Language Policy in
the Soviet Union
Chapter 4: The Baltic States
Introduction to the Baltics
• Declared independence after Bolshevik
revolution, became part of USSR 1944-45, last
regions annexed to USSR
• Estonian is Finno-Ugric, Latvian & Lithuanian
are Baltic (I-E); all have written traditions since
16th c
• 1989
– Latvia: 54% Latvian, 30% Russian
– Lithuania: 80% Lithuanian, 10% Russian
– Estonia: 65% Estonian, 30% Russian
Introduction to the Baltics, cont’d.
• In post-WWII era, USSR did not have resources
to immediately develop Russian-language
education in the Baltics
• Intense Russification in Brezhnev era
• 1978 nation-wide decree imposed Russian from
pre-school through university
• Lithuania and Estonia held off, did not institute
Russian in 1st grade until 1980-1, and both
declared themselves independent countries in
1990 (though not recognized by USSR)
The Estonian SSR
• High literacy rate, near 100% at time of
annexation
• Prior to annexation, most influential foreign
language was German
• By late 1970s Russification perceived as a
threat to linguistic and cultural identity
• Student protest in Tartu in 1980 – crushed
by police, and Russification went forward
The Latvian SSR
• Information on use of Russian vs. Latvian in instruction is
not clear
• Latvians tended to learn Russian, but the reverse was
not always true
• Latvia suffered great losses during WWII, and there was
a shortage in the labor force – Russians and
“Russianized Latvians” (those who had sided with
Russia in WWI and subsequently lived in Russia) moved
in to fill these posts
• Friction between Latvians who were viewed as
“unreliable” by the Russians and Russianized Latvians
• Russians were concentrated in the cities, which “became
oases of Russian culture and traditions”
The Lithuanian SSR
• The largest Baltic state, with the best-
established literary language, but dialectal
differentiation is strong and impedes
comprehension
• Lithuanian resisted Soviet “liberation” and
regime into the early 1950s
• Proportion of ethnic Russians remained
low
The Lithuanian SSR, cont’d.
• Lithuanian, Polish, and Russian were the
languages of instruction and Russian was
taught in all schools
• Impact of Russian was greater in higher
education and specialized schools
• Russification becomes intense in 1970s
• Massive influx of terms from Russian,
imposed by decree (rather than allowing
Lithuanian to develop words of its own)
Reform and Revolt
• 1980s there was alarm about Russification
in all Baltic states
• Russian required for higher education and
spread in media
• Industrialization happened quickly in
Baltics, bringing more people into cities
and thus intensifying Russification, and
numbers of Russian immigrants
• This all led to anti-Soviet animosity
Reform and Revolt, cont’d.
• 1988 demonstrations & revolts begin in
Estonia and spread through Baltics
• Language issues were a key factor
• 1989 all three Baltic states declare their
languages state languages, local Russians
protest discrimination
• 1989 Estonian law gave non-Estonian
state employees in public service 4 years
to learn Estonian
Reform and Revolt, cont’d.
• 1990 Lithuania declares independence,
1989 they passed a law on language
similar to Estonia’s
• Latvia lagged behind, but also stipulated
that state employees must learn Latvian
and suggested graduation examinations in
Latvian
• 1991 Independence of all Baltic states
recognized by Soviet Union