Motivation
Chapter 7
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Learning Objectives
Define and understand the nature of motivation
Explain major content and process theories of
motivation and how culture influences their
application
Discuss how culture influences rewards
Explain how the meaning of work in different
countries influences motivation
Consider ways of developing cross-cultural
motivation systems
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Motivation
The amount of effort that an individual
puts into doing something
Willingness to exert high levels of effort
towards organizational goals,
conditioned by the effort’s ability to
satisfy some individual needs
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Types of Motivation Theories
Content Theories
What employees want from work or
reasons to work
Process Theories
How to get there or alternative ways to get
there
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Content Theories
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Affiliation
Safety and Security
Physiological
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Critics about Maslow’s Heirarchy
What are some major features of Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs?
How this model may be culturally linked?
E.g., the meaning of self-actualization
The content and hierarchical order
Are there significant statistic support
domestically or cross-culturally?
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Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene
Theory
Hygiene Factors Motivation Factors
Company policy and Achievement
administration Recognition
Supervision Interesting work
Relationship with supervisor Responsibility
Work conditions Advancement
Salary Growth
Relationships with peers
Security
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Critics about Herzberg’s Two-Factor
Theory
Job satisfaction versus dissatisfaction
As two separate scales
As equivalence of motivation
Research methodology
Contribution to the practical field
Problem solving
Job redesign
Cross-cultural findings
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McClelland’s Learned Needs
Theory
Need for Achievement
Need for Power
Need for Affiliation
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Critics about McClelland’s Three
Needs Theory
Role of training and support
Link to effective managers and
entrepreneurs
Cross-cultural findings, e.g.
U.S.
Japan
Russia
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Chinese Social Motivation and Leader
Effectiveness
7. Leader fitness for multidimensional
development
6. Social altruism
5. Self-actualization to the benefit of collectivity
4. Social awareness
3. Safety with group harmony and family support
2. Work ethics and life goal priority
1. Social Acceptance
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Conclusions about the Content
Theories
Each restricts explanation of motivation to a
particular set of factors
Largely based on the U.S. culture
Lack of conclusive research support
Valuable starting point for examining cultural
and individual differences in motivation
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Process Theories
Reinforcement Theory
Goal Setting Theory
Expectancy Theory
Equity Theory
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Reinforcement Theory
Giving a reward/reinforcer increases the
likelihood a behavior will be repeated
Ignoring behavior increases the
likelihood that it will not be repeated
Punishment usually puts an immediate
end to a behavior but does not
guarantee it will stop in the long run
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Goal Setting Theory
Higher performance can be achieved by
Setting goals that are specific, rather than vague
Difficult, but achievable, rather than easy or too
risky
Giving timely feedback, rather than no or delayed
feedback
Effectiveness of theory depends on
Commitment to goal
Self-efficacy
Cultural orientation
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The Expectancy Model of Motivation
E P Expectancy P O Expectancy Instrumentality
Perceived Perceived First-level Second-level
probability probability of outcomes, outcomes,
of successful receiving an each with each with
performance, outcome, given valence valence
given effort successful
performance Outcome A Outcome D
(extrinsic)
Outcome E
Outcome B
Effort Performance
(extrinsic) Instrumentality
Perceived probability
Outcome of a first-level
Motivation is expressed as follows: C outcome leading to a
M = [E P] P O) (V)] (intrinsic) second-level outcome
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Equity Theory
Outcomes self Outcomes other
Inputs self Inputs other
Equity related concepts
Distributive justice versus procedural justice
Comparing with a significant other
Underpaid versus overpaid employees
Rebuilding the equilibrium by behavioral or
cognitive adjustment
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Conclusions about the Process
Theories
More effective than content theories in
explaining motivational constructs that can
apply globally
Must consider cultural variations to enhance
the applicability of a particular model
Achieve a deeper level of analysis and allow
for individual differences
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Culture and Rewards
Individual versus group
Masculine versus feminine
Gifts versus rewards for performance
Individual preferences within cultures
Gender
Age
Marital status
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Organizational Reward Practices
Appropriate rewards can be motivating
Circumstances may change preference
Non-cash rewards popular in some companies
European companies using more variable
compensation and flexible benefits
Companies can develop rewards that are
unique to their business and cultural
environment
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The Meaning of Work Study
Work centrality
Japan
U.K.
Saudi Arabia
Societal norms about working
Entitlement
Obligation
Work goals
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Importance of Work Goals
Rank U.S. Germany Japan
Good match between you
1 Interesting work Good pay
and your job
2 Good pay Good job security Interesting work
3 Good job security Interesting work A lot of autonomy
Good match between Good interpersonal
4 you and your job relations
Job security
Good match between
5 Opportunity to learn
you and your job
Good pay
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Convergence or Divergence?
Popularity of U.S. Application of U.S.
business education motivation theories is
leads to an emphasis not equally effective
on U.S. motivation across cultures.
theories. Global corporations
Global corporations need to develop
desire to develop adaptable systems that
consistent policies and are consistent and also
practices worldwide. effective in motivating
people across cultures.
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Implications for Managers
Choosing an universal approach to motivation
is virtually impossible.
Process theories appear more promising than
content theories.
It is imperative to understand people who
work for you in order to develop and
implement an appropriate motivation system.
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