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Geography, Environment, Cultures, Governments, Economics,
and History
THE MIDDLE EAST
THE MIDDLE EAST IS A REGION IN THE SOUTHWESTERN PART OF
ASIA. MUCH OF THE MIDDLE EAST IS COVERED IN DESERTS.
GEOGRAPHIC INTEREST
Persian Gulf— The Persian Gulf lies to the north of
Saudi Arabia and to the south of Iran.
Arabian Sea— The Arabian Sea is part of the Indian
Ocean. It is located between the Arabian Peninsula and
India.
Red Sea— The Red Sea separates the Arabian
Peninsula from Africa.
Strait of Hormuz— The Strait of Hormuz is a narrow
body of water that connects the Persian Gulf with the
Gulf of Oman.
Suez Canal— The Suez Canal is in Egypt. It connects
the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea.
GEOGRAPHIC INTEREST
Jordan River— The Jordan River starts in Syria and then
flows through the Sea of Galilee in Israel to the Dead Sea.
Tigris River— The Tigris River has its source in Turkey. It
flows east through Iraq where it joins the Euphrates River
to form the Shatt-al-Arab, which then flows into the Persian
Gulf.
Euphrates River— The Euphrates River has its source in
Turkey. It flows east through Syria and then through Iraq
where it joins the Tigris River to form the Shatt-al-Arab,
near the Persian Gulf.
Gaza Strip— The Gaza Strip is a coastal strip of land along
the Mediterranean that borders Egypt.
BELOW IS A POLITICAL MAP SHOWING THE
COUNTRIES WHICH ARE IN THE MIDDLE EAST.
The environment in various places affects how people live in those areas.
Climate, natural resources, environmental changes, and changes made by
people all play into how humans interact with their environment.
MIDDLE EASTERN ENVIRONMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Climate
Climate affects where people live and how they live. People have built
homes and buildings out of different materials that work better with
the climate they live in. Native Americans in Arizona and New Mexico
built their homes out of adobe to keep out the sun and heat. Climate
also affects the number of people that live in an area. In Australia,
people live near the southern coasts because the weather is more
temperate.
Natural Resources
Natural resources affect how people will interact with the land and
what they will build homes and make tools with. If brick and clay are
more abundant than thatch and mud in a region of the world, homes
will be made of brick and clay. Natural resources also affect where
people live. People live near water and food for basic necessities.
Water also allows for transportation.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Environmental Changes
Changes in the environment force people to make a decision: stay
and adapt to the change or move and adapt to a new environment.
As sea levels change and natural disasters like hurricanes destroy
coastal towns, more people have to find new places to live or risk
losing their homes. Sudden changes like volcanoes and earthquakes
can also devastate a population and cause people to move from one
region to another.
Changes Humans Bring
People also change their environment by building and increasing the
population. As pollution becomes a bigger problem, people have to
adapt their transportation and water usage. Acid rain threatens
forests, leaving entire habitats vulnerable. As natural resources
become less abundant, people must find alternative sources for the
same items, like oil. Today, people have to decide whether to
continue to destroy natural resources and habitats or to protect
them.
NATURAL RESOURCES
The Middle East is an area of the world with rich access
to natural resources like oil. However, the region's harsh,
desert climate makes fresh water scarce.
Industrialization and oil extraction have had damaging
effects on the environment.
Geography and Climate
The Middle East has a variety of geographic areas,
including mountains, plains, plateaus, and coastlines.
Some parts of Lebanon and Israel enjoy a temperate,
Mediterranean climate. Much of the region, however, is
dominated by desert terrain and dry climate. Most
people do not live in these desert areas, living instead in
cities that are built near sources of water.
NATURAL RESOURCES
Water
Middle Eastern climate is so dry that fresh water has
become a precious natural resource. Water is needed
not only for drinking but also for agriculture, which is still
a major industry in most Middle Eastern nations.
Droughts and human development have had negative
effects on the few freshwater sources there are. The Dead
Sea, which is between Israel and Jordan, is shrinking due to
overuse. Some countries build dams to harvest the fresh
water of rivers, but this also decreases the amount of water
that will reach further down the river into other countries.
Droughts and farming are causing deserts to actually
expand into land that had once been fertile, a process
known as desertification.
NATURAL RESOURCES
Other natural resources
Despite the region's harsh climate, it has some of the
richest natural resources in the world. The Persian Gulf
has historically been a source of fish and pearls, which
the people who live there use for trade. In modern
times, discoveries of petroleum (oil) have brought
economic booms to the Middle Eastern nations that
have access to them. Oil is perhaps the most valuable
export of several Middle Eastern countries, and
countries with access to oil in the Persian Gulf have
become wealthy.
POLLUTION
Pollution
Some nations in the Middle East are changing to
industrial-based economies at a faster pace than they
change their laws to regulate industry. When this happens,
factories do not have restrictions on air, soil, or water quality,
and their production can have damaging effects on the
environment.
More commonly, environment in the Middle East is
damaged through oil extraction. Accidental oil spills can
destroy both ecosystems and environmental industries like
fishing or tourism. Sometimes political conflict can destroy
the environment. This occurred in the Gulf War in 1991,
when Iraq burned Kuwait's oil wells and dumped more oil
into the Persian Gulf, an event from which the soldiers and
the Gulf environment are still suffering.
Ethnic groups are people of the same race or nationality who share a similar
culture. They can influence and impact other regions in many different ways. The
Middle East has been influenced by many different ethnic groups and cultures,
the most well-known being its Arab and Muslim populations.
MIDDLE EASTERN CULTURES
ETHNIC GROUPS
Arabs make up the largest ethnic group in most nations of the Middle East.
They have contributed to Middle Eastern cultures in art, fashion, literature,
and government involvement. One of their most influential contributions to
Middle Eastern culture is the Muslim religion. Arabs also developed
irrigation methods that are used throughout Africa and the Middle East
today. Even in Israel, where Jews are the dominant ethnic group, Arabs still
make the largest ethnic minority.
Afghanistan has three large ethnic groups: the Tajiks, Pashtuns, and
Hazaras. Tajiks make up the largest percentage, about half, and descend
from some of the oldest inhabitants of the region. Pashtuns make up about
20%, and Hazaras make up about 9%.
Persians make up the ethnic majority in Iran. They influence culture in Iran
through their conservative views on religion and politics. They follow a
version of Islam (Shi'a) that does not tolerate other religious minorities.
ETHNIC GROUPS
Bedouins are an ethnic group in Saudi Arabia. Their culture has contributed their
government practices to Saudi Arabia. Both for the Bedouins and in modern Saudi
Arabia, a single leader would make important decisions for the group. In Saudi
Arabia, the King will consult with any of his citizens that have reason to communicate
with him. In Bedouin culture, the Sheikh would consult the men of the tribe before
making decisions.
Berbers are an ethnic group that originated in North Africa and has existed for
thousands of years. Islam became the dominant religion of the Berber people after
the Islamic invasion of the 7th century.
Kurds are the largest ethnic group in the world to not have their own nation-state.
They live in a region known as Kurdistan, which spans from southeastern Turkey,
northern Syria and Iraq, and western Iran. In each of these countries, the Kurds are
in the minority and have faced conflict with ethnic groups which are in the majority.
Jewish culture has greatly influenced the culture of Israel since its founding in 1948.
There are many ethnic groups within the Jewish culture, including European,
Russian, Africa, Asian, and American.
RELIGIONS
The majority of Middle Easterners are Muslim, meaning they follow
the religion of Islam. Islam originally started among Arabs, but most
ethnic groups in the Middle East today—including Berbers and Turks—
are also Muslim.
Israel is the only Middle Eastern country that is primarily practices
Judaism. Israel was historically the site of where the ancient Hebrew
people lived. Since the modern country's founding in 1948, Israel has
been most influenced by Jewish religion and culture, with the Arabs
forming the largest minority.
Armenia is the only Middle Eastern country that primarily practices
Christianity. Most Armenians are Christians, while Islam is the
dominant religion in other parts of the region. Azerbaijan, Turkey, and
Iran are three countries that border Armenia and have Muslim
majorities. Armenia was actually the first country to establish
Christianity as its state religion when it did so in 301 AD.
JUDAISM
Judaism was the first monotheistic religion based on the
concept of one God who sets down moral laws for
humanity. Two books, the Hebrew Bible and The
Commentaries or the Talmud, are the sources of
teachings and central beliefs of Judaism.
Origin of Judaism
The Hebrew Bible tells the history of Judaism. It gives
the account of the Israelites', or Hebrew, relationship
with God in their history from the beginning of time until
the building of the Second Temple in Jerusalem. It was
the first religion to denounce idol worship and believe in
only one God.
JUDAISM
Central Teachings and Beliefs The Hebrew Bible: tells the history of the
Israelites from the beginning of the world until the building of the Second
Temple. Also gives the Ten Commandments.
The Talmud (Oral Law): a set of commentaries, or rabbinic discussions, on
Jewish law, ethics, customs, legends, and stories. It has two parts, the
Mishnah and Gemara.
These two religious materials show the basic beliefs and teachings in
Judaism:
belief in God—belief there is only one God (monotheism) and he is the
supreme authority
observance of law—the Ten Commandments and other Jewish traditions
that have been passed down (Sabbath, Yom Kippur, Hanukkah)
practice of the concepts of righteousness and justice—belief that a person
has to be just and righteous in their life to enter heaven in the afterlife; also
belief that God is just and righteous in his decisions
importance of study—this means the study of Jewish history and beliefs
through the Commentaries and the Hebrew Bible
emphasis on each person's individual worth and personal responsibility
belief that all people must adhere to the same moral obligations, whether
ruler or ruled
JUDAISM
Judaism has gone
through many trials. The
ancient Hebrews moved
according to their
religious leaders and
their ability to grow
crops. They suffered
through slavery and
religious persecution.
MOVEMENT AND SETTLEMENT OF HEBREW
PEOPLES
Mesopotamia: The Hebrew people are believed to have originally lived in
Mesopotamia.
Canaan: Abraham formed a covenant with God and moved with his followers to
Canaan around 1800 B.C.
Egypt: Many Israelites, or Hebrews, moved to Egypt in 1600 B.C. to escape famine.
They were held in slavery in Egypt until 1200s B.C.
Canaan: Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt across the Sinai Peninsula. They
returned to Canaan at 1200 B.C. and settled the land. This is known as the Exodus,
and it is important to the Jewish faith.
Jerusalem: The capital city of the kingdom of the Hebrews. The temples were built in
Jerusalem.
Roman Rule: Romans conquered the area and lived peacefully for a long time.
Jewish revolts against the Roman rule in the 1st century B.C. led to most Jewish
worship being forbidden. The Romans destroyed the Second Temple in 70 A.D.,
forbade Jews from entering the city of Jerusalem, and changed the region's name
from Israel to Palestine. With the Temple destroyed, Jewish worship was centered
around rabbis instead of the Temple. As a result of this and the removal from
Jerusalem, Jews moved farther out of Israel. This movement is called the Diaspora.
CHRISTIANITY
Christianity began in the
1st century A.D.
Christians follow the
teachings of Jesus
Christ.
ORIGINS OF CHRISTIANITY
Christianity began with Jewish followers of Jesus of Nazareth. They
believed that Jesus was the "Christ," the savior that the Jewish
prophecies said would come to Earth.
Jesus taught that everyone must repent of, or be sorry for, doing
wrong things and start doing things that are pleasing to God. Jesus
also taught his followers that they should spread this teaching to
everyone they meet.
Jesus was hanged on a cross and killed for claiming to be the son of
God, but Christians believe that Jesus came back from the dead and
rose into heaven.
Under the leadership of apostles like Peter and Paul, Christianity
gradually separated from Judaism. Saint Paul did not meet Jesus
during Jesus' lifetime, but he claimed that Jesus later came to him in
a vision. Paul wrote much of the Christian New Testament. He is also
famous for preaching Jesus' message to the Gentiles, the people who
were not Jews. Paul taught that the God of Abraham is for all people,
both Jews and Gentiles, instead of for Jews only.
CHRISTIAN BELIEFS
Here are some things that Christianity teaches:
There is only one God. This belief is called
monotheism.
Jesus of Nazareth is the son of God, and he is also
God himself.
Jesus is the Messiah, or Christ, who is king of the
Jews.
Jesus brought salvation to all people when he died
on a cross.
To be saved, a person must believe in Jesus and
follow his teachings.
THE BIBLE
Christianity teaches that the
Bible is the word of God. It is
made of two parts: The Old
Testament: the books of the
Hebrew Bible, which Christians
also believe to be inspired by
God.
The New Testament: books
that describe Jesus' life and
early Christianity. The New
Testament is made of 27
books including four Gospel
books, a book called Acts of
the Apostles, 21 epistles
(letters), and a book called
Revelation.
CHRISTIANITY IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE
The Roman Empire controlled the land of Israel when Jesus lived and
taught. Pontius Pilate was the Roman governor who allowed Jesus to
be killed by Roman soldiers.
During the first three centuries of Christianity, Roman emperors
persecuted Christians as a part of the persecution of Jews. In 64
A.D., Emperor Nero blamed Christians for the great fire that broke out
in Rome. Many forms of execution were used, including murder,
crucifixion, and feeding of Christians to lions and other wild beasts.
These persecutions actually made Christianity stronger because
people were inspired by the Christians' bravery and faith. Christianity
continued to spread throughout the Roman Empire, as Christians
tried to move farther from Rome to spread their beliefs and escape
death in Rome.
Christianity became an officially supported religion under Emperor
Constantine I in 313 A.D. The religion continued to grow, and all
religions except Christianity were prohibited in 391 A.D.
Islam is a religion
based on the
teachings of
Mohammed. It has
many connections
with Judaism and
Christianity. There are
several sects, or
groups, of Islam
including Sunni and
Shi’a or Shi’ite.
ISLAM
ISLAM
Islam
Islam is based on the teachings of the Qur'an, written by a man
named Mohammed who believed he received revelations from God,
or Allah. Islam asks its followers to strive for total reorganization of
their lives. They also work for building human society on the same
basis. The followers of Islam are Muslims.
The Five Pillars
The core of Islam is the Five Pillars. The Five Pillars are the most
important acts of a Muslim, which they will perform faithfully to
please Allah:
Belief in Allah and his prophet Mohammed
Prayer five times a day
Giving charity to the needy
Fasting, or avoiding eating and drinking
Pilgrimage to Mecca
THE SIX ARTICLES OF BELIEF
Islam also has Six Articles of Belief. These are the
main tenets, or beliefs, that someone must believe
to be a Muslim. They are:
Belief in God, the only one worthy to be worshipped
Belief in angels
Belief in the books sent by God, including the Qur'an
Belief in the prophets
Belief in life after death
Belief in fate
DAR AL-ISLAM
Dar al-Islam, or the "house or abode of
Islam," refers to the areas which are under the
control of Islamic law. It also refers to areas in
which Muslims can freely practice their religion.
SIMILARITIES TO JUDAISM & CHRISTIANITY
Muslims believe that Mohammed was not the only
prophet who received revelations from God. They
also believe in the prophets Adam, Abraham,
Noah, Moses, and Jesus, as do the Jewish and
Christian faiths. They believe parts of the Gospels,
Torah, and Jewish prophetic books have been
forgotten, edited, or misinterpreted by their
followers. They view the Qur'an as a correction of
those scriptures and a final revelation. They also
see Abraham as a common root between Islam,
Christianity, and Judaism.
IMPORTANT TEXTS
Qur'an: The Qur'an is the central text in Islam, it is the holy book.
Muslims believe it is the literal word of God in Arabic and God's final
revelation to mankind revealed to Mohammed. Parts of the Qur'an
are memorized to perform daily prayers. Because the Qur’an is
considered to be God’s words which were given to Mohammed,
Muslims are very respectful of the book and how it is handled. Before
touching the Qur’an, a ritual cleaning with water, called wudu, must
occur. The Qur'an is a focus of Muslim devotion and is treated as a
sacred object in Muslim homes.
Sunnah: Sunnah is the ways and deeds of Mohammed during his
ministry. It is the second source of Islamic law after the Qur'an. The
Sunnah gives directions on rituals and worship based on how
Mohammed performed the rituals and worship.
SECTS OF ISLAM
There are many sects of Islam, but the two main groups are Sunni Islam and
Shi'a Islam. The two groups differ in some understandings of Muslim beliefs,
but the separation between them began after the death of Mohammed. The
Sunni and Shi'a groups did not agree on who should be the leader of Islam
after Mohammed, and the disagreement still exists today.
Sunni Muslims believe the leader of the Muslim nation should be elected by the
community. Sunni Muslims refer to many oral traditions in which Mohammed is
said to have suggested elections as ways of making decisions in the Muslim
community. Mohammed did not appoint a successor, so the Muslim community
chose Abu Bakr, a close friend and adviser of Mohammed, as the new leader.
Shi'a Muslims believe the leader of the Muslim nation should have been a direct
descendant of Mohammed. Shi'a Muslims do not recognize the authority of
Muslim leaders that were elected or chosen to lead. Instead, Shi'a Muslims
believe that there were twelve leaders of the Muslim community who were direct
descendants of Muhammad.
CALIPHATE
As Islam spread from the Arabian Peninsula to
Iraq, Persia, North Africa, and Spain, the Islamic
State known as the caliphate was formed. Under
the Islamic State, there was no separation
between religion and politics. The Islamic State
was led by a caliph who was the successor of
Muhammad. The caliph was both a political and
spiritual leader. Islamic law based on the Qur'an
and the Hadith, (the sayings of Muhammad) is
known as the shari'ah.
MUSLIM EXPANSION
In the Middle Ages, part of the Muslim world
was also known as the Ottoman Empire. At its
height, it stretched from Turkey through the
Middle East to parts of North Africa. Muslim
rule expanded through treaties and conquests,
and many cultures were influenced by Muslim
culture and language.
EXPANSION OF MUSLIM RULE
Ottoman rule, by the Turks, spread from the
capture of Constantinople. Its name was changed
to Istanbul.
The empire included the Mediterranean coastline
of North Africa, parts of eastern Europe, Turkey,
and the coastal areas of the Middle East.
The Ottoman Empire's navy was very powerful,
helping capture much of the coastline. The army
invaded eastern Europe and parts of central
Europe. Ottoman expansion was finally stopped at
the Siege of Vienna, in 1529.
SPREAD OF MUSLIM CULTURE
Through trade and the Muslim conquests, the
religion of Islam was spread. Religious practices of
Muslims are included in this spread of culture.
Because the Qur'an was only written in Arabic,
language was one aspect of Islam that was spread
along with religious practices.
Literature was also spread - stories from the
Arabian Peninsula and Turkey traveled throughout
the Mediterranean.
TRADE ROUTES AND PRODUCTS
Trade was increasingly important in the Middle Ages. Many
trade routes to Asia, Africa, and the Middle East were made
through countries under Ottoman rule. Trading throughout
the Mediterranean helped spread Islam and its culture. Land
routes to Asia went through Turkey, the center of Ottoman
rule and much of Muslim culture. Many goods were traded,
including silk, spices, paper, steel, and crops. Merchants
became an important class in Arab society because they
sold the goods and negotiated the trades. They changed the
economy of Arab society from agriculture to a barter
economy, which focused on selling and trading goods and
services. Cities along the coast of the Mediterranean also
grew in size and wealth as the trade routes became more
important and the goods became highly desired by the
wealthy aristocrats and landlocked areas.
ISLAMIC GOLDEN AGE
In the Middle Ages, trade included cultural
exchanges. Muslim scholars and artists made
large contributions in the fields of science,
geography, mathematics, philosophy, art, and
literature. This period is called the Islamic
Golden Age.
SCIENCE, MATHEMATICS, AND GEOGRAPHY
Muslim scientific achievements—built upon the scientific
achievements of the Greek, Persian, and Indian
civilizations
The Scientific Method—how a scientist tests a theory
Decimal Place Value System—further developed the
Indian decimal marker system, continued use of the
numeral zero
Algebra and trigonometry—developed by Islamic
mathematicians
Astronomy—developed celestial globes to solve
problems, quadrants to shorten the need for
calculations in measurements, and an accurate lunar
calendar to keep track of religious observances
SCIENCE, MATHEMATICS, AND GEOGRAPHY
Astrolabe—improved upon by Muslim geographers
around 850 A.D. and used to calculate the size
and circumference of the Earth
Honey—used to heal medical problems like sore
throats, stomach ulcers, and treating wounds
Medicine—more advanced than the medicine
practiced by other cultures of the Middle Ages
Ophthalmology/optics—branch of medicine in
which Muslim scientists made major advances in
the study of the eye and diseases of the eye,
including inventing an injection syringe to extract
soft cataracts
PHILOSOPHY, ART, AND LITERATURE
Use of Citation—in philosophy, used a strict method of
citation to back theories
Method of Open Inquiry—Muslim philosophers took the
scientific theory and applied it to ethical questions
Muslim philosophy—influenced by the works of ancient
philosophers such as Aristotle and by the teachings of Islam
Preserving ancient cultures—numerous ancient texts
translated by Muslim scholars into Arabic at the House of
Wisdom in Baghdad
Literature—folk tales from the Middle East and Turkey,
including Kalila and Dimna, a collection of animal fables, the
Rubaiyat of Omar Kayyám, a collection of poems written
around 1000, and A Thousand and One Nights, or The
Arabian Nights
PHILOSOPHY, ART, AND LITERATURE
Art—used complex geographic designs, mostly
decoratively placed on or inside architecture
Calligraphy—used by artists to write passages from
the Quran in Arabic since Muslims were not
allowed to images or pictures of living people
Architecture—Islamic architecture included large
courtyards, towers, and niches on inside walls
telling the direction of Mecca (so Muslims would
know which direction to face to pray). Domes,
geometric shapes, calligraphy, repetitive art, and
symmetry were also very common in the Muslim
World.
Government systems have different ways of distributing power and
determining citizen participation. Even within democracies, different forms of
government exist.
MIDDLE EASTERN GOVERNMENTS
ASSEMBLY OF EXPERTS, IRAN
DISTRIBUTION OF POWER
Unitary
Power is in the hands of one person or group
National government has more power than local governments
Examples: Saudi Arabia, Iran, Israel
Confederation
Local governments have more power than national government
Each region governs most of its own affairs
Regions sometimes consider themselves independent
Federal
Power is divided between national and local governments
Local governments control local affairs but also obey the national
government
Usually it is the government of large democracies
CITIZEN PARTICIPATION
Autocratic
Citizens have little control over the government
Power is in the hands of one person
Example: Saudi Arabia
Oligarchic
A small group of people control the government
Most people are not able to affect the government
Example: Iran
Democratic
Citizens have more ability to participate than they do in other
governments
Government leaders are elected into power, directly or indirectly
Citizens often participate in voting on laws
Example: Israel
FORMS OF DEMOCRACY
Parliamentary
Citizens vote for members of the legislative branch
The executive leader (or prime minister) is appointed from the
legislature
Head of government and head of state are two different people
Example: Israel
Presidential
Citizens usually vote for members of the executive and legislative
branch
A single person is elected as chief executive (or president)
The president is both head of government (chief executive) and
head of state
GOVERNMENTS OF THE MIDDLE EAST
Governments in the Middle East have
influences from different political systems.
Islam plays a major role in many of the area's
governments, and a few Middle Eastern
countries can even be called theocracies.
Some Middle Eastern governments hold on to
traditional customs of power, while others have
become more democratic. Below are some
quick facts about the governments of Israel,
Iran, and Saudi Arabia.
GOVERNMENT OF ISRAEL
Type of Government: parliamentary democracy
Leaders: president and prime minister
Legislature: unicameral (one-chambered), called the
Knesset
Citizen's Role: Citizens age 18 or older may vote for
members of the Knesset. The Knesset elects the
president, and the leader of the Knesset's majority party
is the prime minister.
Role of religion: Some religious courts are based on
Jewish, Islamic, or Christian law. Israel does not have a
constitution because religious and non-religious
politicians cannot agree on how it should be structured.
GOVERNMENT OF IRAN
Type of Government: theocratic republic, or theocracy
Leaders: supreme leader and president
Legislature: unicameral, called the Islamic Consultative
Assembly
Citizen's Role: Citizens age 18 or older may vote for the
president, members of the legislature, and members of
an Assembly of Experts in religion. The Supreme Leader
is chosen by the Assembly of Experts.
Role of Religion: "The Islamic Republic of Iran" is a
theocracy because its head of state is a religious leader.
Islam is the national religion. Courts are based on
Islamic law.
GOVERNMENT OF SAUDI ARABIA
Type of Government: absolute monarchy
Leader: king
Legislature: unicameral, called the Consultative
Council (main role is to advise the king)
Citizen's Role: Males age 21 or older may vote only
in local elections.
Role of religion: Islam is the national religion. The
Qu'ran (Islam's holy book) is considered the
constitution of the country. The king must be a
Muslim. Courts are based on Islamic law. All
citizens must be Muslim, and all non-Muslim forms
of worship are illegal.
CIVIC DUTIES
Civic affairs are the ways citizens interact with their
society and government. You can participate in civic
affairs through politics, education, and public service.
Political civic participation: includes voting, serving jury
duty, and political protesting. People who participate in
political affairs are trying to influence the government.
Educational civic participation: includes public
awareness campaigns and organizations that teach
useful skills to individuals. People who participate in
educational affairs are trying to help others get
educated on various topics.
CIVIC DUTIES
Public service civic participation: includes
volunteer work and nonprofit organizations. People
who participate in public service affairs are trying
to help those less fortunate and increase
awareness of various social problems.
Examples of civic participation are joining a
nonprofit organization like the Red Cross, creating
a public awareness program for a social problem
like child labor, protesting a political topic like
segregation, and volunteering to tutor at a local
elementary school.
The type of economy is determined by the extent of government involvement
in economic decision-making.
MIDDLE EASTERN ECONOMICS
CHARACTERISTICS OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS
Free market
Private ownership of property/resources
Business decisions are driven by the desire to earn a profit
There is a great deal of competition
Consumers have many choices
Command economy
Central ownership of property/resources
Centrally planned economy
Lack of consumer choice
Traditional Economy
Allocation of resources is based on rituals, habits, or customs
Roles are defined by family
People work together for the common good
Little individual choice
CHARACTERISTICS OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS
Mixed economy
Individuals and businesses as decision makers for the private
sector
Government as decision maker for the public sector
A greater government role than in a free market economy
Most common economic system today
Examples: Israel, Saudi Arabia, and Turkey
Israel has a market economy, but the government still owns much of the
land and industries, especially service industries.
Saudi Arabia's oil industry is almost completely owned by the
government through a company called Saudi Aramco. Still, it is
encouraging private industries to participate in other parts of the
economy.
Turkey has taken great steps toward becoming more of a market
economy by allowing private industries a greater role. This has been part
of an effort to gain membership in the European Union (EU). The
government still controls many industries, but the nation has privatized
a great deal.
RESOURCES
Resources are available supplies of things that
can be drawn on when needed. Three kinds of
resources are human, capital, and natural
resources. When there is unequal distribution of
these resources, specialization and
interdependence occur.
Resources are either renewable or nonrenewable.
Renewable resources can be replaced, if managed
by people. Nonrenewable resources cannot be
replaced quickly if used by people. There are three
kinds of resources to be managed:
RESOURCES
Human resources: represent the quantity and
quality of human effort towards producing goods.
It is also called labor. Improving the education and
life expectancy of workers is considered investing
in human resources.
Capital resources: goods made by people used to
produce other goods and services. Example:
machines used in factories.
Natural resources: things found in nature, often
used to produce goods and services. Example:
trees used for timber to build houses.
ENTREPRENEUR
An entrepreneur is a person who comes up
with a new idea and takes a risk to produce it.
Small business owners are also entrepreneurs,
even if their idea is not new, because they
assume the risk for making their business
successful.
UNEQUAL DISTRIBUTION
When all places do not have equal amounts of the same
resources, there is an unequal distribution of resources.
This can happen because of population growth, different
environments, and the difference in cost of producing
goods in one place over another. Here are two things
that can happen with an unequal distribution of
resources:
Specialization: concentrating on producing specific goods or
services. A particular place will use the resources available
and learn to produce specific products very well.
Interdependence: a relationship with another place to get
the goods and services needed. Countries are often
interdependent on each other because they each specialize
in goods and services the others need. This allows for trade.
TRADE
Trade is an important part of any country's
economy, particularly for most countries in the
Middle East. It allows that country to use its
natural resources and exchange them for
products and resources that country does not
have. There are, however, physical and
economic barriers to trade. Also, it is important
to remember that not all countries use the
same currency, and so there must be a way to
exchange two different currencies.
IMPORTANCE OF TRADE
Trade is vital to most Middle Eastern economies because of
distribution of resources. Many countries in the Middle
East—including Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia—have a
great access to crude oil. Most of them, however, have little
access to food or industrial goods. Since oil is valuable to
many nations in the world, countries with this resource are
able to trade it for other needed goods.
Fresh water is a scarce resource in the Middle East, but
countries do not actually trade for it. Alternatives are instead
found, such as desalinating (removing the salt from) sea
water to make it fresh.
BARRIERS TO TRADE
Physical barriers: Geographical features of a
location can prevent transportation from more
easily reaching that location. Land trade in the
Middle East is made difficult by large areas of
desert and mountains, and rivers in the Middle
East are not very effective for trading between
nations. However, most Middle Eastern countries
have a connection to the ocean, making trade by
sea easier. This is not the case with landlocked
countries, like Afghanistan.
BARRIERS TO TRADE
Political barriers: Sometimes locations and countries are
not able to trade with each other because of political or
cultural differences. In the Middle East, this situation
often exists between Israel and its neighbors. Because
Israel is mainly a Jewish nation, and the other Middle
Eastern countries are mainly Arab Muslim nations, Israel
does more trade with the United States and European
countries than it does with other Middle Eastern
countries. Israel's trade economy has also suffered
because the country has felt the need to spend money
on military defense, in case it is attacked by neighboring
nations.
BARRIERS TO TRADE
Another political barrier to trade occurs when a
trade organization sets restrictions. One
organization that does this is OPEC:
Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC): OPEC is formed from countries that have the
most access to oil natural resources, and most of these
countries are in the Middle East. The main reason for
OPEC's existence is to make sure that oil prices stay
steady. Because the economies of the countries in
OPEC are dependent on income from oil, prices need to
stay stable for the economies of the countries in OPEC
to stay stable. OPEC may therefore impose limits on the
amount of oil its members can produce, which forms a
trade barrier.
INTERNATIONAL TRADE AND CURRENCIES
Countries all over the world have different currencies, or
monetary units. In the United States, we have the U.S.
dollar. Israel has the new Israeli shekel, Saudi Arabia
has the Saudi riyal, and Jordan has the Jordanian dinar.
How can these countries trade with each other if they do
not have the same currency? The answer is exchange
rates. An exchange rate is how much one currency is
worth when compared to another. For example, 0.7
Jordanian dinars is worth 1 U.S. dollar. Exchange rates
can go up or down depending on the two nations'
economies.
There were many changes to the political boundaries in the Middle East during the 20th
century. After the breakup of the Ottoman Empire, many areas were controlled by
European countries. These areas eventually gained their independence. Today, many
conflicts in the Middle East are caused by disagreements over land and religion.
MIDDLE EASTERN HISTORY
OTTOMAN EMPIRE
After losing World War I, the Ottoman Empire lost all of its
territory except for what is now Turkey. A League of Nations
mandate system divided the land into smaller nations and
gave control to Britain and France. During World War I, the
Arab Revolt had taken place from 1916 until 1918. Husayn
bin Ali led the Arabs against the Ottoman Turks. The Arab
nationalists hoped to gain independence from the Ottoman
Empire and then create an Arab state which stretched from
Syria to Yemen. The Arabs fought on the side of the British
and the French during the war because they thought it would
help them to achieve their goals. Instead of gaining
independence, the Arabs were placed under the control of
the British and the French. The United Kingdom controlled
Iraq and Palestine, and France controlled Syria and Lebanon.
TURKEY
The Republic of Turkey became a country in 1923.
Mustafa Kemal became the first president of
Turkey. He made many changes in Turkey in order
to Westernize and modernize the nation. One of
the changes that occurred under his rule was that
Turkey became a secular (not religious) state, and
the government was no longer influenced by Islam.
Mustafa Kemal also adopted the Western
calendar, the Latin alphabet, and the metric
system to make Turkey more like Europe.
IRAQ, SAUDI ARABIA, LEBANON, AND SYRIA
Iraq - After World War I, Iraq was a mandate under the control of the
United Kingdom. Iraq achieved independence in 1932.
Saudi Arabia - On September 23, 1932, the thirteen provinces of
Saudi Arabia were unified into one kingdom with one ruler.
Lebanon - Lebanon was a mandate under the control of France until
it achieved independence in 1943.
Syria - After World War I, Syria was a mandate under the control of
France. In 1936, France and Syria signed the Franco-Syrian Treaty of
Independence. Even though France signed the treaty, the French
Assembly never ratified it. Syria finally gained independence in April
1946 when France pulled its troops out of the country.
JORDAN AND ISRAEL
Jordan - After World War I, Jordan was part of the British
Mandate of Palestine. In 1921, the British gave some
control of Transjordan, the area to the east of the Jordan
River, to Abdullah bin Hussein, who would later become
the first king of Jordan. On May 25, 1946, Transjordan
became fully independent of the United Kingdom and
became known as the Hashemite Kingdom of
Transjordan. In April 1949, King Abdullah changed the
name of the country to the Hashemite Kingdom of
Jordan.
Israel - On May 14, 1948, Israel declared itself an
independent nation and a Jewish state.
KUWAIT, QATAR, BAHRAIN, UAE, AND IRAN
Kuwait - Kuwait became independent on June 19, 1961 after signing
a treaty with the United Kingdom. Prior to independence, Kuwait took
over more and more responsibility for its internal affairs until finally,
the United Kingdom withdrew its special court system, and the
Kuwaiti government began to enforce its own laws.
Qatar, Bahrain, and the United Arab Emirates – In 1971, these three
countries declared themselves independent of the United Kingdom.
The United Kingdom recognized the independence of these when it
determined they had enough oil revenues to be self-sufficient. The
states were strong enough to keep neighboring countries such as
Iraq and Saudi Arabia from taking them over for their oil wealth.
Iran - Unlike many other Middle East countries, Iran was able to
remain independent for most of its history. In 1979, however, it
changed its form of government to an Islamic republic and got rid of
British and Soviet influences in the country.
ISRAEL CONFLICT
Religious connection - Israel was the historic land of the
Jews until the Jewish Second Temple was destroyed in
70 CE. After this, most Jews migrated from Israel and
settled in parts of Europe. Jerusalem, the capital city of
Israel, is the holy city of the Jews. It is also a holy city for
Muslims and Christians.
Anti-Semitism - Anti-Semitism is a hatred for Jewish
people. When the Jews settled in Europe, most
Europeans persecuted them for centuries because of
religious beliefs.
Zionism - Zionism is the belief that Israel should be
made into a homeland for the Jews. The Zionist
movement began in the 1890s, when Jews wished to
have their own home to escape European persecution.
ISRAEL CONFLICT
Balfour Declaration - The Balfour Declaration
was issued by Great Britain in 1917, after
Britain took control of the land that had been
Israel. The declaration stated the right of the
Jewish people to have a national home in
Israel. However, very little was done after the
declaration was issued.
Holocaust - During World War II, Nazi Germany
killed 6 million European Jews, and it left
countless others without any families or homes.
This event is known as the Holocaust.
ISRAEL CONFLICT
Independence of Israel - After World War II, Britain
and the United Nations made a plan to create two
independent countries: a Jewish Israel and an
Arab Palestine. However, both sides could not
agree on this, and a war was fought between Israel
and the Arab nations of Egypt, Syria, Lebanon,
Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and what is now
Jordan. Israel gained independence in 1948.
Conflicts today - The State of Israel still has a poor
relationship with its Arab neighbors, especially in
the Palestinian territories of the West Bank and
Gaza Strip.
U.S. INVOLVEMENT
The Middle East has
been involved in many
conflicts over the years,
and these conflicts
continue today. In
modern times, the
United States has had
an interest in the Middle
East and has
participated in many of
the conflicts there.
PERSIAN GULF CONFLICT
In 1990, Iraqi President Saddam Hussein
claimed Kuwait had been pumping oil that was
on Iraq's side of the border. Iraq invaded Kuwait
later that year. An alliance of nations including
the United States, Britain, and France pushed
Iraq out of Kuwait and then invaded Iraq.
INVASION OF AFGHANISTAN
When the United States was attacked by
terrorists in 2001, its government found Osama
bin Laden, the leader of the terrorist group al-
Qaeda, responsible. Believing bin Laden lived
in Afghanistan, the United States, Britain, and
other nations invaded Afghanistan and
overthrew the Taliban. The Taliban had been
Afghanistan's dictatorship government.
INVASION OF IRAQ
Operation Iraqi Freedom was an invasion of
Iraq. Its purpose was to free the Iraqi people
from Saddam Hussein's dictatorship
government and to stop Iraq from producing
weapons of mass destruction and aiding
terrorists. The United States, Britain, and other
countries invaded Iraq in 2003 and removed
Saddam Hussein from power.
