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Adaptive Strategies:
Hunting & Gathering
(Foraging)
4 Adaptive Strategies
HUNTING & GATHERING
(FORAGING)
HORTICULTURE
PASTORALISM
AGRICULTURE
INCLUDES PEASANTS
2
Cultural Ecology
Inter-relationships between people &
environment
ADAPTIVE STRATEGY:
THE WAY PEOPLE IN A PARTICULAR
ENVIRONMENT USE CULTURAL MEANS TO
SURVIVE IN THAT ENVIRONMENT;
THE STRATEGY EMPLOYED TO PROCURE
NEEDS OF THE GROUP
3
ENVIRONMENTAL
POSSIBILISM:
ENVIRONMENT PLACES LIMITATIONS &
PROVIDES POSSIBILITIES
IT DOES NOT DETERMINE CULTURE
4
Hunting & Gathering
Successful way of life – 99% of human history
Out of 150 billion people ever – 60% H&G
--10,000 YA 10 million 100% H&G
0 AD 50% H&G
1500 AD 350 million 1% H&G
2000 AD 4 billion .001% H&G
(300,000)
5
Why Have H & G
Disappeared?
Disappearance is not due to technological
inefficiency
Political factors – European expansion
Importance of early human history
Contemporary H&G are not relics from
the past
But participants in the modern world
system
Forced into marginal areas
6
Geographic Distribution
H&G
European contact ~ 1600 (polar, desert)
7
Where H&G persist today
8
Collectors (vs. Producers)
Dependent on
scarcity or
abundance of
resources
Hunt
Forage
Combine
9
I. PEDESTRIAN H&G
!KUNG SAN: Plant-focused H&G
55,000 SAN; 4000 !KUNG SAN)
1 KUNG BAND =
250 SQ. MI.
POPULATION DENSITY
44/100 SQ. MI.
11 GROUPS
10
Functional Consequences
SMALL GROUP SIZE, 25-50
NOMADIC, FUSION & FISSION
MOBILITY - DONT ACCUMULATE
SURPLUS
11
BASIC UNIT OF PRODUCTION AND
CONSUMPTION = VILLAGE/CAMP
DIVISION OF LABOR BY SEX & AGE
LACK SPECIALIZATION
EGALITARIAN - EQUAL ACCESS TO RESOURCES
NO SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
NO INDIVIDUAL OWNERSHIP
OF RESOURCES
RECIPROCITY
12
BANDS ORGANIZED ON BASIS OF
KINSHIP
INFORMAL SOCIAL CONTROL
"HEADMAN"
POLYTHEISTIC RELIGION
PART-TIME RELIGIOUS SPECIALIST (SHAMAN)
13
MOBILITY & SOCIAL
RELATIONS
= SOLUTION TO ADAPT TO RESOURCES
FOOD IS CONSTANT BUT DISTANCE TO IT INCREASES
IN DRY SEASON
GROUP SIZE IS DETERMINED BY CARRYING CAPACITY
THE KEY ISSUE IS WATER - FIXED
DISTRIBUTION OF WATER HOLES
SEASONAL AGGREGATION IN DRY (100);
MAY BE 7 GROUPS AT 1 WATERHOLE
DISPERSAL IN WET (SMALLER)
MOBILITY: MAY MOVE 2 - 10 TIMES/YEAR
14
Perspectives…
HOBBES:
“LIVE IN A STATE OF
NATURE”;
LIFE IS “NASTY, BRUTISH
& SHORT”
SAHLINS:
“THE ORIGINAL
AFFLUENT SOCIETY”
15
Richard Lee’s Research
D.O.L. - MEN HUNT, WOMEN GATHER
"MAN THE HUNTER IS A MYTH"
60-80% DIET IS VEGETABLES, GATHERED BY
WOMEN;
2-3 DAYS/WEEK
LESS THAN 20% OF
DIET IS MEAT
1 KILL EACH 4 DAYS
16
WOMEN PROVIDE 2-3 TIMES THE AMOUNT
OF FOOD AS MEN
PROBABILITY OF MEN FINDING FOOD IS LESS
THAN 25%; WOMEN 100%
1 HR. HUNTING 100 CAL.;
1 HR. GATHER 240 CAL.
17
ACUTE AWARENESS OF
THE ENVIRONMENT
MEN’S KNOWLEDGE OF ANIMAL HABITS,
ABILITY TO TRACK ANIMALS
POISON ARROWS WITH BEETLE LARVAE
WOMEN’ ABILITY TO IDENTIFY VINES, EDIBLE
PLANTS
40% (YOUNG & OLD) DON’T CONTRIBUTE,
DEPEND ON REST
POPULATION OF 466,
46 ARE OVER AGE 60
LEISURE TIME
(compared to industrial society)
18
Dietary Quality?
Reciprocity Evens out wealth
differences
Diet: 37% MEAT, 63% VEG.
Mongongo nuts (not all are eaten)
300 NUTS/DAY; 33% OF VEG. DIET;
PROVIDES 5 x CALORIES &
10 x PROTEIN AS CEREAL (CORN, RICE)
EQUIVALENT OF 2 1/2 LB. RICE,
15 OZ. BEEF; 56 GM. PROTEIN
19
VARIETY: 84 PLANTS
(FRUIT, BERRIES, ROOTS, BULBS)
WIDE RANGE ALTERNATIVES;
90% OF VEG. DIET IS BASED ON 23
SPECIES
SELECTIVENESS
KNOW 2300 ANIMALS,
54 EDIBLE, 17 HUNTED
20
OPTIMAL FORAGING THEORY
SELECTION IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL
TO THE CALORIES OFFERED, PER UNIT
OF EFFORT REQUIRED TO OBTAIN THEM
GREATER ENERGY COST TO OBTAIN,
LESS LIKELY TO SELECT
21
Brink of Starvation??
PROTEIN & PROTEIN &
CALORIES CALORIES
RECOMMENDED CONSUMED
CALORIES 1975 2140
PROTEIN 60 93
22
Richard Lee:
"CONSIDERING THE GREAT IMPORTANCE OF
THE MONGONGO & THE LONG DISTANCES
WALKED BY THE !KUNG TO REACH THE
GROVES, ONE WOULD IMAGINE THAT SOME
ATTEMPT WOULD HAVE BEEN MADE TO GROW
THE MONGONGO TREES IN THE SANDY SOILS
NEAR THE PERMANENT WATER HOLES, MAKING
POSSIBLE A MORE SEDENTARY LIFE. I ASKED
XASHI, " WHY DONT YOU TRY GROWING THE
MONGONGO TREE?" HE ANSWERED, " WHY
SHOULD WE PLANT WHEN THERE ARE SO MANY
MONGONGOS IN THE WORLD?"
23
II. Equestrian H&G
Cheyenne (agriculture nomadic hunters)
LARGER GROUPS, MORE MOBILE
MORE LIKELY TO DEVELOP A SOCIAL &
POLITICAL HIERARCHY
24
GREAT PLAINS -
SPANIARDS INTRODUCED
THE HORSE IN THE 17TH
CENTURY
THUS H&G IS A RESULT OF EUROPEAN
CONTACT
1ST ACQUIRED BY APACHE, WHOSE RAIDS
IMPELLED OTHER GROUPS TO ADOPT THE
HORSE & DEVELOP WARFARE FOR DEFENSE
MILITARY SOCIETIES DEVELOPED
25
EXPANSION OF THE AMERICAN
FRONTIER UPROOTED NATIVE
AMERICANS & FORCED THEM WEST
THEY CAME INTO CONFLICT WITH OTHER
TRIBES AS THEY COMPETED FOR HUNTING
GROUNDS
26
CHEYENNE: 10 BANDS FORM TRIBE,
EACH BAND HAS MEMBERS FROM SEVERAL
OF THE 7 MILITARY SOCIETIES
band A band B
27
FUSION IN SUMMER – 1000'S UNITE FOR
BUFFALO HUNT (MATING SEASON)
SUCCESS DEPENDED ON COOPERATIVE
HUNTING IN SUMMER
BUFFALO POLICE WITH COERCIVE
AUTHORITY ONLY DURING HUNTS
FISSION -- DISPERSE IN WINTER
VARIATION: TRIBAL ORGANIZATION &
WARFARE RARE AMONG H & G
28
III. Aquatic H&G
KWAKIUTL – Northwest Coast
EVEN LARGER GROUPS, GREATER SOCIAL
STRATIFICATION, MORE ELABORATE MATERIAL
CULTURE
ELABORATE FISHING TECHNOLOGY (BOATS)
PRIVATE PROPERTY IS
CLEARLY DEFINED
DIFFERENCES IN
WEALTH & SOCIAL RANK
29
25 GROUPS (TRIBES), EACH WITH ITS
OWN AUTONOMOUS VILLAGE
CEDAR & SALMON = RICH ENVIRONMENT,
"HARVEST THE SEA"
5-7 SALMON RUNS PER YEAR
30
UNUSUAL ABUNDANCE =
FOOD SURPLUS,
LIFEWAY SIMILAR TO
AGRICULTURALISTS
LARGE SETTLED COMMUNITIES, PLANK
HOUSES
LEISURE ALLOWED ATTENTION TO NON-
ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF LIFE
ELABORATION OF MATERIAL CULTURE
(TOTEMS, MASKS)
31
EXTENDED FAMILIES WITH INHERITED
RIGHTS TO FISHING AREAS & HUNTING
TERRITORIES;
FAMILIES WERE RANKED
ACCORDING TO WEALTH & PRESTIGE,
VALIDATED THROUGH POTLATCH
32
Friedl: Society & Sex Roles
What is the source of power among H&G?
Understand her hypothesis !
Comparative study of 4 H&G societies
The !Kung are an anomaly
Why don’t women hunt?
What lessons does this have for women
in the U.S.?
33
Gather Hunt Hunt Marriage Divorce
Small Large
Washo
(N.America
Hadza
(Tanzania)
Tiwi
(Australia)
Inuit
(Alaska)
34
Gather Hunt Hunt Marriage Divorce
Small Large
Washo
(N.America
♀♂ ♀♂ ♀♂ +
cooperation rabbit lovers
Hadza
(Tanzania)
Tiwi
(Australia)
Inuit
(Alaska)
35
Gather Hunt Hunt Marriage Divorce
Small Large
Washo
(N.America
♀♂ ♀♂ ♀♂ +
cooperation rabbit lovers
Hadza
(Tanzania)
♀♂ ♂ (♂) ♀♂♀ +
independently rarely polygyny
Tiwi
(Australia)
Inuit
(Alaska)
36
Gather Hunt Hunt Marriage Divorce
Small Large
Washo
(N.America
♀♂ ♀♂ ♀♂ +
cooperation rabbit lovers
Hadza
(Tanzania)
♀♂ ♂ (♂) ♀♂♀ +
independently rarely polygyny
Tiwi
(Australia)
♀ ♀ ♂ ♀
= alliances, select
husband
Inuit
(Alaska)
37
Gather Hunt Hunt Marriage Divorce
Small Large
Washo
(N.America
♀♂ ♀♂ ♀♂ +
cooperation rabbit lovers
Hadza
(Tanzania)
♀♂ ♂ (♂) ♀♂♀ +
independently rarely polygyny
Tiwi
(Australia)
♀ ♀ ♂ ♀
= alliances, select
husband
Inuit
(Alaska)
♂ ♀ ?
provide all food sexual favors to trade
partners 38
Conclusions:
Male dominance varies with the
amount of meat available
The less meat, the more egalitarian
Vegetables are distributed within
the family
Meat is distributed to the band
(source of power)
39
!KUNG SAN - SOCIAL CHANGE
HAS !KUNG CULTURE REMAINED
UNCHANGED FOR 1000s OF YEARS?
GOOD ANTHROPOLOGISTS UNDERSTAND
THE IMPORTANCE OF HISTORY
!KUNG PEOPLE HAVE BEEN
ALTERNATELY REPRESSED BY DUTCH,
BANTU, & INFLUENCED BY THE HERERO
& TSWANA
40
Kalahari
Desert
41
HUNTING & GATHERING SOCIETIES OCCUPY THE
LAST FRONTIERS OF EXPLOITABLE RESOURCES IN
THE WORLD
1652 ON, DUTCH KILLED 200,000 SAN IN 200
YEARS; LAND TAKEN OVER FOR AGRICULTURE,
HERDING
18TH C.: COLONIAL SETTLERS USED THE !KUNG
AS MENIAL LABORERS OR WENT ON RAIDS &
MASSACRED SMALL CAMPS
THE ENCROACHMENT OF CAPITALISM & SOUTH
AFRICA'S WAR ON ITS NEIGHBORS TOOK A
TOLL ON !KUNG CULTURE
42
BOTSWANA - RAPID EXPANSION OF
CAPITALIST RANCHING
BROUGHT IN DRILLING RIGS & DUG WELLS
TO REACH DEEP WATER IN THE KALAHARI
PEOPLE IN HIGH GOVT. POSITIONS ARE
GAINING 99 YEAR LEASES TO THE LAND
43
KALAHARI DESERT - SITE OF MAJOR
MINERAL PROSPECTING BY MNCs
THE FUTURE OF H&G IS MORE CLOSELY
BOUND TO MNCs THAN WITH HUNTING
ANTELOPE OR AVAILABILITY OF
MONGONGO NUTS
44
BOTSWANA
WAS A S. AFRICAN PROTECTORATE (1886)
GAINED INDEPENDENCE 1966
BELONGS TO UN & SUPPORTED S. AFRICAN
LIBERATION MOVEMENTS VS. APARTHEID
FOUGHT VS. ONE OF WORLD'S MOST POWERFUL &
RACIST REGIMES
LACKS A LARGE EUROPEAN SETTLER
POPULATION
MAJORITY ARE BANTU SPEAKERS;
SAN ARE MINORITY
SUBJECT TO INTENSE MISSIONIZING
45
NAMIBIA
WAS A COLONY OF SOUTH AFRICA, SEIZED
FROM GERMANY IN WW I
AS S. AFRICA IMPLEMENTED EXTREME POLICIES
OF APARTHEID, U.S. CONSIDERED IT
STRATEGICALLY IMPORTANT:
GOLD, DIAMONDS, MINERALS
S. AFRICA'S SMALL RULING WHITE ELITE
DEPENDED ON THE LABOR & SUPPRESSION OF
MILLIONS OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLE
S. AFRICA TIGHTENED BORDERS BETWEEN
BOTSWANA & NAMIBIA, RESTRICTING
MOVEMENT OF !KUNG & INHIBITING THEIR
SUBSISTENCE ACTIVITIES
46
BY 1970s !KUNG WERE LIVING IN SMALL
GOVERNMENT-ADMINISTERED CAMPS,
DEPENDING ON GOVT. RATIONS, &
UNABLE TO HUNT & GATHER
47
SWAPO
SW AFRICAN PEOPLE'S ORGANIZATION FORMED
IN 1966
MARXIST GUERRILLA GROUP
U.S. OPPOSED THE LEFTIST
GOVERNMENT OF NAMIBIA
S. AFRICA USED NAMIBIA AS A CORRIDOR TO
RAID SWAPO CAMPS IN ANGOLA, SUPPORTED
BY THE U.S.
S. AFRICAN ARMY RECRUITED 100s OF !KUNG,
FORMING 2 BATALLIONS
4000 !KUNG IN THE AREA WERE UNDER TOTAL
CONTROL OF THE ARMY
48
THE RESULT: ALCOHOLISM, FIGHTING,
HOMICIDES TRIPLED AS !KUNG MEN GOT
WEAPONS & ACQUIRED A MACHO IMAGE
THE SYSTEM OF RECIPROCITY BROKE DOWN,
ANOMIE
SWAPO GAINED INDEPENDENCE FOR NAMIBIA
IN 1990
THE NEW CONSITITUTION STRESSES HUMAN
RIGHTS & DEMOCRATIC PARTICIPATION FOR
ALL PEOPLES
49
SOME H&Gs HAVE DEVELOPED POLITICAL
ORGANIZATIONS TO MOBILIZE & RESIST
ENCROACHEMENT
THESE DRAW ON THEIR OWN CULTURAL,
POLITICAL, & ORGANIZATIONAL RESOURCES
BUT THEY RELY ON OUTSIDE HELP, SUCH AS
ANTHROPOLOGISTS
1975 ANTHROPOLOGISTS CREATED KALAHARI
PEOPLE'S FUND
CONCERN WITH AIDING THE
STRUGGLE FOR SELF-
DETERMINATION
50
