NURSING RESEARCH
Goal is to to provide a body of abstract knowledge growing out of scientific research
and logical analysis and capable of being translated to nursing practice.
Nursing Research is needed to generate knowledge about nursing education, nursing
administration, health care services, characteristics of nurses, and nursing roles .
Nursing Research is essential for the development of empirical knowledge that enables
nurses to provide Evidenced-based Practice, to improved nursing care, patient outcomes,
and the health care deliver system.
Purposes of Research:
To describe a phenomenon that relates to the nursing profession.
To explore - observe and record the phenomenon under study.
To explain why a phenomenon occurs.
To improve new knowledge or advance an existing one.
To predict - the probability of a specific outcome can be estimated in a given situation.
To control - the ability to write a prescription to prescribed the desired outcome
Classification of Research
According to level of investigation
1. Exploratory
2. Descriptive
3. Experimental
According to approach
1. Experimental
2. Non-experimental
According to measurement & data analysis
1. Quantitative
2. Qualitative
According to time frame
1. Longitudinal
2. Cross sectional
According to motive or objective
1. Basic research
2. Applied research
According to time line
1. Retrospective
2. Prospective
According to research environment
1. Field
2. Laboratory
Criteria of a Research Problem:
1. Significance of a problem
2. Researchability
3. Feasibility
Time
Availability of the subjects
Administrative control and group support
Research Resources
Fiscal Resources
Experience of the researcher
Ethical considerations
4. Potentials of the Researcher - Interest and curiosity
Delimitations:
1. Morals / Ethics
2. Insufficient knowledge
3. Time
4. Cost
5. Lack of administrative support
Sources of the Problem:
nFields of specialization
nInstructional program
nReading program
nOrganizational structure
nOrganizational policies
nNew technologies
nConflicting ideas and ideals
nJournals, books, theses, mass media
nTheories and principles
nProblem areas in nursing
Criteria for choosing a problem
1. External Criteria
Novelty
Availability of the subjects
Institutional or administrative support
Ethical considerations
Facilities and equipment
2. Internal Criteria
Motivation, interest, intellectual curiosity of the researcher
Experience, training, professional qualifications
Time factor
Costs and returns
Hazards, penalties and handicaps
Characteristics of Researchable Problems
1. Originality
2. Significance
3. Manageability
4. Measurability
5. Resource Availability
Variables are qualities , properties, or characteristics of people, things, events, or
situations under study
Ex. Height, weight, age, sex, blood type
Independent variables are factors being manipulated by the researcher. Also called
experimental, treatment, causal, or stimulus variables.
Dependent / Criterion / Effect / Response Variable – is the factor influenced by the
independent variable.
Correlated or intervening variable bears influence on the effect of the independent
variable on the dependent variable.
Kinds of Variables
a. Explanatory – focus of the research
Independent
Dependent
Intervening
b. Extraneous – not the direct foci of the study
1. Organismic - physiological, psychological, demographic factors that could affect the
outcome of the study.
Ex. age, sex, civil status, education, height, weight, ethnicity, religion
2. Environmental – economic, anthropological, sociological and physical factors that
influence the phenomenon under study
Ex. climate, work setting, home setting, government composition, family
composition
3. Continuous - have values along a continuum, can assume an infinite number of values
between two points
(not limited to a whole number values)
Ex. 1.25, 37.2
4. Discrete - has a finite number of values between any two points (whole number)
Ex. Number of children - 2, RR 16
5. Abstract – factors that have different values which are quantitatively measured and
statistically tested
Ex. BP 120/80 to 180/110
6. Categorical - discrete non-quantitative values
Ex. Race (white, black, hispanic)
7. Dichotomous – factors with only two values, used in comparative studies.
Ex. male-female, smoker – non-smoker
8. Active – factors which the researcher creates and/or manipulates commonly used in
experimental studies.
Ex. Experimental group receiving X solution
Control group receiving Y solutio9. Attribute – pre-existing characteristics of the
subjects which the researcher simply observes and measures
Ex. Medical diagnosis, medications, blood type
Types of Hypothesis
1. Simple vs. Complex Hypothesis
2. Directional vs. Non-directional Hypotheses
3. Research vs. Statistical Hypotheses
Criteria of Hypotheses
a. Written in declarative sentences
b. Written in the present tense
c. Includes the population
d. Includes the variables
e. Reflects the problem statement
f. Empirically testable
The greater the degree of sleep deprivation, the higher the anxiety level of medicine
ward patients.
Type: Simple
Infants born to cocaine-addicted mothers have the same birth weight as infants born to
non-cocaine addicted mothers.
Type: Research
There is no significant relationship between maternal cocaine addiction and birth
weight of infants.
Type: NULL
Infants born to cocaine-addicted mothers do not have the same birth weight as infants
born to non-cocaine addicted mothers.
Type: NULL
Tall people eat more than short people
Type: Simple
Tall people tend to eat more and weigh more than short people.
Type: Complex
There is a change in the anxiety levels of preoperative patients after listening to a
relaxation tape
Type: Non-directional
The anxiety levels of pre-operative patients are lower after listening to a relaxation
tape.
Type: Directional
Directional Hypotheses should contain a predictive term such as more than, greater
than, decrease in, or positive correlation.
Theories are always speculative in nature and are never considered as true or proven. It
helps improve analytical skills, broaden thinking, clarify values, assumptions and
accuracy of decisions.
Concept is the building block of theory, a word picture or basic idea of a phenomenon
that symbolizes reality.
Ex. Health
Constructs are highly abstract, complex phenomena that are not observable. Ex.
Wellness, Self-esteem
Theoretical framework consists of theories, concepts, and constructs used as basis of the
study.
Ex. Imogene King’s Goal Attainment
Conceptual framework consists of specific or well-defined concepts and constructs.
Ex. Oxygenation
Proposition is a statement or assertion of the relationship between concepts derived
from theories based on empirical data
Model is a symbolic representation of some phenomenon and represents some aspect
of reality.
Conceptual models is an ideas formulated in the mind, a picture of something that
actually exists which are abstract and not generally observable in the empirical world.
Ex. Orem’s Self-care model
Conceptual paradigm is a diagram that visually presents and interprets the underlying
theory, principles and concepts of research.
Ex. Halbert Dunn’s High-level Wellness
Sources of Hypotheses:
Problems, issues and concerns
Theoretical framework
Experiences
Observations
Related literature
Types of Research Design
Non-Experimental
1. Historical Research Design – seeks not only to discover events of the past but to
relate it to the present and to future
-method of collecting and evaluating evidence from the past
-Easiest method because data are ready
2. Descriptive Design – a study that describes the nature of the phenomenon under
investigation after a survey of trends, practices and conditions that relate to that
phenomenon
Types of Descriptive Data
Cross – sectional – it examines subjects at one point in time, and is conducted when
time frame is of short duration.
Ex-post facto – retrospective studies, data collected after a fact.
Prospective data – events that occurred after the study design has been completed, but
pursued over a long period of time into the future
Also called longitudinal studies
3 Primary longitudinal designs
1. Trend studies - the general population is studied at different points over a long period
of time. Participants are not the same at each period but they are representative of the
population at that time.
2. Cohort studies - focus on the same specific population each time data are collected,
samples may be composed of different subjects but with similar characteristics.
3. Panel studies - use the same respondents for each progressive time period that the data
are
collected.
Types of Descriptive Research
a.Surveys – self-reported data are collected from samples for purposes of describing
populations in relation to specific given variables
Methods:
Mailed questionnaires
Face-to-face
Telephone survey
b.Co-relational Studies – examines the extent of relationship between variables by
determining how changes in one variable relate to changes in another variable.
c. Comparative Studies – examine several intact groups to find out the difference
between and among them in certain different variables of interest. Descriptive and
inferential statistical analyses are used to examine differences between or among groups
d.Methodological Studies – concerned with the development, testing, and evaluation of
research methods and instruments
-also known as developmental or evaluative research
e. Case Study
-in-depth analyses of a single subject for investigation
-Individual study about a patient, a family, agency or institution
-Examines only a single subject or smaller number of subject
f.Content analysis - the process of dissecting messages embodied in documents
g.Feasibility study – determine the viability of an undertaking or a business venture,
establishing an institution or constructing infrastructure.
Experimental - the researcher tries to manipulate the variable to produce a
certain consequence, effect, outcome or change
1.True Experiment
Manipulation
Control
Random assignment
Measurement of effects
2. Quasi – experimental – an experiment that lacks one or more of the 4 properties
of the true experiment.
3. Pre-experimental design is a research design that does not include mechanisms to
compensate for the absence of either randomization or a control group. Done as a
preliminary study.
Control group is not subjected to any experimental treatment. Subjects performance is
used as a basis for evaluating the performance of the experimental group.
Experimental group is subjected to the treatment used by the researcher.
Internal validity means the degree to which changes in the dependent variable can be
attributed to the independent variable.
External validity is the degree to which study results can be generalized and applied to
other populations and settings.
Threats to Internal validity
1.Selection bias
2.History
3.Maturation
4.Testing
5.Instrumentation change
6.Mortality
Threats to External validity
1.Hawthorne effect
2.Experimenter effect
3.Reactive effect of the pre-test
4.Halo effect
Threats to Internal Validity
History - an event that is not related to the planned study but occurs during the time of
the study and could influence the responses of subjects to the treatment
Selection threat is more likely to occur in studies in which randomization is not
possible
Maturation is unplanned and unrecognized
changes can influence the findings of the study, as the subject grew older and wiser
and more experienced during study
Mortality is due to subjects who drop out of a study before completion
Testing - threat may occur in studies where a pretest is given or where subjects have
knowledge of baseline data. Subjects may remember the answers they put on the pretest
and put the same answers on the posttest.
Instrumentation change - defference between the pre-test and post-test measurement
may be caused by change in the accuracy of the instrument.
Threats to External Validity
Hawthorne effect - occurs when study participants respond in a certain manner
because they are aware that they are being observed.
Experimenter effect - when researcher characteristics or behaviors influence subject
behaviors
(Rosenthal effect for nonexperimental)
Reactive Effects of the Pretest - also called the measurement effect, occurs when
subjects have been sensitized to the treatment while taking the pretest
Experimental Design Examples
O = Observation / Measurement
R = Random Assignment
X = Treatment / Intervention
Pretest / Post test
R O1 X1 O2
R O1 X1 O2
Threats to all Internal Validity
Two-Group Posttest only
R X1 O1
R X2 O1
Three Group
R X1 O1
R X2 O1
R O1
Solomon Four Group
R O1 X1 O2
R X1 O2
R O1 X2 O2
R X2 O2
Quasi-Experimental Design Examples
O1 = Baseline Measurement
X = Treatment / Intervention
O2 = Outcome Measurement
Nonequivalent Control Group
O1 X O2
O1 O2
Threats to Internal Validity : history, testing,, maturation, and instrumentation change
Threats to external validity: Selection bias
O1,O2,O3 = Baseline Measurement at various levels
X = Treatment / Intervention
O4,O5,O6 = Outcome measures at various intervals
Time-Series (simple)
O1 O2 O3 X O4 O5 O6
Threats to Validity: History and Testing
Pre-Experimental Designs
One-shot Case study - a single group is exposed to an experimental treatment and
observed after the treatment
X 0
Threats to Internal Validity: history, maturation and selection bias
One group Pretest-Posttest design - provides a comparison between a group of subjects
before and after the experimental treatment.
O1 X O2
Threats to Internal Validity: history, maturation, testing, instrumentation change
Solomon 4 group design is considered to be the most prestigious experimental design
because it minimizes threats to internal and external validity
One-shot Case Study is the weakest of all the experimental designs because it controls
for no threats to internal validity
Quantitative and Qualitative
a.Quantitative – is concerned with the objective meaning of experience to an individual,
that applies to both experimental and non-experimental studies that yield numerical data
that can be subjected to statistical analysis.
b.Qualitative – focuses on insights into the understanding of individual perceptions on
the phenomenon under study
Types of Qualitative Research
Phenomenological – examines human experience through description and analysis
Ethnographic studies – refers to collection and analysis of data on the lifestyle and
daily activities of ethnics.
Grounded Theory Studies – refer to analysis of data leading to the development of a
theory
Historical studies – involve identification, location, evaluation and synthesis of past
data
Field Studies – consist of natural investigation done in the community areas.
Advantages of Experimental design
1.Explains and establishes casual relationships of variables
2.Increases purity of observations
3.Creates conditions in the experimental setting that approximates natural setting.
4.Free from pressures of daily life when conducted in a controlled unit.
Disadvantages of Experimental design
1.Dangerous
2.Difficult to create conditions
3.Time constraints
4.Non-cooperation of subjects
5.Population constraints
6.Generalization may not be reliable if done in an artificial setting
Advantages of Non-experimental research
1.Retrospective and less expensive
2.Adequate time
3.Cooperation is easy to obtain
4.Funding may be available
Disadvantages of non-experimental research
1.Not capable of estimating causal relationship
2.Cannot be applied to new product or procedure
3.Is not useful in development of theories, principles and concepts.
4.Oftentimes not considered as true research and may not get financial support.
Universe is a totality of elements to which research findings may apply, also refers to
target population.
Population refers to accessible group of individuals from which the sample will be
drawn by the researcher
Target population is the group of individuals or objects about which speculative
information is desired.
Respondent population is the group of individuals or respondents chosen to provide
data and information needed.
Stratum is a mutually exclusive segment of the population distinguished by traits or
qualifications.
Sampling unit is a specific area or place which can be used during the sampling
process.
Sampling frame is a complete list of sampling units from which the sample is drawn.
Sampling design is the scheme that specifies the number of samples drawn from the
population.
Sampling criteria - also referred to as eligibility criteria
Types of Sampling
1.Probability Sampling - involves random selection of subjects or elements of the
population.
Types of Probability Sampling
a. Simple random sampling – each has an equal chance or probability of being chosen as
subjects of the study.
b. Stratified random sampling – involves taking certain area of the population, dividing it
into strata (sub-population), and taking a random sample of each section.
c. Cluster sampling – successive selection of random samples from larger to smaller
units by either simple random or stratified random methods.
d. Systematic random sampling – choose every 10th name in a list of students.
2. Non-probability sampling – subjects are selected in a non-random way.
Types of Non-probability sampling
a. Accidental or Convenience sampling – utilizes the most convenient group of people or
objects.
b.Purposive or judgmental sampling - subjects are not randomly picked out but hand-
picked based on researcher’s experience
c.Quota sampling – dividing the population into subpopulation, but the researcher makes
a decision regarding the best type of sample.
d. Snowball sampling – consists of the identification of a few persons who meet the
requisite characteristics of the study and who in turn, lead to other persons who may be
interviewed.
Sample is also called subjects or respondents of the study.
Steps in Sampling
1.Identify the target population or universe
2.Identify your respondent population
3.Specify the criteria for respondent selection
4.Specify the sampling design
5.Recruit the subjects
Scale of measurement refers to a device that assigns code numbers to subjects in order
to place them in a continuum
SAMPLING METHOD COMMON APPLICATION
Simple Random Quantitative Research
Stratified Random Quantitative Research
Cluster Quantitative Research
Systematic Quantitative Research
SAMPLING METHOD COMMON APPLICATION
Convenience Quantitative & Qualitative
Quota Sampling Quantitative and rarely
Qualitative
Purposive Qualitative and sometimes
quantitative
Network Qualitative and sometimes
quantitative
Quantitative enumeration of variables – scale of measurement
Qualitative description of variables
a.Nominal scale – categorizes and ranks data to determine frequency of occurrence,
according to levels of measurement
b.Ordinal scale –used in ordering observations, according to magnitude or intensity.
Types of Ordinal scale
1.Likert scale – agree or disagree
2.Graphic rating scale – highest to lowest, or most to least
3.Guttman scale – cumulative statements
4.Semantic differential – emotional-evaluative component. Bad-good
5.Interval level of measurement – real numbers, specify distance between ranks.
6.Ratio level of measurement – distance between ranks is specified up to zero point level
Instruments – are specially prepared tools or devices used to collect needed data or
information and facilitate observation and measurement of research variables
Types of Research Instruments
a. Questionnaire – most frequently used
b. Interview guide – next most used research instrument
Type of Questions asked in the Interview Guide/Interview Schedule
1. Structured – for formal interviews, allows little flexibility for the respondents
reaction
2. Unstructured – questions are so framed as to allow the researcher flexibility in
questioning the subject
Types of Questions Asked
1. Open-ended – respondents are given flexibility enough to answer questions or
specify indicators other than those listed in the questionnaires
2. Close-ended – respondents answer a number of alternative responses called
dichotomous items.
Types of Close-ended questions
a. Dichotomous
b. Multiple choice
c. Cafeteria questions
d. Rank-order questions
e. Checklist
Advantages of the Use of Questionnaires
1. Facilitates data gathering
2. Easy to test data for reliability and validity
3. Less time consuming than interview and observation
4. Preserves the anonymity and confidentiality of the respondents reactions
Disadvantages
1. Costly
2. Response rate may be low
3. Respondents may provide only socially acceptable answers.
4. There is less chance to clarify ambiguous answers
5. Respondents must be literate and with no physical handicaps
6. Rate of retrieval is low because retrieval itself is difficult
Advantages of Interviews
1. Response are broad and varied
2. Respondents can give complete answers if questions are well structured
3. Verbal and non-verbal behavior can be observed
4. There is flexibility in questions asked
Disadvantages
1. Time consuming and expensive
2. Difficult to set schedule
3. Respondents’ answer may be influenced by the interviewer’s behavior
4. Interviewers need training for the interviewees
Field test or Dry-Run – it is the trial version of the study.
Pre-test respondents are part of the population with similar characteristics to those of
the actual study subjects, but they will not participate in the actual survey.
Statistics is a branch of knowledge used to summarize and present numerical data
and numerical characteristics of population.
Statistical Tools for Treatment Data
1. Percentage – computed to determine the proportion of a part to a whole, such as a
given number of respondents in relation to the entire population.
ex. Variables such as age, height, income
etc.
2. Ranking – used to determine the order of decreasing or increasing magnitude of
variables.
3. Weighted mean refers to the overall average of responses/perceptions of the study
respondents. Used when the variables being studied are abstrct or continuous and cannot
be counted individually.
4.Arithmetic mean or average weighted mean describes the central tendency of the given
criteria or variables.
Mean - average
Median - middle score of a set of data
Mode - most frequently observed score
5.Standard Deviation determines the homogeneity or sameness of degree or dimension of
given variables or the heterogeneity or degree of dispersal of variance of variables.
6.When the variability of population is desired to be known, measures of variability such
as the range, quartile deviation, average deviation or standard deviation may be used.
Range - subtracting the lowest score from the highest
Standard deviation - square root of variance
Variance - measure of the spread of scores around the mean
6. T-test compares the reactions and responses to perceptions of the respondent groups in
the study on the phenomenon under investigation
7. The One-Way Analysis of Variance or ANOVA determines if the mean of the
responses /perceptions of or among the respondent groups differ significantly
8. Chi square is used to determine the significance of the difference between the reactions
or opinions of two distinct groups. Ex. The difference between the reaction of the male
and those of the females is to be studied.
Presentation of Findings
1. Narrative Form – consist of direct quotes, summary of findings, meanings and
implications of the study, presented objectively, clearly and concisely.
2. Tables – means for organizing data, to make these easily understood and interpreted.
3. Figures – terms used to indicate any type of visual presentation other than the table
STEPS IN RESEARCH PROCESS
STEP 1: Selecting the Problem Area
Defining and stating the Problem
Formulating the Hypothesis
STEP 2: Review of the Related Literature
STEP 3: Research Design
Writing the Research Proposal
STEP 4: Selecting the Sample / Subjects
STEP 5: Collecting Data
STEP 6: Classifying, Analyzing and Interpreting the
Data
STEP 7: Reporting the Results
CONTENTS OF A THESIS
Chapter I - The Problem
Introduction
State ment of the Problem
Theoretical Framework
Assumptions
Hypotheses
Significance of the Study
Scope and Limitation of the Study
Definition of Terms
Chapter II - Review of Related Literature and
Studies
Chapter III - Methodology and Research
Design
Research Methods and Techniques
Sampling Design
Research Instruments
Data Collection
Statistical Treatment of Data
Chapter IV - Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of Data
Chapter V - Summary, Conclusions and
Recommendations
GOOD LUCK!!!