Figurative Language: A technique in writing in which the author temporarily interrupts
the order, construction, or meaning of the writing for a particular effect. This interruption
takes the form of one or more figures of speech such as hyperbole, irony, or simile.
Figurative language is the opposite of literal language, in which every word is truthful,
accurate, and free of exaggeration or embellishment.
Examples of figurative language are tropes such as Metaphor and rhetorical figures such as
apostrophe. Gale
Literal Language: An author uses literal language when he or she writes without
exaggerating or embellishing the subject matter and without any tools of figurative
language.
To say "He ran very quickly down the street" is to use literal language, whereas to say "He
ran like a hare down the street" would be using figurative language. (Compare with
Figurative Language.) Gale
9- Alliteration: A poetic device where the first consonant sounds or any vowel sounds in
words or syllables are repeated. The following description of the Green Knight from the
anonymous Sir Gawain and the Green Knight gives an example of alliteration:
And in guise all of green, the gear and the man:
A coat cut close, that clung to his sides
An a mantle to match, made with a lining
Of furs cut and fitted — the fabric was noble....
(Compare with Assonance and rhyme.) Gale
9- Allusion: A reference to a familiar literary or historical person or event, used to make
an idea more easily understood. For example, describing someone as a "Romeo" makes an
allusion to William Shakespeare's famous young lover in Romeo and Juliet. Gale
9- Antagonist: The major character in a narrative or drama who works against the hero
or protagonist. Gale
9- Aside: A device in which a character in a drama makes a short speech which is heard
by the audience but not by other characters in the play. In William Shakespeare's
"Hamlet," the Chamberlain, Polonius, confronts Hamlet. In a dialogue concerning Polonius'
daughter, Ophelia, Polonius speaks this aside:
How say you by that? Still harping on my daughter.
Yet he knew me not at first; 'a said I was a fishmonger.
'A is far gone. And truly in my youth I suffered much extremity for love,
very near this. I'll speak to him again.- Lit Terms
9- Blocking: The process of roughing out the moves to be made by the actors especially
as not to “block” another‟s performance. David’s
9- Character: A person in a story. Most stories contain one or more major characters and
several minor characters: DYNAMIC CHARACTER: A person who undergoes significant
development or change during the story. FLAT CHARACTER: A person with little depth or
complexity, who may be described in one or two phrases. ROUND CHARACTER: A person
with a fully developed, complex (even contradictory) personality, who defies simple
analysis and description. STATIC CHARACTER: A person who remains essentially
unchanged throughout the story. Canadian Content
9- Characterization: The process by which an author creates vivid, believable characters
in a work of art. This may be done in a variety of ways, including (1) direct description of
the character by the narrator; (2) the direct presentation of the speech, thoughts, or
actions of the character; and (3) the (indirect) responses of other characters to the
character. Gale
9- Climax: The turning point in a narrative, the moment when the conflict is at its most
intense. Typically, the structure of stories, novels, and plays is one of rising action, in
which tension builds to the climax, followed by falling action, in which tension lessens as
the story moves to its conclusion. The climax in James Fenimore Cooper's The Last of the
Mohicansoccurs when Magua and his captive Cora are pursued to the edge of a cliff by
Uncas. Magua kills Uncas but is subsequently killed by Hawkeye. Gale
9- Close Reading "Interpretation begins with close reading. In this process, you note
specific uses of language, such as imagery, symbols, repeated terms, patterns of
expression, the tone of the speaker, and the main ideas [themes] the writer
introduces. Whether close reading takes the form of writing, discussion, or silent
observation, it should be based on a careful questioning of the text" (Jacobus 6).
Elements
9- Comedy: A literary work which is amusing and ends happily. Modern comedies tend to
be funny, while Shakespearean comedies simply end well. Shakespearean comedy also
contains items such as misunderstandings and mistaken identity to heighten the comic
effect. Comedies may contain lovers, those who interfere with lovers, and entertaining
scoundrels. In modern Situation Comedies, characters are thrown into absurd situations
and are forced to deal with those situations, all the while reciting clever lines for the
amusement of a live or television or movie audience.
Lit Terms
9- Conflict: The conflict in a work of fiction is the issue to be resolved in the story. It
usually occurs between two characters, the protagonist and the antagonist, or between the
protagonist and society or the protagonist and himself or herself.
Conflict in Theodore Dreiser's novel Sister Carrie comes as a result of urban society, while
Jack London's short story "To Build a Fire" concerns the protagonist's battle against the
cold and himself. Gale
9- Connotation: The impression that a word gives beyond its defined meaning.
Connotations may be universally understood or may be significant only to a certain group.
Both "horse" and "steed" denote the same animal, but "steed" has a different connotation,
deriving from the chivalrous or romantic narratives in which the word was once often used.
Gale
9- Denotation: The definition of a word, apart from the impressions or feelings it creates
in the reader. The word "apartheid" denotes a political and economic policy of segregation
by race, but its connotations — oppression, slavery, inequality — are numerous. Gale
9 & 11- Diction: The selection and arrangement of words in a literary work. Either or
both may vary depending on the desired effect. There are four general types of diction:
"formal," used in scholarly or lofty writing; "informal," used in relaxed but educated
conversation; "colloquial," used in everyday speech; and "slang," containing newly coined
words and other terms not accepted in formal usage. Gale
9- Dramatic irony: “Irony built into the characters' actions and not just their words--
depends upon a contradiction of expectations. Characters expect one thing and get
another.” (Jacobus 137). Elements
9- Exposition: Writing intended to explain the nature of an idea, thing, or theme.
Expository writing is often combined with description, narration, or argument. In dramatic
writing, the exposition is the introductory material which presents the characters, setting,
and tone of the play.
An example of dramatic exposition occurs in many nineteenth-century drawing-room
comedies in which the butler and the maid open the play with relevant talk about their
master and mistress; in composition, exposition relays factual information, as in
encyclopedia entries. Gale
9- Foreshadowing: A device used in literature to create expectation or to set up an
explanation of later developments.
In Charles Dickens's Great Expectations, the graveyard encounter at the beginning of the
novel between Pip and the escaped convict Magwitch foreshadows the baleful atmosphere
and events that comprise much of the narrative. Gale
9- Free verse also called open form poetry, free verse refers to poems characterized by
their nonconformity to established patterns of meter, rhyme, and stanza. Free verse uses
elements such as speech patterns, grammar, emphasis, and breath pauses to decide line
breaks, and usually does not rhyme" Elements
9- Imagery: The array of images in a literary work. Also, figurative language.
William Butler Yeats' "The Second Coming" offers a powerful image of encroaching anarchy:
Turning and turning in the widening gyre
The falcon cannot hear the falconer;
Things fall apart.... Gale
9- Irony: In literary criticism, the effect of language in which the intended meaning is the
opposite of what is stated. Irony can often be thought of as “distance” between what is
said and what is understood, between what is acted and what is interpreted.
The title of Jonathan Swift's "A Modest Proposal" is ironic because what Swift proposes in
this essay is cannibalism — hardly "modest." Gale
9- Metaphor: A figure of speech that expresses an idea through the image of another
object. Metaphors suggest the essence of the first object by identifying it with certain
qualities of the second object. An example is "But soft, what light through yonder window
breaks? / It is the east, and Juliet is the sun" in William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet.
Here, Juliet, the first object, is identified with qualities of the second object, the sun.
(Compare with Simile.) Gale
9- Mood: The prevailing emotions of a work or of the author in his or her creation of the
work. The mood of a work is not always what might be expected based on its subject
matter. The poem "Dover Beach" by Matthew Arnold offers examples of two different
moods originating from the same experience: watching the ocean at night. The mood of
the first three lines —
The sea is calm tonight
The tide is full, the moon lies fair
Upon the straights....
is in sharp contrast to the mood of the last three lines —
And we are here as on a darkling plain
Swept with confused alarms of struggle and flight,
Where ignorant armies clash by night. Gale
9- Monologue: A composition, written or oral, by a single individual. More specifically, a
speech given by a single individual in a drama or other public entertainment. It has no set
length, although it is usually several or more lines long. An example of an "extended
monologue" — that is, a monologue of great length and seriousness — occurs in the one-
Act, one-character play The Stronger by August Strindberg. (Compare with Interior
Monologue and Soliloquy.) Gale
9- Motif: (Also known as Motiv or Leitmotiv.) A theme, character type, image, Metaphor,
or other verbal element that recurs throughout a single work of literature or occurs in a
number of different works over a period of time.
For example, the various manifestations of the colour white in Herman Melville's Moby Dick
is a "specific" motif, while the trials of star-crossed lovers is a "conventional" motif from
the literature of all periods. Gale
9- Narrative: A Verse or prose accounting of an event or sequence of events, real or
invented. The term is also used as an adjective in the sense "method of narration." For
example, in literary criticism, the expression "narrative technique" usually refers to the
way the author structures and presents his or her story.
Narratives range from the shortest accounts of events, as in Julius Caesar's remark, "I
came, I saw, I conquered," to the longest historical or biographical works, as in Edward
Gibbon's The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, as well as diaries, travelogues, novels,
ballads, epics, short stories, and other fictional forms. Gale
9- Onomatopoeia The use of words to imitate the sounds they describe. Words such as
buzz and crack are onomatopoetic. The following line from Pope's "Sound and Sense"
onomatopoetically imitates in sound what it describes:
When Ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw,
The line too labors, and the words move slow.
Most often, however, onomatopoeia refers to words and groups of words, such as
Tennyson's description of the "murmur of innumerable bees," which attempts to capture
the sound of a swarm of bees buzzing. McGraw Hill
9- Personification: (Also known as Prosopopoeia.) A figure of speech that gives human
qualities to abstract ideas, animals, and inanimate objects.
William Shakespeare used personification in Romeo and Juliet in the lines "Arise, fair sun,
and kill the envious moon, / Who is already sick and pale with grief." Here, the moon is
portrayed as being envious, sick, and pale with grief — all markedly human qualities.
(Compare with Anthropomorphism.) Gale
9- Plot: In literary criticism, this term refers to the pattern of events in a narrative or
drama. In its simplest sense, the plot guides the author in composing the work and helps
the reader follow the work. Typically, plots exhibit causality and unity and have a
beginning, a middle, and an end. Sometimes, however, a plot may consist of a series of
disconnected events, in which case it is known as an "episodic plot." In his Aspects of the
Novel, E. M. Forster distinguishes between a story, defined as a "narrative of events
arranged in their time-sequence," and plot, which organizes the events to a "sense of
causality." This definition closely mirrors Aristotle's discussion of plot in his Poetics. Gale
9- Point Of View: The vantage point or perspective from which a story is told. Point of
view refers to both position (the narrator's proximity to the action in time and space), and
person (the narrator's character and attitude). There are four basic points of view: Third-
person omniscient: The narrator, usually assumed to be the author, tells the story. He
or she can move at will through time, across space, and into the mind of each character to
tell us anything we need to know to understand the story. Third-person limited
omniscient: Although the author is still the narrator, he or she gives up total omniscience
and limits the point of view to the experience and perception of one character in the story.
Instead of knowing everything, the reader knows only what this one character knows or is
able to learn. First-person: The author selects one of the characters in the narrative to
tell the story. This character may be involved in the action or may view it from the position
of an observer. This character may tell about events as they are happening or many years
after they have taken place. Objective: The author presents the external action as if it
were being filmed by a movie camera. The story is presented without any attempt to
comment on or interpret the characters' private thoughts or feelings. All that the reader
knows about the event must be inferred from the characters' public words and deeds.
Canadian Content
First-Person Narrator
"The story is told from the point of view 'I,' as in Charles Boxter's "Gryphon." The
I-narrator may be part of the action or an observer. As readers, we cannot know
or witness anything the narrator does not tell us. We therefore share all the
limitations of the narrator. This technique has the advantage of a sharp and
precise focus. Moreover, you feel part of the story because the narrator's 'I'
echoes the 'I' already in your own mind" (Jacobus 121). Elements
Second-Person Narrator "This narrator speaks directly to the reader: "You walk
in the room and what do you see? It's Mullins again, and you say, 'Out. I've done
with him.'" This point of view is rare primarily because it is artificial and self-
conscious. It seems to invite identification on the part of the reader with the
narrator, but it often fails"(Jacobus 121). Elements
Third-Person Narrator
"This is the most common narrative style, illustrated by John Cheever's "The
Swimmer": "His life was not confining and the delight he took in this observation
could not be explained by its suggestion of escape" [(Cheever 2044).] Third-
person narration permits the author to be omniscient (all-knowing) when
necessary but also to bring the focus tightly in on the central character by limiting
observation only to what that character could possible witness or recall. One
emotional effect of the technique is the acceptance of the authority of the
narrator. In essence, the narrator sounds like the author" (Jacobus 121).
Elements
9- Protagonist: The central character of a story who serves as a focus for its themes and
incidents and as the principal rationale for its development. The protagonist is sometimes
referred to in discussions of modern literature as the hero or anti-hero.
Well-known protagonists are Hamlet in William Shakespeare's Hamlet and Jay Gatsby in F.
Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby. Gale
9- Pun: A pun is a figure of speech which consists of a deliberate confusion of similar
words or phrases for rhetorical effect, whether humorous or serious. A pun can rely on the
assumed equivalency of multiple similar words (homonymy), of different shades of
meaning of one word (polysemy), or of a literal meaning with a metaphor. Bad puns are
often considered to be cheesy. Lit Terms
-A bicycle can't stand alone because it is two-tired.
-What's the definition of a will? (It's a dead giveaway).
9- Resolution: The portion of a story following the climax, in which the conflict is resolved.
The resolution of Jane Austen's Northanger Abbey is neatly summed up in the following
sentence: "Henry and Catherine were married, the bells rang and every body smiled."
Gale
9- Rising Action: The part of a drama where the plot becomes increasingly complicated.
Rising action leads up to the climax, or turning point, of a drama.
The final "chase scene" of an action film is generally the rising action which culminates in
the film's climax. (Compare with Denouement.) Gale
9- Rhyme: When used as a noun in literary criticism, this term generally refers to a poem
in which words sound identical or very similar and appear in parallel positions in two or
more lines. Rhymes are classified into different types according to where they fall in a line
or stanza or according to the degree of similarity they exhibit in their spellings and sounds.
Some major types of rhyme are "masculine" rhyme, "feminine" rhyme, and "triple" rhyme.
In a masculine rhyme, the rhyming sound falls in a single accented syllable, as with "heat"
and "eat." Feminine rhyme is a rhyme of two syllables, one stressed and one unstressed,
as with "merry" and "tarry." Triple rhyme matches the sound of the accented syllable and
the two unaccented syllables that follow: "narrative" and "declarative."
Robert Browning alternates feminine and masculine rhymes in his "Soliloquy of the
Spanish Cloister":
Gr-r-r — there go, my heart's abhorrence!
Water your damned flower-pots, do!
If hate killed men, Brother Lawrence,
God's blood, would not mine kill you!
What? Your myrtle-bush wants trimming?
Oh, that rose has prior claims —
Needs its leaden vase filled brimming?
Hell dry you up with flames!
Triple rhymes can be found in Thomas Hood's "Bridge of Sighs," George Gordon Byron's
satirical verse, and Ogden Nash's comic poems. (Compare with Alliteration, Assonance,
Consonance, and Internal Rhyme.) Gale
9- Rhythm
Recurrences of stressed and unstressed syllables at equal intervals, similar to meter.
However, though two lines may be of the same meter, the rhythms of the lines may be
different. For example, if one were to read the last two lines of Robert Frost's, "Stopping
by Woods on a Snowy Evening" with equal speed, the lines would be the same in meter
and rhythm. However, if one were to read the last line more slowly (as it should be read),
the meter would be the same but the rhythm different. This is because while the meter of
a line is identified by the pattern within each foot, the rhythm is accounted for by larger
units than individual feet. Lit Terms (see grade 12 for further definitions and examples)
9- Setting: The time, place, and culture in which the action of a narrative takes place. The
elements of setting may include geographic location, characters' physical and mental
environments, prevailing cultural attitudes, or the historical time in which the action takes
place. Examples of settings include the romanticized Scotland in Sir Walter Scott's
"Waverley" novels, the French provincial setting in Gustave Flaubert's Madame Bovary, the
fictional Wessex country of Thomas Hardy's novels, and the small towns of southern
Ontario in Alice Munro's short stories. Gale
9- Simile: A comparison, usually using "like" or "as", of two essentially dissimilar things,
as in "coffee as cold as ice" or "He sounded like a broken record."
The title of Ernest Hemingway's "Hills Like White Elephants" contains a simile. (Compare
with Metaphor.) Gale
9- Soliloquy: A monologue in a drama used to give the audience information and to
develop the speaker's character. It is typically a projection of the speaker's innermost
thoughts. Usually delivered while the speaker is alone on stage, a soliloquy is intended to
present an illusion of unspoken reflection.
A celebrated soliloquy is Hamlet's "To be or not to be" speech in William Shakespeare's
Hamlet. (Compare with Monologue.) Gale
9- Speaker The voice used by an author to tell a story or speak a poem. The speaker is
often a created identity, and should not automatically be equated with the author‟s self.
See also narrator, persona, point of view. Meyers
9- Stage direction: A playwright's descriptive or interpretive comments that provide
readers (and actors) with information about the dialogue, setting, and action of a play.
Modern playwrights, including Ibsen, Shaw, Miller, and Williams tend to include substantial
stage directions, while earlier playwrights typically used them more sparsely, implicitly, or
not at all. See Gesture. Drama Terms McGraw Hill
9- Stanza: A subdivision of a poem consisting of lines grouped together, often in recurring
patterns of rhyme, line length, and Meter. Stanzas may also serve as units of thought in a
poem much like paragraphs in prose. Examples of stanza forms include the quatrain, terza
rima, ottava rima, Spenserian, and the so-called In Memoriam stanza from Alfred, Lord
Tennyson's poem by that title. The following is an example of the latter form:
Love is and was my lord and king,
And in his presence I attend
To hear the tidings of my friend,
Which every hour his couriers bring. Gale
9- Symbol: Something that suggests or stands for something else without losing its
original identity. In literature, symbols combine their literal meaning with the suggestion of
an abstract concept. Literary symbols are of two types: those that carry complex
associations of meaning no matter what their contexts, and those that derive their
suggestive meaning from their functions in specific literary works.
Examples of symbols are sunshine suggesting happiness, rain suggesting sorrow, and
storm clouds suggesting despair. (Compare with Archetype and Symbolism.) Gale
9- Symbolism: This term has two widely accepted meanings. In historical criticism, it
denotes an early modernist literary movement initiated in France during the nineteenth
century that reacted against the prevailing standards of realism. Writers in this movement
aimed to evoke, indirectly and symbolically, an order of being beyond the material world of
the five senses. Poetic expression of personal emotion figured strongly in the movement,
typically by means of a private set of symbols uniquely identifiable with the individual poet.
The principal aim of the Symbolists was to express in words the highly complex feelings
that grew out of everyday contact with the world. In a broader sense, the term
"symbolism" refers to the use of one object to represent another.
Early members of the Symbolist movement included the French authors Charles Baudelaire
and Arthur Rimbaud; William Butler Yeats, James Joyce, and T. S. Eliot were influenced as
the movement moved to Ireland, England, and the United States. Examples of the concept
of symbolism include a flag that stands for a nation or movement, or an empty cupboard
used to suggest hopelessness, poverty, and despair. (Compare with Realism and Symbol.)
(See also Modernism.) Gale
9- Theme: The main point of a work of literature. The term is used interchangeably with
thesis. The theme of William Shakespeare's Othello — jealousy — is a common one. Gale
9- Thesis: A thesis is both an essay and the point argued in the essay. Thesis novels and
thesis plays share the quality of containing a thesis which is supported through the action
of the story.
A master's thesis and a doctoral dissertation are two theses required of graduate students.
(See also Theme.) Gale
10- Foil: A character in a work of literature whose physical or psychological qualities
contrast strongly with, and therefore highlight, the corresponding qualities of another
character. In his Sherlock Holmes stories, Arthur Conan Doyle portrayed Dr. Watson as a
man of normal habits and intelligence, making him a foil for the eccentric and wonderfully
perceptive Sherlock Holmes. Gale
10- Hyperbole: A figure of speech in which an overstatement or exaggeration occurs as
in the following lines from Act 2, scene 2 of Shakespeare's "Macbeth." In this scene,
Macbeth has murdered King Duncan. Horrified at the blood on his hands, he asks:
Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this blood
Clean from my hand? No. This my hand will rather
The multitudinous seas incarnadine,
Making the green one red.
Literally, it does not require an ocean to wash blood from one's hand. Nor can the blood on
one's hand turn the green ocean red. The hyperbole works to illustrate the guilt Macbeth
feels at the brutal murder of his king and kinsman.
See Understatement to study the opposite of hyperbole.
Lit Terms
10- Lyric Poetry: A poem expressing the subjective feelings and personal emotions of the
poet. Such poetry is melodic, since it was originally accompanied by a lyre in recitals. Most
Western poetry in the twentieth century may be classified as lyrical. Examples of lyric
poetry include A. E. Housman's elegy "To an Athlete Dying Young," the odes of Pindar and
Horace, Thomas Gray and William Collins, the sonnets of Sir Thomas Wyatt and Sir Philip
Sidney, Elizabeth Barrett Browning and Rainer Maria Rilke, and a host of other forms in the
poetry of William Blake and Christina Rossetti, among many others. (Compare with
Dramatic Poetry and Narrative Poetry.) Gale
10- Round and Flat Characters: The representation of a human being in narrative
fiction, poetry or drama. E. M. Forster's distinction between round and flat characters are
still useful. Round characters are major figures; they have numerous realistic traits and
are relatively fully developed. Round characters are often considered dynamic since they
have the capacity to change or act unpredictably. Even a one-time, out-of-character action
indicates the dynamic nature of a round character. Flat characters are indistinguishable
from their group or class. They are usually minor figures, though not all minor characters
are flat. Since flat characters are not central to the plot, they do not need to change,
mature: they are usually static. Writer’s Guide
10- Static or Dynamic Characters: "Furthermore, a character may be either static or
dynamic. A static character is one who changes little if at all. Things happen to such a
character without things happening within …A dynamic character, on the other hand, is
one who is modified by actions and experiences, and one objective of the work in which
the character appears is to reveal the consequences of these actions" Notes in the
Margin (characterization)
10- Syntax: The ordering of words into meaningful verbal patterns such as phrases,
clauses, and sentences. Poets often manipulate syntax, changing conventional word order,
to place certain emphasis on particular words. Emily Dickinson, for instance, writes about
being surprised by a snake in her poem "A narrow Fellow in the Grass," and includes this
line: "His notice sudden is." In addition to the alliterative hissing s-sounds here, Dickinson
also effectively manipulates the line‟s syntax so that the verb is appears unexpectedly at
the end, making the snake‟s hissing presence all the more "sudden." Meyers
10- Tragedy: According to A. C. Bradley, a tragedy is a type of drama which is pre-
eminently the story of one person, the hero. "Romeo and Juliet" and "Antony and
Cleopatra" depart from this, however, and we may view both characters in each play as
one protagonist. The story depicts the trouble part of the hero's life in which a total
reversal of fortune comes upon a person who formerly stood in high degree, apparently
secure, sometimes even happy. The suffering and calamity in a tragedy are exceptional,
since they befall a conspicuous person, e. g., Macbeth is a noble at first, then a king;
Hamlet is a prince; Oedipus is a king. Moreover, the suffering and calamity spread far and
wide until the whole scene becomes a scene of woe. The story leads up to and includes the
death (in Shakespearean tragedy) or moral destruction (in Sophoclean tragedy) of the
protagonist. Lit Terms
11- Ambiguity: Allows for two or more simultaneous interpretations of a word, phrase,
action, or situation, all of which can be supported by the context of a work. Deliberate
ambiguity can contribute to the effectiveness and richness of a work, for example, in the
open-ended conclusion to Hawthorne‟s Young Goodman Brown. However, unintentional
ambiguity obscures meaning and can confuse readers" Elements
11- Analogy: A comparison of two things made to explain something unfamiliar through
its similarities to something familiar, or to prove one point based on the acceptedness of
another. Similes and metaphors are types of analogies. Analogies often take the form of
an extended simile, as in William Blake's aphorism: "As the caterpillar chooses the fairest
leaves to lay her eggs on, so the priest lays his curse on the fairest joys." (Compare with
Simile and Metaphor.) Gale
11- Apostrophe: A figure of speech wherein the speaker speaks directly to something
nonhuman. In these lines from John Donne's poem "The Sun Rising" the poet scolds the
sun for interrupting his night time activities:
Busy old fool, unruly sun,
Why dost thou thus,
Through windows, and through curtains call on us? Lit Terms
11- Assonance: The repetition of similar vowel sounds in Poetry.
The following lines from Gerald Manley Hopkins's "God's Grandeur" contain several
patterns of assonance:
The world is charged with the grandeur of God.
It will flame out, like shining from shook foil;
It gathers to a greatness, like the ooze of oil
Crushed. Why do men then now not reck his rod?
(Compare with Alliteration, Dissonance, and rhyme.) Lit Terms
11- Cacophony/Euphony: Cacophony is an unpleasant combination of sounds. Euphony,
the opposite, is a pleasant combination of sounds. These sound effects can be used
intentionally to create an effect, or they may appear unintentionally. The cacophony in
Matthew Arnold's lines "And thou, who didst the stars and sunbeams know,/Self-school'd,
self-scann'd, self-honor'd, self-secure,/Didst tread on earth unguess'd at," is probably
unintentional. Lit Terms
11- Consonance: The repetition of consonant sounds with differing vowel sounds in
words near each other in a line or lines of poetry. Consider the following example from
Theodore Roethke's "Night Journey:"
We rush into a rain
That rattles double glass.
The repetition of the r sound in rush, rain, and rattles, occurring so close to each other in
these two lines, would be considered consonance. Lit Terms
11- Dénouement: "Literally, 'unknotting.' The final unraveling of a plot; the solution of a
mystery; an explanation or outcome. Dénouement implies an ingenious untying of the knot
of an intrigue, involving not only a satisfactory outcome of the main situation but an
explanation of all the secrets and misunderstandings connected with the plot complication"
( Source : Harmon & Holman, 146). Notes in the Margin
11- Enjambment: In poetry, when one line ends without a pause and continues into the
next line for its meaning. This is also called a run-on line. The transition between the first
two lines of Wordsworth‟s poem "My Heart Leaps Up" demonstrates enjambment: My heart
leaps up when I behold / A rainbow in the sky" Elements
11- Euphony/Cacophony: Cacophony is an unpleasant combination of sounds. Euphony,
the opposite, is a pleasant combination of sounds. These sound effects can be used
intentionally to create an effect, or they may appear unintentionally. The cacophony in
Matthew Arnold's lines "And thou, who didst the stars and sunbeams know,/Self-school'd,
self-scann'd, self-honor'd, self-secure,/Didst tread on earth unguess'd at," is probably
unintentional. Lit Terms
11- Hubris or Hybris: "Hubris or Hybris excessive pride or self-confidence that leads a
protagonist to disregard a divine warning or to violate an important moral law. In tragedies,
hubris is a very common form of hamartia" Lit Terms
11- Imagery: The use of words or figures of speech to create a mental picture. Imagery
exploits all five senses to produce a single powerful impression or to create a cluster of
impressions that convey a dominant mood. Auditory imagery appeals to the sense of
hearing. Gustatory imagery appeals to the sense of taste. Kinetic imagery conveys a
sense of motion. Sometimes called KINAESTHETIC IMAGERY. Olfactory imagery appeals
to the sense of smell. Tactile imagery appeals to the sense of touch. Sometimes called
HAPTIC IMAGERY. Verbal imagery is created with words (often with a visual analogue - a
"mental picture" is a commonly used metaphor for the operation of verbal imagery).Visual
imagery is created with pictures (often with a verbal analogue - many visual images are
pictures of things representing well-known sayings or phrases). Canadian Content
11- Juxtaposition: Juxtapose is simply the placement of two things closely together to
establish comparisons or contrasts. Elements
11- Magical Realism/Magic Realism: "A worldwide twentieth-century tendency in the
graphic and literary arts, especially painting and prose fiction. The frame or surface of the
work may be conventionally realistic, but contrasting elements—such as the supernatural,
myth, dream, fantasy—invade the realism and change the whole basis of the art": Notes
in the Margin
A term introduced by the Cuban novelist Alejo Carpentier, who "saw in magic realism the
capacity to enrich our idea of what is 'real' by incorporating all dimensions of the
imagination, particularly as expressed in magic, myth, and religion" ( Source : Benet's,
635). Example: Snow in August by Pete Hamill. Notes in the Margin
11- Ode: Name given to an extended lyric poem characterized by exalted emotion and
dignified style. An ode usually concerns a single, serious theme. Most odes, but not all, are
addressed to an object or individual. Odes are distinguished from other lyric poetic forms
by their complex rhythmic and stanzaic patterns.
An example of this form is John Keats's "Ode to a Nightingale." (Compare with Lyric
Poetry.) Gale
11- Paradox: A statement that appears illogical or contradictory at first, but may actually
point to an underlying truth.
"Less is more" is an example of a paradox. Literary examples include Francis Bacon's
statement, "The most corrected copies are commonly the least correct," and "All animals
are equal, but some animals are more equal than others" from George Orwell's Animal
Farm. Gale
11- Register: a term designating the appropriateness of a given style to a given situation.
Speakers and writers in specific situations deploy, for example, a technical vocabulary (e.g.
scientific, commercial, medical, legal, theological, psychological), as well as other aspects
of style customarily used in that situation. Literary effect is often created by switching
register. Virtual Classroom
11- Satire: A work that uses ridicule, humor, and wit to criticize and provoke change in
human nature and institutions. There are two major types of satire: "formal" or "direct"
satire speaks directly to the reader or to a character in the work; "indirect" satire relies
upon the ridiculous behavior of its characters to make its point. Formal satire is further
divided into two manners: the "Horatian," which ridicules gently, and the "Juvenalian,"
which derides its subjects harshly and bitterly. Voltaire's novella Candide is an indirect
satire. Jonathan Swift's essay "A Modest Proposal" is a Juvenalian satire. Gale
11- Sonnet: A fourteen-line poem, usually composed in iambic pentameter, employing
one of several rhyme schemes. There are three major types of sonnets, upon which all
other variations of the form are based: the "Petrarchan" or "Italian" sonnet, the
"Shakespearean" or "English" sonnet, and the "Spenserian" sonnet. A Petrarchan sonnet
consists of an octave rhymed abbaabba and a "sestet" rhymed either cdecde, cdccdc, or
cdedce. The octave poses a question or problem, relates a narrative, or puts forth a
proposition; the sestet presents a solution to the problem, comments upon the narrative,
or applies the proposition put forth in the octave. The Shakespearean sonnet is divided
into three quatrains and a couplet rhymed abab cdcd efef gg. The couplet provides an
epigrammatic comment on the narrative or problem put forth in the quatrains. The
Spenserian sonnet uses three quatrains and a couplet like the Shakespearean, but links
their three rhyme schemes in this way: abab bcbc cdcd ee. The Spenserian sonnet
develops its theme in two parts like the Petrarchan, its final six lines resolving a problem,
analyzing a narrative, or applying a proposition put forth in its first eight lines.
Examples of sonnets can be found in Petrarch's Canzoniere, Edmund Spenser's Amoretti,
Elizabeth Barrett Browning's Sonnets from the Portuguese, Rainer Maria Rilke's Sonnets to
Orpheus, and Adrienne Rich's poem "The Insusceptibles." Gale
11- Stream of Consciousness: A narrative technique for rendering the inward
experience of a character. This technique is designed to give the impression of an ever-
changing series of thoughts, emotions, images, and memories in the spontaneous and
seemingly illogical order that they occur in life.
The textbook example of stream of consciousness is the last section of James Joyce's
Ulysses. Gale
11- Structure: The form taken by a piece of literature. The structure may be made
obvious for ease of understanding, as in non-fiction works, or may be obscured for artistic
purposes, as in some Poetry or seemingly "unstructured" prose.
Examples of common literary structures include the plot of a narrative, the acts and scenes
of a drama, and such poetic forms as the Shakespearean sonnet and the Pindaric ode.
Gale
11- Tone: The author's attitude toward his or her audience may be deduced from the tone
of the work. A formal tone may create distance or convey politeness, while an informal
tone may encourage a friendly, intimate, or intrusive feeling in the reader. The author's
attitude toward his or her subject matter may also be deduced from the tone of the words
he or she uses in discussing it.
The tone of John F. Kennedy's speech which included the appeal to "ask not what your
country can do for you" was intended to instil feelings of camaraderie and national pride in
listeners. Gale
11- Understatement: A statement which lessens or minimizes the importance of what is
meant. For example, if one were in a desert where the temperature was 125 degrees, and
if one were to describe thermal conditions saying "It's a little warm today." that would be
an understatement. In Shakespeare's "Macbeth," Macbeth, having murdered his friend
Banquo, understates the number of people who have been murdered since the beginning
of time by saying "Blood hath been shed ere now."
The opposite is hyperbole. See Hyperbole for more information. Lit Terms
12- Blank Verse: "Blank verse unrhymed iambic pentameter. Blank verse is the English
verse form closest to the natural rhythms of English speech and therefore is the most
common pattern found in traditional English narrative and dramatic poetry from
Shakespeare to the early twentieth century. Shakespeare‟s plays use blank verse
extensively" Elements
12- Chorus: In ancient Greek drama, a group of actors who commented on and
interpreted the unfolding action on the stage. Initially the chorus was a major component
of the presentation, but over time it became less significant, with its numbers reduced and
its role eventually limited to commentary between Acts. By the sixteenth century the
chorus — if employed at all — was typically a single person who provided a prologue and
an epilogue and occasionally appeared between acts to introduce or underscore an
important event.
The chorus in William Shakespeare's Henry V functions in this way. Modern dramas rarely
feature a chorus, but T. S. Eliot's Murder in the Cathedral and Arthur Miller's A View from
the Bridge are notable exceptions. The Stage Manager in Thornton Wilder's Our Town
performs a role similar to that of the chorus. Gale
12- Doppelganger: (Also known as The Double.) A literary technique by which a
character is duplicated (usually in the form of an alter ego, though sometimes as a ghostly
counterpart) or divided into two distinct, usually opposite personalities. The use of this
character device is widespread in nineteenth- and twentieth-century literature, and
indicates a growing awareness among authors that the "self" is really a composite of many
"selves."
A well-known story containing a doppelganger character is Robert Louis Stevenson's Dr.
Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, which dramatizes an internal struggle between good and evil. Gale
12- Double Entendre: A corruption of a French phrase meaning "double meaning." The
term is used to indicate a word or phrase that is deliberately ambiguous, especially when
one of the meanings is risque or improper.
An example of a double entendre is the Elizabethan usage of the verb "die," which refers
both to death and to orgasm. Gale
12- Existentialism: "A 20th-century movement in philosophy…All existentialists are
concerned with ontology, the study of being. The point of departure is human
consciousness and mental processes. In contrast to most previous philosophical systems,
which maintain that an a priori essence precedes or transcends the individual existence of
people or of objects, the existentialists conclude that existence precedes essence. The
significance of this for human beings is that the concept that one has an essential self is
shown to be an illusion. A man's self is nothing except what he has become; at any given
moment, it is the sum of the life he has shaped until then. The 'nothing' he begins with is
thus the source of man's freedom, for at each moment it is man's will that can choose how
to act or not to act. However, each such decision affects the future doubly: a man is or
should be responsible for the consequences of his actions; and each action necessarily
excludes the other potential actions for that moment, and their consequences, and thus at
least partially limits the potentialities for future actions.
"By what standards, then, should a person make decisions? The mind cannot discern any
meaning for this existence in the universe; when a person abandons his illusions, he finds
himself horrified by the absurdity of the human condition…a person must create a human
morality in the absence of any known predetermined absolute values" ( Source : Benet's,
334-335). Notes in the Margin
12- Hamartia: "Hamartia a term coined by Aristotle to describe "some error or frailty"
that brings about misfortune for a tragic hero. The concept of hamartia is closely related to
that of the tragic flaw: both lead to the downfall of the protagonist in a tragedy. Hamartia
may be interpreted as an internal weakness in a character (like greed or passion or hubris);
however, it may also refer to a mistake that a character makes that is based not on a
personal failure, but on circumstances outside the protagonist‟s personality and control"
Elements
12- Metonymy: A figure of speech in which the name of one object is replaced by another
which is closely associated with it. So 'the turf' is a metonym for horse-racing,
'Westminster' is a metonym for the Houses of Parliament, 'Downing Street' is a metonym
for the Prime-Minister or his office. 'Sceptre and crown came tumbling down' is a
metonymic way of saying 'the king fell from power'. Virtual Classroom (see synecdoche)
12- Rhythm: Recurrences of stressed and unstressed syllables at equal intervals, similar
to meter. However, though two lines may be of the same meter, the rhythms of the lines
may be different. For example, if one were to read the last two lines of Robert Frost's,
"Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening" with equal speed, the lines would be the same
in meter and rhythm. However, if one were to read the last line more slowly (as it should
be read), the meter would be the same but the rhythm different. This is because while the
meter of a line is identified by the pattern within each foot, the rhythm is accounted for by
larger units than individual feet. Lit Terms
"Foot the metrical unit by which a line of poetry is measured. A foot usually
consists of one stressed and one or two unstressed syllables. An iambic foot,
which consists of one unstressed syllable followed by one stressed syllable
("away"), is the most common metrical foot in English poetry. A trochaic foot
consists of one stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable ("lovely"). An
anapestic foot is two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed one
("understand"). A dactylic foot is one stressed syllable followed by two
unstressed ones ("desperate"). A spondee is a foot consisting of two stressed
syllables ("dead set"), but is not a sustained metrical foot and is used mainly for
variety or emphasis" Elements
Here are the types of feet: U (unstressed); / (stressed syllable) Elements
Iamb: U /
Trochee: / U
Anapest: U U /
Dactyl: / U U
Spondee: / /
Pyrrhic: U U
12- Synecdoche: the rhetorical figure whereby a part is substituted for a whole ('a suit
entered the room'), or, less usually, in which a whole is substituted for a part (as when a
policeman is called 'the law' or a manager is called 'the management'). Virtual
Classroom (see metonymy)
12- Synaesthesia: (also spelled synesthesia, from Grk. "perceiving together"): A
rhetorical trope involving shifts in imagery. It involves taking one type of sensory input
(sight, sound, smell, touch, taste) and comingling it with another separate sense in an
impossible way. In the resulting figure of speech, we end up talking about how a color
sounds, or how a smell looks. When we say a musician hits a "blue note" while playing a
sad song, we engage in synaesthesia. When we talk about a certain shade of color as a
"cool green," we mix tactile or thermal imagery with visual imagery the same way. When
we talk about a "heavy silence," we also use synaesthesia. Examples abound: "The scent
of the rose rang like a bell through the garden." "I caressed the darkness with cool
fingers." French poets, especially Baudelaire in Les fleurs du mal, have proven especially
eager to use synaesthesia. The term itself is a fairly late addition to rhetoric and literary
terminology, first coined in 1892, though examples of this figure of speech can be found in
Homer, Aeschylus, Donne, Shelley, Crashaw, and scores of other writers and poets. See
examples under tropes. Wheeler
12- Tropes: Tropes are figures of speech with an unexpected twist in the meaning of
words (metaphors, simile, irony….) as opposed to schemes, which only deal with patterns
of words. Wheeler
Canadian Content: http://www.canadiancontent.net/en/jd/go?Url=http://www.pfmb.uni-
mb.si/eng/dept/eng/text/glos2.htm
David’s: http://www. http://www.dramatic.com.au/glossary/
Elements: http://web.cocc.edu/lisal/literaryterms/elements_of_literature.htm
Gale: http://www.galegroup.com/free_resources/glossary/
Lit Terms: http://www.tnellen.com/cybereng/lit_terms/index.html
McGraw Hill:
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072405228/student_view0/drama_glossary.html
Meyers: http://www.bedfordstmartins.com/literature/bedlit/glossary_f.htm
Notes in the Margin: http://www.notesinthemargin.org/glossary.html#c
Virtual Classroom: http://www.english.cam.ac.uk/vclass/terms.htm
Wheeler: http://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/lit_terms_S.html
Writer’s Guide:
http://www.sifc.edu/english/WritersGuide/64WPGlossaryofLiteraryTerms.htm
Basic Grammatical Terms (all from Virtual Classroom)
Adjective: A word which qualifies or modifies the meaning of a noun; as in a 'red hat' or
a 'quick fox'. They can be used to complement the verbs 'to be' or 'to seem' ('Sue seems
happy today'). Adjectives are sometimes formed from nouns or verbs by the addition of a
suffix such as '-able' (lovable), '-ful' (heedful), '-ic' (heroic), '-ish' (foolish), '-ive'
(combative), '-ous' (famous), or '-y' (needy).
Adverb: A word which qualifies or adds to the action of a verb: as in 'he ran quickly', or
'he ran fast'. Adverbs can also qualify adjectives, as in 'the grass is intensely green'.
They are usually formed by adding '-ly' to an adjective: 'playfully', 'combatively', 'foolishly'.
They can also sometimes be formed by the addition of '-wise' to a noun ('the hands went
round clockwise).
Clause: The word is often used but very hard to define. It is a sentence or sentence-like
construction included within another sentence. A main clause might be a simple noun
plus verb ('I did it'). A co-ordinate clause is of equal status with the main clause: 'I did it
and she did it at the same time.' A subordinate clause might be nested within a
sentence using the conjunction 'that': 'he said that the world was flat.' Here 'he said' is the
main clause and the subordinate clause is 'the world was flat'. Relative clauses are
usually introduced by a relative pronoun: 'I read the book which was falling to pieces';
'She spoke to the man who was standing at the bar.'
Conjunction: A word used to connect words or constructions. Co-ordinating
conjunctions such as 'and', and 'but' link together elements of equal importance in a
sentence ('Fish and chips' are of equal importance). Subordinating conjunctions such as
'because', 'if', 'although', connect a subordinate clause to its superordinate clause ('We will
do it if you insist'; 'We did it because he insisted).
Noun: A word used as the name or designation of a person or thing, such as 'duck' or
'river'. Abstract nouns denote abstract properties, such as 'invisibility', 'gentleness'.
Proper nouns are nouns that designate one thing, as, for example, personal names.
Object: Usually the thing to which the action of a verb is done. More technically a
substantive word, phrase, or clause, immediately dependent on, or „governed by‟, a verb,
as expressing, in the case of a verb of action, the person or thing to which the action is
directed, or on which it is exerted; that which receives the action of the verb. So 'the man
patted the dog', 'the woman was reading the book'. An indirect object of a verb
denotes that which is indirectly affected by an action, but wihch is not the immediate
product of it, as „Give him the book‟, „Make me a coat‟.
Participle: a word derived from a noun which functions like an adjective, as in 'let
sleeping dogs lie'. More technically 'A word that partakes of the nature of a verb and an
adjective; a derivative of a verb which has the function and construction of an adjective
(qualifying a noun), while retaining some of those of the verb'. Present participles usually
end in '-ing' and usually describe an action which is going on at the same time as the verb:
so in the sentence '"Go and play on your own street," she said, kicking the ball', the
saying and the kicking are simultaneous. Past participles usually end in '-ed' or '-en'
('the door was kicked in'; 'the door was broken'). They are used in two main ways:
combined with the verb 'have' they form a past or 'perfect' tense (so called because it
describes an action which has been completed or 'perfected'), as in 'I have smashed the
plate'. Past participles can also be used in passive constructions (which describe what was
done to something rather than what something did), as in 'the plate was smashed'.
Preposition: A part of speech which indicates a connection, between two other parts of
speech, such as 'to', 'with', 'by' or 'from'. 'She came from China', 'He gave the chocolates
to me'.
Pronoun: A part of speech which stands for a noun: 'he', 'she', 'him', 'her', 'them'.
Possessive pronouns express ownership ('his', 'hers'). Reflexive pronouns are 'herself',
'himself', 'myself' and are used either for emphasis (he did it all himself'), or when an
action reflects back on the agent who performs it ('he shot himself in the foot'). Relative
pronouns include 'who', 'which', 'that' and are usually used in the form 'he rebuked the
reader who had sung in the library'. Interrogative pronouns ask questions ('Who stole
the pie?'; 'Which pie?'). Indefinite pronouns do not specify a particular person or thing:
'Anyone who studies grammar must be mad.' 'Somebody has to know about this stuff.'
Sentence: This is a term which professional linguists still find impossible to define
adequately. It is usually supposed to be 'A sequence of words which makes complete
sense, containing subject, object and main verb, and concluded by a full-stop'.
Subject: Usually the person or thing who is performing the action of a verb. More
technically the grammatical subject is the part of a sentence of which an action is
predicated: 'the man patted the dog'. It can be a single noun, or it can been a complex
clause: 'the bald man who had just picked up the ball gave it to the dog.'
Syntax (Greek 'together arrangement'): a term designating the way in which words can
be arranged and modified to construct sentences. Writers characteristically use syntactic
sub-ordination when they aim for a highly formal effect, and syntactic co-ordination when
they aim for a simpler, more straight-forward effect.
Verb: Usually a word which describes an action (such as 'he reads poems', 'she excels at
cricket'). More technically 'That part of speech by which an assertion is made, or which
serves to connect a subject with a predicate.' This technical definition includes the most
frequent verb in the language: the verb 'to be' which can be used to connect a 'subject',
such as 'he', with a 'predicate', such as 'good at hockey'. There are verbs which take an
object ('he raps the desk'), which are called transitive verbs. Other verbs do not, and
are termed intransitive verbs ('I sit, he lives'). Some verbs can be used either
transitively or intransitively: 'I sing' is an intransitive usage; 'Paul McCartney sings "God
save the Queen"' is a transitive usage. The main verb is the verb on which the structure
of the sentence depends, and without which the sentence would not make any sense. In
the following sentence the verb 'fell' is the main verb: 'The boy, who had run too quickly,
fell'.
COMMA Armchair Punctuation
http://community-2.webtv.net/solis-boo/Grammar2/page4.html
COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
When we join two or more independent clauses (complete sentences), forming a new
single sentence, the independent clauses are usually joined by a comma and a
coordinating conjunction. Coordinating conjunctions join elements of equal grammatical
rank. There are seven coordinating conjunctions.
Seven Coordinating Conjunctions: and but or for so nor yet
-Gwen and Ratiti walked to the head of the valley, and they decided to rest.
(The constructions on either side of the coordinating conjunction and are independent
clauses, i.e., each clause could stand by itself as a complete sentence.)
-George worked for many years, yet he could not afford the home of his dreams.
(Two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction.)
-We chopped wood yesterday, so the axe needs to be sharpened.
† Usage Note
When one or both independent clauses are short and there is no danger of
misunderstanding the sentence, the comma may be omitted. Examples follow.
-The plane lifted off and we were on our way.
-(The sentence could also appear: The plane lifted off, and we were on our way.)
-The fox pounced upon the rabbit and the commotion ceased.
-(The sentence could also appear: The fox pounced upon the rabbit, and the commotion
ceased.)
INTRODUCTORY WORDS, PHRASES, CLAUSES
Introductory Adverbial Word Group
The most common introductory word groups include subordinate adverbial phrases and
clauses. (Also see Adverbial Constructions in this section.) A subordinate adverbial phrase
or clause is always introduced by a single-word adverb or adverbial phrase called a
subordinating conjunction or simply a subordinator. A subordinator frequently signals the
start of a subordinate phrase or clause. Introductory adverbial words, phrases, and clauses
are usually set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma. The comma is a signal
to the reader that the introductory phrase or clause is completed and that the
main clause is about to begin.
-Near a steep rise at the head of the canyon, we found another group of hikers.
-(The introductory adverbial phrase answers the question where? regarding the main
clause: We found another group of hikers where?)
-Until we hear his signal, we must remain quiet and calm.
-(The introductory adverbial clause answers the question under what condition? regarding
the main clause: We must remain quiet and calm under what condition?)
-After the girls ate lunch, they returned to the construction site.
-(The introductory adverbial clause answers the question when? regarding the main
clause.)
† Usage Note
A comma may be omitted after a short introductory adverbial phrase or clause as long as
the meaning of the sentence remains clear. A comma may be used if the writer desires.
It's a matter of personal choice.
-In no time we were racing down the slope.
-In no time, we were racing down the slope.
-While we ate Johanna coughed repeatedly.
-While we ate, Johanna coughed repeatedly
Introductory Adjectival Word Group
A sentence may be introduced by a subordinate adjective phrase or clause, which modifies
a noun or pronoun immediately following it. A comma following this kind of introduction
signals the reader that he or she is about to hear the noun or pronoun. In adjectival
introductions, convention requires that a comma usually follow the introduction, even
when the phrase or clause is brief. Single-word adjectival introductory words also follow
this convention.
Knowing he couldn't outrun the police, Kevin stopped and surrendered.
(Example of an introductory participle clause modifying the proper noun Kevin.)
To survive, the bears went into hibernation.
(Example of an introductory infinitive phrase functioning as an adjective that modifies the
noun bears.)
Our pride shouldered, we were better equipped to deal with his criticism.
(Example of an absolute phrase introducing the sentence. Note that absolute constructions
modify the entire independent clause, not just a noun or pronoun. The absolute
construction is often confused with a participle phrase, and the two constructions are
similar. An absolute construction, however, is determined by form alone. A comma is
always required after an introductory absolute phrase or clause. See end of Section Nine
for more on absolute constructions.
† Usage Note
A comma is generally not used to set off a subordinate adjective or adverb phrase or
clause that follows an independent clause unless the subordinate word group is clearly
parenthetical material.
-It's tough to cut a whisker when it's down.
-(Example of an adverb clause following the main clause. Because the adverb clause is not
parenthetical material, i.e., it is necessary to the meaning of the sentence, it is not set off
from the main clause with a comma.)
-Peter walked to the corner store because he was thirsty.
-(Because the concluding adverbial clause is necessary to the meaning of the sentence, it
is not set off with a comma.)
-Continue down the hallway to its end, until you can go no further.
-(The concluding adverbial clause is definitely parenthetical content and must be set off
from the main clause. Obviously, at the end of the hallway we can go no further.)
ITEMS IN A SERIES
When three or more items are presented in a series, the items should be separated with
commas. Items in a series may comprise single words, phrases, or clauses; and they may
be any part of speech, e.g., nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.
-Gardening is very good therapy; it relaxes the body, mind, and spirit.
(Example of nouns used in a series. We should also note that items separated by
conjunctions do not use a comma: Gardening is very good therapy; it relaxes the body and
mind and spirit.)
-Among the many items in the attic, we found power tools for father, sewing supplies for
mother, and toys for the kids.
(Example of noun phrases in series.)
A boat cannot jump, skip, hop, or fly; it can only float and sail.
(Example of verbs used in series.)
† Usage Note
Although the comma between the last two items in a series is optional, many writers
believe it is better to include it. Separating all items with equal punctuation lends equal
emphasis. There are, however, some constructions where the inclusion or omission of the
final comma affects the meaning of the sentence. Examples follow.
American folk songs may be classified in the following categories: marching songs, work
songs, ballads, hymns, and spirituals.
(The series of nouns includes five categories of songs.)
American folk songs may be classified in the following categories: marching songs, work
songs, ballads, hymns and spirituals.
(With the omission of the final comma, we include hymns and spirituals into a common
category. The sentence now has four categories.)
† Usage Note
Never use a comma before the first item or after the last item in a series.
Incorrect
Things we need to do today are, go to the market, stop by the post office, and visit Beth.
This job that appears so glamorous, carefree, and important, is really quite the opposite.
Correct
Things we need to do today are go to the market, stop by the post office, and visit Beth.
This job that appears so glamorous, carefree, and important is really quite the opposite.
† Usage Note
When the items in a series are joined by the coordinating conjunctions and or or, do not
separate the items.
Incorrect
The weather prediction called for rain, or sleet, or snow.
To save money, we traveled by bus, and train, and by foot.
Correct
The weather prediction called for rain or sleet or snow.
To save money, we traveled by bus and train and by foot.
SEMICOLON
A semicolon is used as follows:
I. To join independent clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction.
II. To join independent clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb or transitional element.
III. To join independent clauses containing internal punctuation.
IV. Between items in a series containing internal punctuation.
I. Semicolon Joins Independent Clauses
A semicolon may be used to join independent clauses not joined by a coordinating
conjunction, which are and, or, but, for, so, nor, and yet. A semicolon can, in fact,
function as a substitute for a coordinating conjunction. Both semicolon and coordinating
conjunction join independent clauses whose ideas, or propositions, are related.
In each of the following examples, note that the joined clauses are related, i.e., the idea
contained in one clause relates logically to the idea in the other. Specifically, the idea
contained within the second clause relates to the idea expressed in the first clause. If
together the ideas contained in the separate clauses didn't make any sense, then obviously
we couldn't join the ideas into a single sentence. Also, note that a space always follows a
semicolon, just as with most internal punctuation marks.
-There are two ponds at the park; they are stocked with brown trout.
-Sarah is a great swing dancer; she's got great rhythm.
-Braided light is intense laser light; it travels through a nonlinear optical medium.
Semicolon & Dependent Construction
A common error made by writers is to join a dependent phrase or clause to another
element, typically an independent clause, using a semicolon. Never use a semicolon to join
a subordinate word group, i.e., a phrase or dependent clause, to the rest of the sentence.
A comma or other appropriate mark is used instead.
Incorrect: Through deceptive accounting; Worldcom Corporation swindled investors out of
billions.
Correct: Through deceptive accounting, Worldcom Corporation swindled investors out of
billions.
Incorrect: Our team was forced to resign; having lost too many players.
Correct: Our team was forced to resign, having lost too many players.
Semicolon Alternatives
In constructions where a semicolon could join two independent clauses, a writer may, if he
or she feels that a semicolon is too formal, omit the semicolon and instead choose one of
the following alternatives: The clauses may be joined by (1) a comma and coordinating
conjunction, (2) a coordinating conjunction alone, or (3) the clauses could be written as
separate sentences. Examples follow.
Original Construct Using Semicolon
Take only those items you will need; leave behind the unnecessary and bulky items.
The house on the corner is said to be haunted; everyone claims to have seen ghosts there
at one time or another.
Alternative: Comma & Conjunction
Take only those items you need, and leave behind the unnecessary and bulky items.
The house on the corner is said to be haunted, so everyone claims to have seen ghosts
there at one time or another.
Alternative: Conjunction
Take only those items you need and leave behind the unnecessary and bulky items.
The house on the corner is said to be haunted so everyone claims to have seen ghosts
there at one time or another.
Alternative: Two Sentences
Take only those items you will need. Leave behind the unnecessary and bulky items.
The house on the corner is said to be haunted. Everyone claims to have seen ghosts there
at one time or another.
Semicolon As Intensifier
The semicolon is often described as a strong connection between independent clauses. It is
something like a conjunction, signaling the reader that the clauses are closely related and
should be considered a unified expression. Whereas a conjunction serves to join clauses
whose meaning is closely related, we might consider a semicolon an intensifier, where the
second clause amplifies or clarifies the meaning of the first.
In addition to forming a connection between clauses, the semicolon represents a moderate
pause in reading. In his book The Arte of English Poesie (1589), George Puttenham
ascribed a syntactical reference to punctuation consisting of units of pause. The comma
represents one unit; the semicolon, two; and the colon, three. Presently the semicolon is
often described as an moderate pause--longer than a comma, but not as long as a period.
Or, put another way, midway between a comma and a period. End marks, of course,
represent not pauses but complete stops.
Lewis Thomas (1913-1993), a U.S physician and educator, had this to say regarding the
semicolon: "Sometimes you get a glimpse of a semicolon coming, a few lines farther on,
and it is like climbing a steep path through woods and seeing a wooden bench in the road
ahead, a place where you can expect to sit for a moment, catching your breath" (Thomas
129).
Semicolon & A Series of Items
Although not required, it's good practice to use a semicolon between items in a series
containing internal punctuation. In the example below, you can readily see that without
the semicolons the reader would have to sort out the major groupings, distinguishing
between important and less important pauses according to the logic of the sentence. By
using semicolons at the major breaks, the writer does this work for the reader.
The guests included Ken, chairman of the committee; Jack, president of the club; and Tom,
secretary to the secretary.
The roadside vendor sells apples, ten for a dollar; oranges, five for fifty cents; and peaches,
two dollars a dozen.
COLON
Like the semicolon, a colon is considered a formal mark of punctuation. Words, phrases, or
clauses following it receive a formal introduction. A colon is used to formally introduce an
independent clause, a list, a series, an appositive, or a quotation. The colon also has some
additional uses in written convention.
COLON BETWEEN INDEPENDENT CLAUSES
A colon may be used to introduce an independent clause. A colon is used between
independent clauses (both clauses must be independent clauses) when the second clause
summarizes or explains the first. In addition, an independent clause following a colon may
begin with a capital or a lowercase letter. Beginning the second clause with a capital lends
even more formality to the construction.
You have no options at present: Return to base immediately!
Traiji is like Anderson: they are both shy.
Your sentence is poorly constructed: it lacks unity and coherence.
Philosophy is the love of wisdom: The discipline provides one with a general view of the
world and a set of values by which to live.
† Usage Note
Words, phrases, and other dependent word groups following a colon, such as a list,
appositive, or explanation, are not capitalized. However, some words, such as proper
nouns, are always capitalized.
-We found Rex in his favorite spot: under the porch.
(A formally introduced appositive.)
-Give us the following: wood, hammer, and nails.
(A formally introduced list.)
-This summer our family plans to visit four western states: Arizona, Utah, Colorado, and
New Mexico.
(A formally introduced list.)
-Susan and Kathy have similar taste is dress: culottes.
(A formally introduced explanation.)
COLON WITH LISTS, SERIES, APPOSITIVES, QUOTATIONS
The colon, like the semicolon, is a formal mark of punctuation. The colon is said to formally
introduce what follows it. As a result, we find these punctuation marks used most
frequently in formal writing and seldom in informal writing. The colon directs a reader's
attention to the words that follow it.
A List
The colon is used to call attention to words that follow it. It is often used to introduce a list,
especially following the expressions as follows or the following. In formal writing, a colon
precedes a list only when the list is introduced by an independent clause. The list is said to
receive a formal introduction.
-Miss Bixley asked the parents to bring certain items, as follows: popcorn, bowls, plastic
eating utensils, and napkins.
-To equip for the retreat Dan packed the following: a propane stove, sleeping bag, and
various other camping items.
-To bring law and order to Invalice I had several alternatives: I could separate villain from
victim; I could hire more military, or I could destroy The Evil One.
-Our course of study covers a number of great historians: Will Durant, Edward Freeman,
Arnold Toynbee, and Sir Karl Popper.
† Usage Note
When the words is, are, like, such as, in, and on, introduce a list, they are not followed by
a mark of punctuation. Grammatically speaking, we do not place a colon between (1) a
verb and its object, (2) a verb and a subject complement, or (3) a preposition and its
object. Examples of misplaced colons follow.
-My sister returned: the gloves, hat, and parasol.
(A colon placed between s verb and its object is incorrect.)
-The boys at the far table are: John, Harry, and Clyde.
(A colon placed between a verb and subject complement is incorrect.)
-The car slid off the road and rolled down: the embankment and the cliff.
(A colon placed between a preposition and its object is incorrect.)
A Series
A series is very similar to a list. Whereas a list is two or more items separated by commas,
a series is a list of items plus some additional information regarding those items, often in
the form of parenthetical material. The series, being a more complex list, usually requires
additional internal punctuation.
-The following persons are our newly elected members: Ken Kellar, the gambler; Harvey
Ringwold, the magician; and Stella Zing, campus crusader.
-Karen has earned degrees from the following universities: Suits University; College Pierna,
Planning, and Design; and the College of Lackadaisy Studies.
An Appositive
A colon may be used to formally set off or introduce an appositive.
-He had only one pleasure: eating.
-You may do one of two things: eat your dinner or go to your room.
A Quotation
A colon may be used to formally introduce a direct quotation. Indirect quotations, on the
other hand, are set off from the rest of the sentence with commas. (Refer to Quotation
Marks, Section Twenty-Three.)
Consider the words of President Nixon: "I am not guilty..."
In these modern times, the words of Mark Twain make more sense than ever: "Suppose
you were an idiot. And suppose you were a member of Congress. But, I repeat myself."
COLON IN CONVENTION
Time
Use a colon between the hour and the minute.
8:45 p.m.
4:20 in the morning
The Bible
Use a colon between chapter and verse when referring to passages in the Bible.
Psalms 15:3
A Business Letter
Use a colon after the salutation of a business letter.
Dear Ms. Martins:
Dear Sir:
Titles of Books
Use a colon to separate the title of a book from its subtitle.
Global Water: The Privatization of a Finite Resource
ELLIPSIS MARK
The ellipsis mark consists of three spaced periods with spaces between the ellipsis and the
surrounding text or marks of punctuation. The ellipsis mark is also called suspension points.
The ellipsis mark is used (1) to indicate deleted material from an otherwise word-for-word
quotation or (2) to indicate a somewhat protracted pause in written dialogue.
DELETIONS FROM QUOTED MATERIAL
An ellipsis mark is used to indicate that a word or words have been deleted from an
otherwise word-for-word quotation. The ellipsis mark consists of three spaced periods with
one space before and after the ellipsis.
Original Quote
"Several men thrashed about in the cold water, while icy plumes sprayed their faces in
numbing cold, reaching for any flotsam that would buoy them."
Quote with Ellipsis
"Several men thrashed about in the cold water, . . . reaching for any flotsam that would
buoy them."
† Usage Note
To indicate that an entire sentence has been omitted from an otherwise word-for-word
quotation, use a period before an ellipsis mark. This kind of ellipsis results in four spaced
periods. Additionally, an ellipsis mark is not generally used to begin or end a quotation in
works of nonfiction.
DIALOGUE
Use an ellipsis mark to indicate a protracted pause in dialogue.
"I just don't know . . ." John mused. "Something is not right."
† Usage Note
In nonfiction the ellipsis mark should not begin or end a quotation. In fiction, however, the
ellipsis mark may appear anywhere, particularly in dialogue.
BRACKETS
EDITORIAL COMMENT
Use brackets, also called square brackets, to (1) include [your] editorial comment into an
otherwise word-for-word quotation, (2) to enclose [your] word or words substituted for
other words within quotations, or (3) to include material, often explanatory, into your own
prose.
Brackets are most frequently used to include editorial comment--usually authorial
explanation or substitution--into an otherwise word-for-word quotation; but they may also,
albeit rarely, function to include explanatory material inserted into the author's own prose.
Original: Farmington claims in his report that "at the present rate of consumption, it will be
exhausted within seventy-five years."
Editorial Comment: Farmington claims in his report that "at the present rate of
consumption, it [fossil fuel] will be exhausted within seventy-five years."
The original quoted passage from the Farmington article contains no specific mention of
fossil fuel. The reader, without being privy to more detail, could not possibly know what it
refers to. Consequently, the writer has inserted the explanation into an otherwise word-
for-word quotation.
Original: "Theoretical physics began when he invented calculus."
Substituted Words: "Theoretical physics began when [Isaac Newton] invented calculus.
The original quotation contains the pronoun he, which has no antecedent. To correct the
problem, the author has chosen to replace the ambiguous pronoun with its missing
antecedent.
As a child I enjoyed watching my favorite movie [The Sound of Music] every year.
(The writer includes explanatory material into his/her own prose. Note that both brackets
and content appear in italics. See Italics, Section Twenty-Four.)
Last summer dad, mom, and the kids visited their grandparents in Spring Valley [New
York].
(Again the author includes explanatory material into his/her own sentence.)
CITING ERRORS
Sic, the Latin word meaning thus, enclosed within brackets is used to point out an error
within a quotation.
Original: According to Farmington, "At no time in history has mainkind relied so heavily on
a single source of energy."
Error Cited: According to Farmington, "At no time in history has mainkind [sic] relied so
heavily on a single source of energy."
Quoting a passage from Farmington, the writer points out the original misspelling of
mankind. Keep in mind that calling attention to the mistakes of others is snobbish. Use this
tool sparingly.
INTERNAL PARENTHESES
Use brackets as parentheses within material enclosed by parentheses.
PHONETICS
Use brackets to set off phonetic symbols.
Cichlid begins with an [s] sound.