Research Methods_Psychology David Myers

Shared by: Qyun

Tags

Stats

views:: 9
posted:: 11/13/2011
language:: English
pages:: 79

Public Domain

Document Sample

PSYCHOLOGY
(8th Edition)
David Myers

PowerPoint Slides
Aneeq Ahmad
Henderson State University

Worth Publishers, © 2006 1
Thinking Critically with
Psychological Science

Chapter 1
2
The Need for Psychological Science
Intuition & Common Sense

Many people believe that intuition and common
sense are enough to bring forth answers regarding
human nature.

Intuition and common sense may aid queries,
but they are not free of error.

3
Limits of Human Intuition
Exercise

4
Limits of Intuition

Personal interviewers may
rely too much on their “gut
feelings” when meeting
with job applicants.

Taxi/ Getty Images
5
Hindsight Bias
Hindsight Bias is the “I-knew-it-all-along”
phenomenon.

After learning the outcome of an event, many
people believe they could have predicted that very
outcome. We only knew the dot.com stocks would
plummet after they actually did plummet.

6
Overconfidence Activity
• I feel 98 percent certain that the area of the U.S. is
more than ____ square miles but less than ____
square miles.

• I feel 98 percent certain that in 2003 the population of
Australia was more than ___ but less than ____.

• I feel 98 percent certain that the number of American
battle deaths in the Spanish-American War was more
than ___ but less than ___.
7
Overconfidence Activity
• I feel 98 percent certain that in 2002 the
number of female engineers in the United
States was more than ___ but less than
___.

• I feel 98 percent certain that in 2002 the
number of operating nuclear plants in the
world was more than ___ but less than
___.
8
Overconfidence
Sometimes we think we
know more than we
actually know.
Anagram
How long do you think it
would take to unscramble WREAT WATER
these anagrams?
ETYRN ENTRY
People said it would take
GRABE BARGE
about 10 seconds, yet on
average they took about 3
minutes (Goranson, 1978).
9
Overconfidence

Now try this word scramble! Anagram

OCHSA CHAOS

ICSCRU CIRCUS

LPNTEEAH ELEPHANT

10
The Point to Remember
• Hindsight bias and overconfidence often
lead us to overestimate our intuition. But
scientific inquiry, fed by curious skepticism
and by humility can help us sift reality from
illusions.

11
Psychological Science
1. How can we differentiate between
uniformed opinions and examined
conclusions?
2. The science of psychology helps make
these examined conclusions, which leads
to our understanding of how people feel,
think, and act as they do!

12
The Scientific Attitude

The scientific attitude is composed of curiosity
(passion for exploration), skepticism (doubting
and questioning) and humility (ability to accept
responsibility when wrong).

13
Critical Thinking
Critical thinking does
not accept arguments

Courtesy of the James Randi Education Foundation
and conclusions blindly.

It examines
assumptions, discerns
hidden values,
evaluates evidence and
assesses conclusions.

The Amazing Randi

14
Scientific Method
Psychologists, like all scientists, use the
scientific method to construct theories that
organize, summarize and simplify
observations.

15
VIDEO

DISCOVERING
PSYCHOLOGY:
RESEARCH METHODS

16
Theory
A Theory is an explanation that integrates
principles and organizes and predicts
behavior or events.

For example, low self-esteem contributes to
depression.

17
Hypothesis
A Hypothesis is a testable prediction, often
prompted by a theory, to enable us to
accept, reject or revise the theory.

People with low self-esteem are apt to feel
more depressed.

18
Research Observations
Research would require us to administer
tests of self-esteem and depression.
Individuals who score low on a self-esteem
test and high on a depression test would
confirm our hypothesis.

19
Research Process

20
Operational Definitions
• To reduce bias psychologists report their
research with operational definitions.
• An operational definition states how the
variable is observed and measured.
• Operational definitions allows others to
replicate (repeat) the observations.

21
OPERATIONAL DEFINTIONS
ACTIVITY
• Determine an operational definition for
each underlined variable.

• Remember an operational definition is
observable and measurable.

22
TO TEST A HYPOTHESIS
• Make an observation
• Describe the behavior
• Detect correlations that predict the
behavior
• Design research

• Develop a hypothesis about North Penn
student behavior
23
Description: Starting point of any
science.
Case Study
A technique in which one person, group, or
situation is studied in depth to reveal underlying
behavioral principles.

Susan Kuklin/ Photo Researchers
Is language uniquely human? 24
CASE STUDY
• Long tradition in clinical work, Freud’s
theory of psychoanalysis
• Can include tests, interviews, analysis of
letters, or transcripts

25
CASE STUDY
• EXAMPLES: Freud, Piaget, chimp
studies, Phineas Gage
• Advantages:
– Depth of information
– Appropriate for new, rare, or complex cases,
• Disadvantages:
– Individual may be atypical or unrepresentative
– Anecdotal information can overwhelm general
truths
26
Case Study
Clinical Study

A clinical study is a form of
case study in which the
therapist investigates the

http://behavioralhealth.typepad.com
problems associated with a
client. Example: Oliver
Sack’s “The Man Who
Mistook His Wife for his Hat”

27
Survey
A technique for ascertaining the self-reported
attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people
usually done by questioning a representative,
random sample of people.

http://www.lynnefeatherstone.org
28
SURVEY
• Use interviews or questionnaires to ask
about behavior, attitudes, opinions, beliefs,
or intentions

29
Survey
Wording Effect

Wording can change the results of a survey and
thus affect validity.

Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be
allowed on television? (not allowed vs. forbid)

30
WORDING EFFECTS
• The Statistical Assessment Service
nominated the following 1937 British
Gallup Poll question as a leading
candidate for the “Worst Poll Question of
All Time”.
• “Are you in favor of direct retaliatory
measures against Franco’s piracy?”
• Why? Modern example?
31
PROBLEMS WITH QUESTION
1. It is not balanced.
2. It assumes knowledge
3. It does not use everyday language.
4. It employs a perjorative.
5. It is vague

32
WORDING EFFECTS

• Women with young children should be
able to work outside the home.

– 8 in 10 Americans agreed

33
WORDING EFFECTS

• Women should stay at home if they have
young preschool children.

• 7 in 10 Americans agreed

34
WORDING EFFECTS
• The problems faced by blacks have been
brought on by blacks themselves

35
• With a white interviewer: 62% of whites
agreed

• With a black interviewer: 46% of whites
agreed

36
WORDING EFFECTS
• Not allowing vs forbidding
• More restrictions vs government
censorship
• Aid to needy vs welfare
• Affirmative action vs preferential treatment

37
Survey
Random Sampling
If each member of a
population has an equal
chance of inclusion into a
sample, it is called a random
sample (unbiased). If the
survey sample is biased, its
results are not valid. Only
those who want to make a
point may respond The fastest way to know about the
marble color ratio is to blindly
transfer a few into a smaller jar and
count them. 38
Random Sampling Exercise
• Various Scenarios
• Basketbally Activity

39
SURVEY
• People may be reluctant to admit
undesirable or embarrassing things about
themselves.
• Or they may say what they think they
should say..
• Examples

40
Naturalistic Observation
Examples: Observing and recording the behavior
of animals in the wild; recording self-seating
patterns in a multiracial school lunch room.

Courtesy of Gilda Morelli

41
NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
• Describes, does not explain
• Often used by ethologists such as Jane
Goodall
• Behavior changes when you know you are
being watched
• Observations may be distorted by what the
experimenters expect to see.
• Other advantages, disadvantages?
42
Descriptive Methods
Summary

Case studies, surveys, and naturalistic
observation describe behaviors.

43
CORRELATION
• Correlation = relationship between
variables
• Variables = the specific factors or
characteristics that are manipulated and
measured in research
• Evidence should be evaluated in terms of
reliability and validity
• Reliability: repeatable (replication)
• Validity: accurately assesses topic

44
CORRELATION
• Scatterplots: represent the values of two
variables; indicates correlation or
relationship between the variables

• Measured by the correlation coefficient, a
statistical measure of relationship. The
extent to which two factors vary together,
and thus of how well either factor predicts
the other.
45
Scatterplots

Perfect positive
correlation (+1.00)

Scatterplot is a graph comprised of points that are
generated by values of two variables. The slope of
the points depicts the direction, while the amount
of scatter depicts the strength of the relationship.
46
Scatterplots

Perfect negative No relationship (0.00)
correlation (-1.00)

The Scatterplot on the left shows a negative correlation,
while the one on the right shows no relationship between
the two variables.
47
Data
Data showing height and temperament in people.

48
Scatterplot
The Scatterplot below shows the relationship
between height and temperament in people. There
is a moderate positive correlation of +0.63.

49
CORRELATION
• POSITIVE CORRELATION: A direct
relationship. Two variables increase or
decrease together.

• NEGATIVE CORRELATION: An inverse
relationship. As one variable increases,
the other decreases.

50
Correlation
When one trait or behavior accompanies
another, we say the two correlate.
Indicates strength
of relationship
(0.00 to 1.00)

Correlation
coefficient r = + 0.37

Correlation Coefficient is a
statistical measure of the Indicates direction
relationship between two of relationship
variables. (positive or negative) 51
CORRELATION
• Strength of the relationship is indicated by
the number.
– The closer it is to zero, the weaker the
relationship
– The closer it is to one (plus or minus), the
stronger the relationship
– Interpret:
• +.8, -,2, -.9, +.3

52
Correlation does not mean
causation!!!

53
Supplemental Correlational
Examples
• Bald Men/Marriage
• High School Students/Attitude

54
Correlation

•The Point To Remember:

•A correlation coefficient helps us see the
world more clearly by revealing the
extent to which two things relate.

55
Correlation and Causation

• Very important to remember:

Correlation does necessarily
prove causation!

56
Reaction Time Activity

57
Experimentation
Exploring Cause and Effect

Like other sciences, experimentation is the
backbone of psychology research. Experiments
isolate causes and their effects.

58
Exploring Cause & Effect
Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments
(1) manipulate factors that interest us, while other
factors are kept under (2) control.

Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate
cause and effect relationships.

59
Independent Variable
An Independent Variable is a factor manipulated
by the experimenter. The effect of the independent
variable is the focus of the study.
For example, when examining the effects of breast
feeding upon intelligence, breast feeding is the
independent variable.

60
Dependent Variable
A Dependent Variable is a factor that may change
in response to an independent variable. In
psychology, it is usually a behavior or a mental
process.

For example, in our study on the effect of breast
feeding upon intelligence, intelligence is the
dependent variable.

61
IV/DV Activity
• Identify the Independent/Dependent
Variable.

62
CONTROLING OTHER
VARIABLES
• An experiment has at least two different
conditions:
• control condition
• experimental condition

• Random assignment of subjects between
conditions equates the conditions.
Basketball example.

63
CONFOUNDING AND RANDOM
VARIABLES
• Types of Confounding Variables:
– Random Variables
– Participants Expectations
– Experimenter Bias

• Random assignment is presumed to distribute
impact of uncontrolled variables randomly and
probably equally across groups.

64
OTHER METHODS OF CONTROL
• Eliminating confirmation bias
• Eliminating order effects
• Matching conditions to eliminate
confounding variables
• Double blind
• Eliminate experimenter bias
– Experimenter expectancies (maze bright)
– Confirmation bias

65
Experimentation
A summary of steps during experimentation.

66
Comparison
Below is a comparison of different research
methods.

67
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES
• Established by the American
Psychological Association
– Obtain informed consent of potential
participants
– Protect subjects from harm and discomfort
– Treat information about subjects confidentially
– Fully explain the research afterward (debrief)
– Institutional Review Boards (IRB) should
screen research proposals
68
Making Inferences
A statistical statement of how frequently an
obtained result occurred by experimental
manipulation or by chance.

69
Making Inferences
When is an Observed Difference Reliable?

1. Representative samples are better than biased
samples.
2. Less variable observations are more reliable
than more variable ones.
3. More cases are better than fewer cases.

70
Making Inferences
When is a Difference Significant?

When sample averages are reliable and the
difference between them is relatively large, we say
the difference has statistical significance.

For psychologists this difference is measured
through alpha level set at 5 percent.

71
FAQ
Q1. Can laboratory experiments illuminate
everyday life?

Ans: Artificial laboratory conditions are created to
study behavior in simplistic terms. The goal is to
find underlying principles that govern behavior.

72
FAQ
Q2. Does behavior depend on one’s culture?

Ans: Even when specific attitudes and behaviors
vary across cultures, as they often do, the
underlying processes are much the same.

Ami Vitale/ Getty Images
73
FAQ
Q3. Does behavior vary with gender?

Ans: Yes. Biology determines our sex, and culture
further bends the genders. However, in many
ways woman and man are similarly human.

74
FAQ
Q4. Why do psychologists study animals?

Ans: Studying animals gives us the understanding
of many behaviors that may have common biology
across animals and humans.

Ans: Yes. To gain insights to devastating and fatal
diseases. All researchers who deal with animal
research are required to follow ethical guidelines
in caring for these animals.

76
FAQ
Q6. Is it ethical to experiment on people?

Ans: Yes. Experiments that do not involve any
kind of physical or psychological harm beyond
normal levels encountered in daily life may be
carried out.

77
FAQ
Q7. Is psychology free of value judgments?

Ans: No. Psychology emerges from people who
subscribe to a set of values and judgments.

Ans: It can be, but it is not. The purpose of
psychology is to help humanity with problems
such as war, hunger, prejudice, crime, family
dysfunction, etc.