate
their elderly. 3. Variation exists across cultures, social
economic status. 4. Socialization makes difference in attitude
towards elderly.
5. the aging America:
Definition: higher proportion of the elderly in the
population; elderly population increases faster than the
general population; median age higher.
Reason for aging population:
1. Low birth rate
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2. Baby boomers getting into old age
3. higher life expectancy: more people move into old age.
Problems related to aging population:
Higher Dependency Ratio: the number of workers required to
support one person on social security.
Age structure change: distribution of people in different
age group. Age structure will have more people at the top
(elderly population) and narrower bottom (small number of
younger people). In comaparison, Mexican age structure
will have wider bottom because of the higher birth rate.
The ageing population will have the following impact on
society: The soaring cost of medicare and social security.
The baby boomers children (tax payers) may rebel against
the heavy tax to support the elderly.
Start to Work (Assess your learning)
I. True/False
1. T F "Adolescence" as a distinct stage of life does not
exist in preindustrial societies.
2. T F Disengagement theory posits that age discrimination
has the function of keeping the smooth operation of the
job place.
3. T F The term “graying America” refers to the fact that
people in America today live longer than before.
4. T F Age is a social product because people act out their
age according to society’s definition and social
expectation.
5. T F Modernization theory argues that as society become
more and more industrialized, there comes the gradual
decline of the status of the elderly.
6. T F Sociological research shows that older people are
more conservative than younger people.
7. T F Research results show support for the disengagement
theory by finding that as more older people retire,
more younger people get employed to fill the
vacancies.
8. T F One of the reasons for the aging population is low
birth rate.
9. T F The argument of the activity theory is supported by
empirical research of sociologists.
10. T F Critics of the The disengagement theory point out that
the elderly is disengaged because the employers try to
make more profits by employing cheap younger workers.
II. Multiple Choice:
1. Using age to define an individual's capabilities and roles is
referred to as:
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a. gerontophilia b. gerontology
c. gerontophobia d. ageism
2. According to the information provided in the text, which of
the following is NOT true:
a. the soaring cost of Medicaid and Medicare to the elderly.
b. the soaring cost of Social Security.
c. the baby boomers’ children may rebel against paying the
heavy taxes needed to support huge numbers of elderly
Americans.
d. The number of elderly in America will decrease in the
next decades, the problems of the elderly would not be a
major social concern.
3. When American baby boomers enter the next stage of their life
course and become retirees, the dependency ratio of
the country:
a. drop significantly.
b. will be more than doubled.
c. will stay at the same level as it stands now.
d. can not be predicted.
4. The scientific study of how economic, political, and cultural
factors affect the aging process is called ____________.
a. gerontology b. social gerontology
c. social stratification d. sociobiology
5. Which of the following is the fast-growing age category in
America today?
a. persons 14 and under b. persons 14 to 34
c. persons 35 to 44 d. persons 65 and older
6. Most of the Nursing homes in America:
a. Are profit-making institutions.
b. Have qualified and well trained staff.
c. Give the elderly people humanitarian/personal care.
d. Are set up to provide adequate care for the elderly.
7. Which one of the following is NOT true concerning the
“graying of America”?
a. Low birth rate contributes to the aging population.
b. As the baby boomer’s generation enter their old age, the
elderly population will be greatly increased.
C. The median age of the population is higher.
d. The number and proportion of older people in the U.S. is
growing faster than the general population.
People live longer today than before.
8. Age Structure refers to
a. number of dependents compared with number of the working
age group.
b. the Baby Boom generation.
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c. population distribution and population density.
d. distribution of people in different age categories.
9. Compared with that of Mexico, the age structure of America
tends to be _________.
a. bottom heavy b. top heavy
c. expansive at the lower level d. a pyramid.
10. The term _________________ refers to the number of working-age
people compared with the number of children who were aged
below 16 plus those aged over 65.
a. age structure b. dependency ratio
c. age cohort d. Baby Boom
11. The theory which argues that as a society industrializes, the
status of the elderly will progressively decline is the ____.
a. the activity theory b. the disengagement theory
c. the modernization theory d. ageism
12. One study of the aged in nursing homes found that for many
families, after the parent entered the institution,
relationships between the parent and child became stronger.
Professional care had relieved the child from the burden of
taking care of the ailing parent, and provided them with
greater freedom to rebuild emotional relationships. This is
regarded by functionalists as a _________________ of nursing
homes.
a. manifest function b. dysfunction
c. latent function d. unobserved function
13. The age based of categories through which people pass as they
grow older is the ______
a. ageism b. age stratification
c. retirement d. life course.
14. The social factor that brought about the decline in the
social value of the elderly is __________, according to
modernization theory.
a. agricultural production.
b. technology change.
c. increased production.
d. the rise of modern industry in the late 1800s.
15. Which one of the following is NOT a criticism against the
modernization theory which sees the devaluation of the
elderly as a consequence of industrialization?
a. Elderly people lose control and power while the younger
people become independent in industrial societies.
b. Devaluation of the elderly existed prior to
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industrialization.
c. Not all industrial societies devaluate their elderly.
d. Variation in the social status of the elderly exists
across cultures.
e. Socialization could make differences in the attitude
towards the elderly.
16. The ________ argues that satisfaction during old age is
related to a person’s level and quality of activity.
a. the activity theory b. the disengagement theory
c. modernization theory d. ageism
17. The reasons for the aging America include the following:
a. Low birth rate
b. Increased life expectancy
c. Baby boomers entering the elderly age.
d. All of these are reasons.
e. Both b and c are reasons
18. The “graying of America” is a phrase that refers to:
the fact that:
a. the number and proportion of older persons in the U.S are
growing faster than the general population.
b. the fact that people today live longer.
c. the fact that Americans hair turns gray sooner than that
of citizens elsewhere in the world.
d. the fact that the elderly comprise a majority of the U.S.
population.
e. all of the above.
19. Defining people’s ability and status based on their age alone
is termed as _________.
a. devaluation of age b. activity theory
c. ageism d. age stereotyping
20. The scientific study of age and the elderly is referred to as:
a. gerontology. b. gerontocracy.
c. epistemology. d. aristocracy.
Answers:
I: true: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10 False: 6, 7,
II. 1. d, 2. d, 3. b, 4. b, 5. d, 6. a, 7. e, 8. d, 9. b, 10. b, 11. c, 12. c, 13. d, 14. d,
15. a, 16. a, 17. d, 18. a, 19. c, 20. a
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