Improving Student
Achievement Through
the Use of Visual
Organizers
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Adapted from: International Reading Association Semantic Mapping 1986; ASCD
dimensions of Learning Acquire and Integrate Knowledge; Palatine Press How to
Integrate the Curricula 1996; : "Learning across the curriculum with creative graphing",
by Linda Lee Johnson, The Reading Teacher, International Reading Association, 1990;
Morgan, R. et. Al. (1996) Reading For Success, Cincinnati, OH: South Western
Publishing; ERIC Clearinghouse on Information & Technology, Syracuse, NY
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 1
Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of
Visual Organizers
Table of Contents
Concepts Mapping: A Graphical System for Understanding
The Relationship Between Concepts ..................................................................................4
Cognitive Structures: Ways to Organize Information for More Effectively Understanding
And Remembering ...........................................................................................................10
Visual Organizers.............................................................................................................12
Cornel Note Taking Strategy ...........................................................................................14
Beyond the Facts: Towards Meaningful Reading Comprehension ................................ 15
Question Matrix ............................................................................................................... 16
T-Chart ............................................................................................................................. 17
Readers Response ............................................................................................................ 18
Retelling ........................................................................................................................... 19
T-Chart Activity ............................................................................................................... 20
Cue Guides ....................................................................................................................... 22
Reading Instructional Strategies ...................................................................................... 23
Textbook Activity Guide ................................................................................................. 24
Questions to Ask as I Read .............................................................................................. 27
Question Answer Relationships ....................................................................................... 28
Keeping a Vocabulary Notebook ..................................................................................... 29
A Teacher’s Self-Evaluation Checklist ........................................................................... 30
Sample Questions............................................................................................................. 31
Signals .............................................................................................................................. 33
Vocabulary Development ................................................................................................ 34
Examples of Visual Representations ............................................................................... 35
Student Vocabulary Strategy ........................................................................................... 36
A Story Map ..................................................................................................................... 37
Informational Text ........................................................................................................... 38
Teacher Examples
Descriptive Pattern ............................................................................................... 39
Time Sequence Pattern ........................................................................................ 40
Process/Cause-Effect Pattern ............................................................................... 41
Episode Pattern .................................................................................................... 42
Generalization/Principle Pattern .......................................................................... 43
Concept Pattern .................................................................................................... 44
Comparing............................................................................................................ 45
Categories ............................................................................................................ 46
Categories ............................................................................................................ 47
Abstracting ........................................................................................................... 48
Inductive Reasoning............................................................................................. 49
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 2
Deductive Reasoning ........................................................................................... 50
Conflict Clarification Matrix ............................................................................... 51
Experimental Inquiry ........................................................................................... 52
Investigation ......................................................................................................... 53
Student Examples
Descriptive Pattern ............................................................................................... 54
Time-Sequence Pattern ........................................................................................ 55
Process/Cause-Effect Pattern ............................................................................... 56
Episode Pattern .................................................................................................... 57
Generalization/Principle Pattern .......................................................................... 58
Concept Pattern .................................................................................................... 59
Comparing............................................................................................................ 60
Categories ............................................................................................................ 61
Categories ............................................................................................................ 62
Abstracting ........................................................................................................... 63
Inductive Reasoning............................................................................................. 64
Deductive Reasoning ........................................................................................... 65
Conflict Clarification Matrix ............................................................................... 66
Experimental Inquiry ........................................................................................... 67
Investigation ......................................................................................................... 68
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 3
June 1997 EDO-IR-97-05
Concept Mapping: A Graphical System for Understanding the Relationship
Between Concepts
by:
Eric Plotnick
This ERIC Digest is adapted from WWW documents prepared by Jan W.A.
Lanzing, Department of Educational Instrumentation, Faculty of Educational
Science and Technology, University of Twente, The Netherlands.
What is Concept Mapping?
In the 1960s, Joseph D. Novak (1993) at Cornell University began to study the
concept mapping technique. His work was based on the theories of David
Ausubel (1968), who stressed the importance of prior knowledge in being able to
learn about new concepts. Novak concluded that "Meaningful learning involves
the assimilation of new concepts and propositions into existing cognitive
structures." A concept map is a graphical representation where nodes (points or
vertices) represent concepts, and links (arcs or lines) represent the relationships
between concepts. The concepts, and sometimes the links, are labeled on the
concept map. The links between the concepts can be one-way, two-way, or non-
directional. The concepts and the links may be categorized, and the concept
map may show temporal or causal relationships between concepts.
Purpose of Concept Mapping
Concept mapping is a type of knowledge representation. Jonassen & Grabowski
(1993, p. 433) state that structural knowledge may be seen as a separate type of
knowledge. "Structural knowledge provides the conceptual basis for why. It
describes how prior knowledge is interconnected. . . . Structural knowledge is
most often depicted in terms of some sort of concept map that visually describes
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 4
the relationships between ideas in a knowledge domain." Representing
knowledge in the visual format of a concept map allows one to gain an overview
of a domain of knowledge. Because the nodes contain only a keyword or a short
sentence, more interpretation is required of the reader, but this may be positive.
Concept mapping can be used for several purposes:
To generate ideas (brainstorming);
To design complex structures (long texts, hypermedia, large web sites);
To communicate complex ideas;
To aid learning by explicitly integrating new and old knowledge; and
To assess understanding or diagnose misunderstanding.
Advantages of Concept Mapping
Visual representation has several advantages:
Visual symbols are quickly and easily recognized;
Minimum use of text makes it easy to scan for a word, phrase, or the
general idea; and
Visual representation allows for development of a holistic understanding
that words alone cannot convey.
Applications of Concept Mapping
Creativity Tool-Drawing a concept map can be compared to participating
in a brainstorming session. As one puts ideas down on paper without
criticism, the ideas become clearer and the mind becomes free to
receive new ideas. These new ideas may be linked to ideas already on
the paper, and they may also trigger new associations leading to new
ideas.
Hypertext Design Tool-As the World Wide Web becomes an increasingly
powerful and ubiquitous medium for disseminating information, writers
must move from writing text in linear fashion to creating hypertext
documents with links to other documents. The structural correspondence
between hypertext design and concept maps makes concept mapping a
suitable tool for designing the conceptual structure of hypertext. The
structure of both a hypertext document and a concept map can be seen
as a directed graph or a knowledge graph (Conklin, 1987). A concept
map placed on the Web in hypertext may also serve as a Web
navigational tool if there are clickable areas on the concept map that
take the user immediately to indicated parts of the hypertext document.
Designing hypertext is an activity with inherent problems. Botafogo,
Rivlin & Schneiderman (1992) describe a dilemma faced by designers of
hypertext authoring systems. In order to stimulate authors to write clearly
structured hypertext (usually hierarchical), they have to decide when to
force authors to reflect upon the structure of their work. Imposing a
hierarchical structure from the beginning may result in too many
restrictions for the author, while any effort to stimulate hierarchy
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 5
afterwards is too late, and it may even be impossible for authors to
restructure the jungle of nodes and relationships. Concept mapping may
be a good intermediate step for authors to use to reflect upon their work
when developing hypermedia.
Communication Tool-A concept map produced by one person represents
one possible way to structure information or ideas. This is something
that can be shared with others. A concept map produced by a group of
people represents the ideas of the group. In either case, concept
mapping can be used as a communication tool for people to use to
discuss concepts and the relationships between the concepts. They may
try to agree on a common structure to use as a basis for further action.
Learning Tool-Novak's original work with concept mapping dealt with
learning. Constructivist learning theory argues that new knowledge
should be integrated into existing structures in order to be remembered
and receive meaning. Concept mapping stimulates this process by
making it explicit and requiring the learner to pay attention to the
relationship between concepts. Jonassen (1996) argues that students
show some of their best thinking when they try to represent something
graphically, and thinking is a necessary condition for learning.
Experiments have shown that subjects using concept mapping
outperform non-concept mappers in longer term retention tests (Novak,
et al, 1983).
Concept mapping is also gaining inroads as a tool for problem-solving in
education. Concept mapping may be used to enhance the problem-
solving phases of generating alternative solutions and options. Since
problem-solving in education is usually done in small groups, learning
should also benefit from the communication enhancing properties of
concept mapping.
Assessment Tool-Concept maps can also be used as assessment tools.
The research team around Joseph Novak at Cornell found that an
important by-product of concept mapping is its ability to detect or
illustrate the ³misconceptions² learners may have as explanations of
content matter. The conceptions students may have are often
incomplete and deficient leading to misunderstanding of instruction.
Concept maps drawn by students express their conceptions (or their
misconceptions) and can help the instructor diagnose the
misconceptions that make the instruction ineffective (Ross & Munby,
1991).
Advantages of Computer Support for Concept Mapping
Jonassen (1990) proposes that few of the computer tools used today for learning
have been designed as learning tools. Usually educators use existing tools for
teaching purposes. According to Jonassen, concept mapping computer tools
belong to the rare category of computer tools that were designed specifically for
learning. Some of the advantages of computer support for concept mapping
include:
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 6
Ease of adaptation and manipulation-Once you have a concept map on
paper, try to fit in those forgotten concepts or the ideas you came up with
overnight and you will know the advantages of computer assisted
concept mapping. Anderson-Inman and Zeitz (1993) compare the use of
the concept mapping program "Inspiration" (see below) with the paper-
and-pencil approach and found that using this program "encourages
revisions to the concept map because deletions, additions, and changes
are accomplished quickly and easily."
Dynamic Linking-Most computer assisted concept mapping tools allow
the user to point and drag a concept or group of concepts to another
place on the map and automatically update all the appropriate links.
Conversion-Once a concept map is created using a computer, the
program usually allows the user to convert the map to different electronic
formats. These can be vector or bitmapped images, a text outline, or
even a hypertext structure. These electronic formats can then be stored,
sent, manipulated, used, printed, and deleted just like any computer file.
Communication-Advantages of digital communication are speed, high
fidelity, and reliability. Having a concept map in digital format allows the
user to send concept maps as attached files with e-mail messages, or
include them in World Wide Web pages. Digitizing enhances the
possibilities of using concept maps as communication tools.
Storage-Computer assisted concept mapping allows for digital storage of
concept maps. Digital storage takes less space, makes retrieval easier,
and is especially important if concept maps will be used on a large scale.
Computer Tools - An Example
Inspiration- Inspiration http://www.inspiration.com/ is currently one of the
most popular computer software programs for creating concept maps.
Organization of concepts, and brainstorming and mapping of ideas are
mentioned in the User's Manual (Inspiration Software Inc., 1994) as
primary functions of this program. The graphical capabilities of
Inspiration make it an outstanding program for creating graphs for
presentation purposes. Nodes may be shown in many different useful
preset and user-defined shapes. Links may be straight or curved and
may be labeled. Arrowheads may be placed on any side, and everything
may be set to any color.
Anderson-Inman & Zeitz (1993) describe the classroom use of
Inspiration and find that it encourages users to revise or change the
maps (compared to maps drawn with paper and pencil). The graphical
capabilities of Inspiration help users personalize concept maps. These
capabilities also provide an incentive for users to manipulate concepts
and revise conceptual relationships.
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 7
Summary
Concept mapping is a technique for representing the structure of information
visually. There are several uses for concept mapping, such as idea generation,
design support, communication enhancement, learning enhancement, and
assessment. A wide range of computer software for concept mapping is now
available for most of the popular computers used in education.
References
Anderson-Inman, L.,& Zeitz, L. (1993, August/September). Computer-based
concept-mapping: Active studying for active learners. The Computing Teacher,
21(1). 6-8, 10-11. (EJ 469 254).
Ausubel, D. (1968). Educational psychology: A cognitive view. New York: Holt,
Rinehart, and Winston.
Bitner, B.L. (1996). Interactions between hemisphericity and learning type, and
concept mapping attributes of preservice and inservice teachers. Paper
presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Association for Research in
Science Teaching (St. Louis, MO, March 31-April 4, 1996). (ED 400 196)
Botafogo, R. A., Rivlin, E., & Schneiderman, B. (1992). Structural analysis of
hypertexts: Identifying hierarchies and useful metrics. ACM Transactions on
Information Systems, 10, 142-180.
Conklin, E. J. (1987). Hypertext: An introduction and survey. Computer, 20(9),
17-41. Inspiration Software. (1994). Inspiration for windows: User's manual
[computer program manual]. Portland, OR: Author.
Jonassen, D.H. (1990, July). What are cognitive tools?. In P.A.M. Kommers,
D.H. Jonassen, & J.T. Mayes (Eds.), Proceedings of the NATA advanced
research workshop 'Cognitive tools for learning' (pp. 1-6). Enschede, the
Netherlands: University of Twente.
Jonassen, D.H., & Grabowski, B. L. (1993). Handbook of individual differences:
Learning & instruction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates. ISBN: 0-
8058-1412-4/0-8058-1413-2.
Jonassen, D.H. (1996). Computers in the classroom: Mindtools for critical
thinking. Eaglewoods, NJ: Merill/Prentice Hall.
Lanzing, J.W.A. (1996, July 4). Everything you always wanted to know
about.concept mapping. Internet WWW page at URL at:
http://utto1031.to.utwente.nl/artikel1/ (version current at November 1999).
Novak, J.D., Gowin, D.B., and Johansen, G.T. (1983). The use of concept
mapping and knowledge vee mapping with junior high school science students.
Science Education, 67, 625-645.
Novak, J. D. (1993). How do we learn our lesson?: Taking students through the
process. The Science Teacher, 60(3), 50-55.
Ross, B., & Munby, H. (1991). Concept mapping and misconceptions: A study of
high-school students' understanding of acids and bases. International Journal of
Science Education, 13(1), 11-24. (EJ 442 063)
*******
This ERIC Digest was prepared by Eric Plotnick, Assistant Director, ERIC
Clearinghouse on Information & Technology, Syracuse University and is
adapted from WWW documents prepared by Jan W.A. Lanzing (1969-1997),
Department of Educational Instrumentation, Faculty of Educational Science and
Technology, University of Twente, The Netherlands.
ERIC Digests are in the public domain and may be freely reproduced and
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 8
disseminated.
ERIC Clearinghouse on Information & Technology, 4-194 Center for Science
and Technology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244-4100; 1-800-464-
9107; (315) 443-3640; Fax: (315) 443-5448; e-mail: eric@ericir.syr.edu; URL:
http://ericir.syr.edu/ithome
This publication was prepared with funding from the Office of Educational
Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education, under contract no.
RR93002009. The opinions expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect
the positions of OERI or ED.
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 9
Cognitive Structures: Ways to Organize Information
for More Effectively Understanding and Remembering
Adapted from : Morgan, R. et. Al. (1996) Reading For Success, Cincinnati, OH: South
Western Publishing
Knowledge Structures and Questions for Review and Key Words Ways to
Critical Thinking Skills Found in Essay Questions Organize Ideas Visually
Knowledge: Recalling facts, Who, what, when, where, why? List, definition, formula,
observation, description. Key words: define, identify, label, list, illustration, diagram, map,
locate, name, describe steps, process, or plans, table, graph, chart,
sequence. timeline, or flowchart.
Comprehension: Providing Why, how? Summary, example, analogy,
evidence of understanding by Key words: explain, clarify, discuss, web, tree, classification table,
describing and/or clarifying illustrate, summarize, restate, infer, give feature analysis grid, graph,
concepts, events, or an example, provide an analogy, classify, matrix, index, outline.
relationships between ideas. categorize, explain the importance or
significance of...
Application: Demonstrating If...then? What is...? How would you Describe procedure or process
use for information, concepts, apply...? using: algorithm, chronology,
or techniques. Key words: demonstrate, apply. flow chart, plan, procedure,
action chart, cycle chart, parts-
function table.
Analysis: Examining in detail, Why...? What can you conclude…? Break down into parts: Venn
identifying motives or causes, What evidence can you find to diagram, flow chart, fishbone
making inferences, finding support...? diagram, troubleshooting chart,
evidence to support Key words: select, propose, sort, decision tree, parts-function
generalizations, decision analyze, compare/contrast, explain, table, stage table.
making. identify, prove, categorize, deduct,
substantiate.
Synthesis: Solving problems, Can you give an example of...? How Troubleshooting chart, line
making predictions and/or will we solve...? What will happen...? graph, cycles, Venn diagram,
producing original How can we improve...? illustration, decision tree.
representations, decision Key words: interpret, predict,
making. hypothesize, .apply.
Evaluation: Giving opinions Do you agree...? Do you believe...? Grid, rating chart, table.
about issues, judging the What is your opinion...? Do you
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 10
validity of ideas, judging the think...? Why? Would it be better if...?
quality of art and other Which...did you like? Why?
products; justifying opinions Key words: evaluate, rank, rate, judge,
and ideas criticize, debate, conclude.
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 11
Visual Organizers
From: "Learning across the curriculum with creative graphing", by Linda Lee Johnson, The Reading
Teacher, International Reading Association, 1990.
Examples
Visual organizers are simply drawings or formats used to represent information and to
show relationships between ideas. Tables, charts, graphs, timelines, flowcharts,
diagrams, and webs are all visual organizers.
The purpose of using visual organizers is to help you to think more critically and at
higher levels of cognition than if you only focused on reading your text and taking notes
in class. They help you to process the information at higher levels of comprehension,
application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. By thinking about and organizing
information in this way, you help yourself to better understand and to recall the
information.
Example:
Time line
To summarize and show the major events that led up to the Revolutionary War,
you might choose a time line.
Date: Date: Date: Date:
Event Event Event Event
Date: Date: Date: Date:
Date: Date: Date: Date:
Date: Date: Date: Date:
ent ent ent
The following table shows how some of the most common ent organizers can be used
visual
for different types of conceptual relationships.
Graphing Various Types of Conceptual Relationships
Graphic Relationships of Examples:
Type ideas appropriate to Humanities Social Physical/Life
this type graphic Science Science
Web Definitions Characteristics Attributes of Attributes of
(for a Attributes of cubism in the demand sun spots in
concept) Examples art curve in astronomy
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 12
economics
Tree Classification Family tree of Organization Classes of
(for Analysis the Tudor of the White isotopes in
hierarchies) Structure Monarchy in House staff chemistry
Attributes England
Examples
Chart Compare Comparison of Comparison Comparison of
(for similar Contrast imagery in of the Viet planets of the
concepts) Attributes poems by Nam war to solar system
Anne Sexton the 1988 war
in the Persian
Gulf
Chain (for Process Plot sequence Stages of Process of cell
changes Sequence of a novel Piaget's division
over time) Cause/Effect theory of
Chronology cognitive
development
Sketch Physical Description of Description The structure of
(for structures the Elizabethan of a complex the epidermis
visualizing Descriptions of stage set in a apparatus for and dermis, the
a places drama studying eye two layers of
description) Space relations movements in skin
Concrete objects reading
Visual images
From: "Learning across the curriculum with creative graphing", by Linda Lee Johnson, The Reading Teacher,
International Reading Association, 1990.
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 13
Cornell Note Taking Strategy
Key Topics Notes
Summary or
Paraphrase
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 14
Beyond the Facts: Towards Meaningful Reading Comprehension
Student Note Taking Format
Subject:____________________________________________________
Unit, Topic or Standard Indicator:
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Facts-- A simple association of a name, event object, date, or place stimulus. Facts entail only one
example or instance.
Concepts-- A class of events, names, dates, objects, places, etc. that share a common set of defining
attributes or characteristics. Concepts involve three components: a label, the set of defining attributes and,
multiple examples or exemplars.
Principles-- A consistent relationship among events, objects, or behaviors. Principles generally can be
stated as “if-then” or “when-then” statements. Principles generally involve multiple applications in which
the fundamental relationship is constant across examples. To be coded in a textbook passage, the
fundamental relationship must be stated explicitly, regardless of whether or not examples are provided.
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 15
Question Matrix
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
What is? Where/When Which is? Who is? Why is? How is?
is?
7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.
What did? Where/When Which did? Who did? Why did? How did?
did?
13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.
What can? Where/When Which can? Who can? Why can? How can?
can?
19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.
What Where/When Which Who Why How
would? would? would? would? would? would?
25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.
What will? Where/When Which will? Who will? Why will? How will?
will?
31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36.
What Where/When Which Who Why How
might? might? might? might? might? might?
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 16
T-CHART
An activity based on Stance 2, Developing Interpretation
Have your child list things that the characters in a story have in common on one side of the chart.
List the differences that set the characters apart on the other side.
Similar Different
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.
Adapted from “Reading Connections”
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 17
READER'S RESPONSE
An activity based on Stance 3, Responding Personally
This is what I read: This is what I thought or felt about my
favorite part of the story:
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 18
RETELLING
An activity based on Stance 1, Initial Understanding
Use this form to help your child retell the story in sequence (order in which it happened).
CHARACTER(S):
SETTING: (Time and Place)
PROBLEM:
EVENTS:
RESOLUTION - HOW DID IT END?:
*Adaptation: Read the story with your child and have him or her, orally or by
drawing pictures, retell the story.
From Instructional Support Team Project: Reading/Writing Comprehension Strategies
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 19
T - CHART
An activity based on Stance 2, Developing Interpretation
Have your child write two (2) likenesses and two differences between two characters from a
story.
First Character’s Name Second Character’s Name
Likeness #1: Likeness #1:
Likeness #2: Likeness #2:
Difference #1: Difference #1:
Difference #2: Difference #2:
*Adaptation: Read the story with your child and have him/her tell you one
likeness and one difference of the characters in the story.
From “Reading Connections”
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 20
FORMAT FOR WRITING EACH PARAGRAPH
Use this format to write each of the paragraphs in your composition.
TOPIC
SENTENCE
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
DETAILS ___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
__
CONCLUDING
SENTENCE
___________________
__
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 21
USE THESE CUE GUIDES
Introductory paragraph: Thesis statement Introductory paragraph: Thesis
first statement last
Answer the prompt in your first
sentence. Start with an “attention getter”
Write your first main idea in the (see cue guide 3) and lead up to
second sentence.
Write your second main idea in the the thesis statement...
third sentence Answer the prompt in your last
Write your third main idea in the last
sentence. sentence. Include your first,
(1) second and third main idea in a
series.
(2)
How to start with “attention getter” First Body Paragraph: Use
transition
Use a series of questions words to introduce ideas
Use a series of statements
Use a brief or funny story First (of all)...
Use a mean or angry statement (The/My) first (reason/example)
Start with the opposite opinion from
is...
what you believe
(3)
One (reason why/example is)...
To begin with...
In the first step...
To explain...
Second & third Body Paragraphs: Use Concluding Paragraph: )Use transition words
(4
transition words to connect or add ideas to summarize ideas
Second (ly)…Third(ly)/Finally… In conclusion/To conclude…
My second (reason/example) is… In summary/To sum up…
Furthermore… In short/All in all…
Another (reason) to support this is…
For these reasons…
What is more…
The next step…
(6)
(5)
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 22
Reading Instructional Strategies
Question / Answer / Relationships
Procedure:
Use subject area text of story
1. The first question answering strategy Right There - that is, to find the
words used to create the question and look at the other words in that
sentence to find the answer.
2. The second question answering strategy is Think and Search. This also
involves a question that has an answer in the text, but this answer requires
information from more than one sentence or paragraph.
3. The third question/answer relationship is, On My Own. This means
searching for the answer in the reader's own background knowledge.
4. The last question answer relationship is Writer and Me. Here the answer
might be found interpretively in the reader's own background knowledge,
but would not make sense unless the reader had read the text.
5. The first question answering strategy Right There - that is, to find the words
used to create the question and look at the other words in that sentence to find
the answer.
6. The second question answering strategy is Think and Search. This also
involves a question that has an answer in the text, but this answer requires
information from more than one sentence or paragraph.
7. The third question/answer relationship is, On My Own. This means searching
for the answer in the reader's own background knowledge.
8. The last question answer relationship is Writer and Me. Here the answer
might be found interpretively in the reader's own background knowledge, but
would not make sense unless the reader had read the text.
Question/Answer/Relationships (QAR), Raphael, 1984
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 23
Reading Across Content Areas
Textbook Activity Guide (TAG) Strategy
PSSA Connection:
Requires students to work, to sequence, to organize, and to show relationships.
Improves comprehension, summarizing, and communication skills.
Adapts to any textbook or content area.
Self-monitoring with activity guide.
Definition:
Textbook Activity Guide is a strategy in which students work in pairs to complete text
reading and activities.
Procedure:
Teacher begins by clarifying the lesson objective for the chapter.
Teacher selects the headings, portion of chapter or diagrams that relates to
objectives.
Teacher creates study guide to use with text.
Teacher matches the reading/study task to the objective.
Teacher introduces activity to whole class explaining tasks before allowing
partners to make predictions. Teacher can also demonstrate how to use Activity
Guide.
Examples:
Textbook Activity Guide
Textbook Activity Guide
(Example)
Code Strategy
Code Strategy
RR Read over and retell in own words
DP Read over and discuss with partner
PP Predict with partner
WR Write a response
Skim Read quickly for purpose and discuss with partner
MOC Organize info with Map, Outline, or Chart
Self-monitoring Codes:
______ I understand this information.
______ I’m not that sure if I understand the information.
______ I do not understand and I need to restudy the information.
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 24
(Identify pages.) Survey the title, picture, charts, and headings.
1. ______ PP
What do you expect to learn about this section?
2. ______ WR As you are reading, jot down key words and definitions.
3. ______ RR (Identify pages.) First three paragraphs
4. ______ DP (Identify pages.) Next three paragraphs
5. ______ MOC Map: (Identify pages.) Draw a map and identify key pages
(Identify pages.) First three paragraphs
6. ______ Skim
Instruct the students to define the purpose for reading.
(Identify pages.) Next three paragraphs, instruct students to write
7. ______WR
a short summary on the main idea of the selection.
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 25
Textbook Activity Guide
1.Skim & PP Identify pages _____
Predict
Partner
2.WR Key words & definitions
Write
Read
3.RR
Read
Retell
4.WR
Write
Response
5.Skim Identify pages
PP
Predict
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 26
Monitoring Comprehension
Questions to Ask as I Read
1. Do I know the meaning of this
word?
2. Does this sentence make sense
to me?
3. How does this sentence fit with
others?
4. What is the author’s main
point?
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 27
Question Answer Relationships
Question:
1. Right there Key words used to create
the question
Answer Find answer
2. Think & Search
3. On my own Own words
Relationship
4. Writer & Me
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 28
Keeping a Vocabulary Notebook
1. Initial Encounter with Word (or Phrase)
A. Write word and date first encountered.
B. Describe context of initial encounter.
C. Explore, discuss, and begin to formulate a definition related to that
context.
D. List examples generated from personal experiences and prior
knowledge.
E. List non-examples generated from personal experiences and prior
knowledge to show what the word is not or how it differs from other
closely related words.
F. Write a definition in your own words; compare with dictionary or
glossary.
G. Develop appropriate graphic organizers, such as word maps, attribute
charts, and compare/contrast diagrams.
H. Create visual association drawings, if appropriate.
2. Additional Encounters with Word
A. Write additional date(s) encountered.
B. Describe context of new encounter and compare with previous
contexts.
C. Explore, discuss, and begin to formulate a definition in new context(s)
and relate to previous definition(s).
D. Add to, revise, and elaborate on work done in steps 4,5,6,7, and 8
listed under initial Encounter.
Billmeyer, Rachel, 1996, Teaching Reading in the Content Areas, McRel, Aurora, CO
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 29
A Teacher’s Self-Evaluation Checklist for Teaching
Reading in Content Areas
1. Beginning of the Lesson
Does the teacher
State clearly what strategy is to be learned?
Show when and where the strategy is applicable to real reading?
List the sequence of steps in the strategy?
Model the mental process for applying the strategy?
Think out loud as a technique for modeling
Make clear that there may be alternative strategies?
2. Middle of the Lesson
Does the teacher
Have an adequate number of suitable examples?
Restate the goal throughout the lesson?
Use techniques to focus students’ attention on the features of the mental
processing?
Gradually ask students to do more and more of the processing without any
help?
Respond with assistance when students’ misconceptions or restructuring
lead to
confusion?
Reward students for awareness of the process as well as for right answers?
Give each student an opportunity to verbalize the entire strategy?
Make frequent reference to the mental processing being employed?
3. Close of the Lesson
Does the teacher
Have students summarize the lesson?
Show when and where the strategy is applicable in real reading?
Provide or allow alternative strategies when appropriate?
Provide for student practice?
Guide students in using the strategy when reading real text(in the basal,
the content-
area text, during USSR, and so forth)?
Billmeyer, Rachel, 1996, Teaching Reading in the Content Areas, McRel, Aurora, CO
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 30
Sample Questions
Setting
Where does the story take place?
When does the story take place?
Could the setting have been different?
Why do you think the author chose this setting?
Characters
Who are the characters in the story?
Who is the most important character in the story?
Which character do you enjoy the most?
What is (name a particular character) like?
Initiating Event
What started the chain of events in this story?
What is the connection between this event and the problem?
Problem/goal
What is the main problem/goal?
Why is this a problem/goal for the main character?
What does this problem/goal tell us about his character?
How is the setting related to the problem/goal?
What is there about the other characters that contribute to this problem/goal?
Would this be a problem for you?
Events
What important things happened in the story?
What did____ do about ___________?
What was the result of this?
Why didn’t it succeed?
What did ________ do next?
How did ________ feel about this?
How would you have reacted?
What do you learn about _______ from the course of action taken?
Resolution
How is the problem solved/goal achieved?
How else could the problem have been solved or the goal achieved?
How would you change the story if you were the author?
Theme
What is the moral of this story?
What do you think the author was trying to tell readers in this story?
What did _____ learn at the end of this story?
How can you apply this story to your life?
Billmeyer, Rachel, 1996, Teaching Reading in the Content Areas, McRel, Aurora, CO
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 31
Questions
Cause/Effect Frame Concept/Definition Problem/Solution
What is it that happens?
What causes it to happen?
Frame Frame
What is the concept? What is the problem?
What is the effect?
To what category does it Who has the problem?
What are the important elements or
belong? What is causing the
factors that cause this effect?
What are its critical problem?
How do these factors or elements
characteristics/attributes? What are the effects of the
interrelate?
How does it work? problem?
Will this result always happen from
What does it do? Who is trying to solve the
these causes? Why or why not?
What are its functions? problem?
How would the result change if the
What are examples of it? What solutions are
elements or factors are different?
What is the cause/effect process the What are examples of things recommended or
that share some but not all attempted?
author is describing?
of its What results from these
Why did a cause/effect structure
characteristics/attributes? solutions?
emerge?
Is the problem solved? Do
Compare/Contrast Frame Description Frame any new problems develop
What is being described?
What is being compared and because of the solutions?
What are its critical
contrasted? Proposition/Support
attributes?
What categories of characteristics or Frame
attributes are used to compare and What are the characters,
places and objects in the What is the general topic
contrast these things? area or issue?
passage?
How are the things alike or similar? What proposition
Why is this description
How are the things not alike or (viewpoint, theory,
important?
different? hypothesis) is being
What are the most important qualities presented?
or attributes that make them different? Goal/Action/Outcome How is the proposition
In terms of the qualities that are most supported?
important, are these things more alike,
Frame Are examples provided?
or more different? Who are the people
Do the examples support
What can we conclude about these involved?
the proposition?
What are they trying to do
things or items? Is expert verification
What is the author or achieve? What is their
provided?
goal?
comparing/contrasting? Does it support the
Why is the author What are the effects of their
proposition?
actions? What happens?
comparing/contrasting these things? Is a logical argument
Why did the comparison/contrast Were these actions
provided?
successful for achieving
structure emerge?
their goal? Does it support the
proposition?
Are there unexpected
outcomes from their Is a sufficient case presented
actions? to warrant acceptance of
the proposition?
Would other actions have
Sequence/Chronological
been more effective? Could
Order Frame
they have done something
else? What is being described in
sequence?
Why did a chronological
order pattern emerge?
What are the major steps in
Billmeyer, Rachel, 1996, Teaching Reading in the the sequence?'
Content Areas, McRel, Aurora, CO Why is the sequence
important?
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 32
Signals
Cause/Effect Comparison/Contrast Description Problem/Solution Sequence/Chronological
Order
because different from for instance problem
since same as for example the question is first
consequently similar to such as a solution second
this led to as opposed to to illustrate one answer is next
so that instead of most important one reason for the then
nevertheless although in addition problem initially
accordingly however another before
because of compared with furthermore after
as a result of as well as first when
in order to either…or second finally
may be due to but to begin with preceding
effects of on the other hand also following
therefore not only…but also in fact on (date)
consequently while not long after
for this reason unless similarly now
if…then yet as
thus
Billmeyer, Rachel, 1996, Teaching Reading in the Content Areas, McRel, Aurora, CO
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 33
VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT
VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT
What isn’t it?
What is it?
Democratic
Government
Examples:
Facts:
Billmeyer, Rachel, 1996, Teaching Reading in the Content Areas, McRel, Aurora, CO
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 34
Examples of Visual Representations
Frayer Model
Essential Characteristics Non-essential Characteristics
Examples Non-examples
Frayer, Frederick, and Klausmeier,1969
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 35
Student Vocabulary Strategy
Six Steps:
1. Write the actual sentence in which the word or phrase appears.
2. Write the word and predicted definition.
3. Write a sentence of your own that demonstrates your understanding of the word.
4. Check the word’s meaning in a dictionary or glossary and write its definition.
5. Examine the sentence in step 3 and write a better one now.
6. Draw an image to help you remember the word, or create an associative word link.
I never divulge a secret that a friend has entrusted to me.
divulge
word association or symbol
PREDICTED DEFINITION
Speak out
ONE GOOD SENTENCE
The group members began to divulge their feelings about life.
VERIFIED DEFINITION
To reveal, to make public
ANOTHER GOOD SENTENCE
Even though tortured, he never divulged the secret of the hideout.
Billmeyer, Rachel, 1996, Teaching Reading in the Content Areas, McRel, Aurora, CO
_____Improving Student Achievement through the Use of Visual Organizers 36
EXAMPLES OF VISUAL REPRESENTATIONS
A Story Map
Title
Elements
Who? Main characters Other characters
Where? Setting
When?
What? Problem Resolution Plot/Action
Structure
How? Beginning Middle End
Theme
Billmeyer, Rachel, 1996, Teaching Reading in the Content Areas, McRel, Aurora, CO
37
INFORMATIONAL TEXT
Examples of Visual Representatives
Problem-Solution
Organizational Frame
Write Topic Here
Native Americans
What problems did What changes caused What did they do to
they face? these problems? solve the problems?
-less land to live on -increased number of -agreed to treaties
settlers moving West
-
-
-
- -
-
-
Billmeyer, Rachel, 1996, Teaching Reading in the Content Areas, McRel, Aurora, CO
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 38
Descriptive Pattern
Fact Fact
Fact Topic
Fact
Fact
parts of speech; chemistry naming and formula writing;
relationships in nature; how literature relates to real
life;steps that lead to poor driving techniques; verb
conjugation; sentence structures; presidency; learning
trigonometry functions of special angles; rhythmic and
melodic patterns in vocal music;sentence patterns;article
changes; periodic chart; factoring; events that lead to war;
grammar; mass/ volume/ density relationships; metric
system; decimals; base ten; multiplication; genre(fairytales);
how book spine labels are setup; electromagnetic spectrum;
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 39
Time-Sequence Pattern
nt
nt
nt
nt
nt
nt
Eve
Eve
Eve
Eve
Eve
Eve
Understanding phases of the moon and tides; lab work; practice
certain skills then apply them in a game; sentence skills; order of
operations; years/ dates; chronological order of events; social
studies; time; sequence skills in the writing process and time lines
for placing literary movements in its proper perspective;the time
line for development of a fetus; word order in a sentence;
sequence of steps to get a job done; what are the sequence skills
needed to create a project; position of adjectives, object
pronouns etc (word order); what is learned today may not be
needed until next year; the steps and order in which they occur,
necessary to solve and code a program; entrance of parts in
polyphonic music settings;contextual; chronology; getting to class;
geologic time scall; daily schedule; Dewey decimal; steps to
formation of hurricane; seasons;
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 40
Process/Cause-Effect Pattern
Effect
All math problems; pay attention/attend class/ take notes/ pass the
class; plate tectonics causing earthquakes; maintaining checkbook;
being able to follow directions; seeing an end result; If I smoke,
drink, or do drugs…this is what will happen; in vocal music, if you
don’t feel a steady beat we won’t keep together; knowing what will
happen if certain choices are made in a game; what the outcome will
be if the planning process is not followed; defensive and offensive
playing (PE); verb tenses (conjugating in sentences to subject and
tense); plot development.; consequences of choices;
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 41
Episode Pattern
duration
place
time
CAUSE Episode EFFECT
person person person
Solving equations; life on a cattle drive; history of the discovery of
the atom; know people develop character/ personality in a series of
small episodes mixed with a few small ones so the episodes and their
outcomes are important; story plots and understanding; WWII;
solving linear and/or quadratic equations.
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 42
Generalization/Principle Pattern
Generalization/Principle
Example
Example
Example
Principles of the food groups; grammar rules; themes of government;
no division of “0”; basic principles of vocal production in vocal music;
laws; genetics/ evolution; assists= liabilities + owners’ equity; rules
for forming various tenses of verbs etc; teamwork (PE); inverse
square law for propagation of energy; basic math skills and how to
use them; basic laws of algebra; important principles would be
related to safety; list the principles of design;use of kinetic
molecular theory; music terms and how to respond to each; gravity;
acceleration; speed of light;
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 43
Concept Pattern
Example
Characteristic
Concept
Characteristic
Characteristic
Example
Example Example
Example
Example
Example
Five basic elements of narratives; must know the rules of the game before it
can be played; interpreting graphs;life, liberty and especially the pursuit of
happiness; hot air rises & cold air sinks; compare the differences between
paints; concepts; economic system; government systems; social studies;
students need to know concepts dealing with plot/ theme/ irony/ symbolism;
parts of speech; forming past tense; not translating word for word; how to
write a molecular program; understanding styles of music; properties of
equality; style and performance in vocal music; IPDE; flow of electricity;
political and economic systems; understanding math (addition/ subtraction/
division/ multiplication); calculus; biology; hand-eye coordination;banking; how
hardware/ software work together; plant and animal structure; scientific
laws; racism; different rhythm recognition concepts; school guidelines;
kingdoms; numbers; speed of light;
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 44
Comparing
Numerical & rational numbers;themes in two different short stories; dynamics/
musical styles; knowing the difference between various tenses of speech;
comparing cultural differences; compare/ contrast various software available;
types of sections from equations; cultural differences in holiday celebrations;
verb tenses; comparing effectiveness of methods of contraception; historical
sources; difficult operating math and other subjects in school; poorly skilled
vs. better skilled & accepting the differences; differences in time periods of
music (romantic era vs. renaissance era ); differences between countries;
characters, themes, styles of writing; buying a new car vs. buying a used car;
comparing realistic facts to fictional things; comparing prices of different
things; atomic action & structure vs. molecular action & structure 7 subatomic
action & structure; which way is the “best” to solve a problem;life in the
suburbs vs. life in the cities; evolution vs.creation; comparing different
languages; math properties vs. math definitions; the needs of a community/
town vs. those of a business.; intonation of like instrucments; cards that adults
carry important versus non-importnant; photosynthesis/respiration; plant
cells/animal cells; aztecs/Mayas/Incas; US life /European life;
decimals/fractions
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 45
Categories
Long periods of time;evolution; atomic modules; abstracting in
composition writing & creation of characters etc..; visualize what the
desired output should look like; draw ten objects from a shape;
applying learned knowledge to a similar experience; chemical
behavior; thinking small to understand the atomic theory; view and
understand atomic models; develop a theorem from concrete
examples; classification systmes of organisms; library/resources;
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 46
Categories
Evergreens versus deciduous trees; acid/base;
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 47
Abstracting
Literal Abstract Literal
Convert amounts to symbols;
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 48
Inductive Reasoning
Observation Observation Observation Observation
Conclusion
Use of examples to discover theorems for solving problems;
interpreting others writing; being able to generalize about a
discovery or piece of information; analyze how a document was
designed; making generalizations/ finding exceptions; math problem
solving; what is rules for plurals in Spanish; geometry; apply consepts
to real world applications;.
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 49
Deductive Reasoning
1. Specific situation/topic 2. Related generalization/
principle
Conditions that must be in place for
the generalization/principle to apply
3. Does the specific situation/topic meet the conditions that make the generalization/
principle apply?
Yes? No?
4. Conclusion/Prediction 4. No Conclusion/Prediction
Applying basic grammar rules to authentic speaking/ writing; cause/
effect; analysis of how parts of speech are used (together & apart);
are the risks of intercourse worth it?; steps in a lab project; ability
to use notes in exams; getting better results from a skills through
adjustments; given pieces of information; prepare a final document;
Kennedy assassination; drawing conclusions; math problem solving;
formula based problems; putting things “all together”; focusing on
the Spanish tradition of family; understanding the joining of metals
through fusion; factoring; how supply and demand affect society;
interpret data recorded from an experiment
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 50
Conflict Clarification Matrix
Issue
Personal perspective
Reasons/logic behind my
personal perspective
Different perspective
Reasons/logic behind
different perspective
Conclusion/awareness
To form opinions based on reading & not on real life; working with
LHB partner; race relations of the 1960’s; cultural conflicts;
understand conflicts in characters in a short story/ novel; slavery
issues (both sides); understanding of various opinions on the theory
of evolution.
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 51
Experimental Inquiry
Observation:
Relevant Theory/Rule: Relevant Theory/Rule:
Possible Explanation:
Prediction:
Activity/Experiment:
Results:
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 52
Investigation
Concept/Scenario:
Known or Agreed Upon: Confusions or Contradictions:
• •
• •
• •
Resolution:
How to use an index to find information in a book; developing
questioning skills; developing research skills; investigation;
character/ story plots in reading; developing internet skills; how will
components of PCs change/ improve things in business?; ability to
design valid controlled experiments; career education; knowing ones
self; term papers/ reports etc.; looking for clues in traffic to make
good predictions; consumer math; laboratories;research techniques;
if I get drunk at a party what are my best options; scientific method;
scientific method;
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 53
Descriptive Pattern
Fact Fact
Fact Topic
Fact
Fact
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 54
Time-Sequence Pattern
nt
nt
nt
nt
nt
nt
Eve
Eve
Eve
Eve
Eve
Eve
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 55
Process/Cause-Effect Pattern
Effect
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 56
Episode Pattern
duration
place
time
CAUSE Episode EFFECT
person person person
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 57
Generalization/Principle Pattern
Generalization/Principle
Example
Example
Example
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 58
Concept Pattern
Example
Characteristic
Concept
Characteristic
Characteristic
Example
Example Example
Example
Example
Example
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 59
Comparing
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 60
Categories
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 61
Categories
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 62
Abstracting
Literal Abstract Literal
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 63
Inductive Reasoning
Observation Observation Observation Observation
Conclusion
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 64
Deductive Reasoning
1. Specific situation/topic 2. Related generalization/
principle
Conditions that must be in place for
the generalization/principle to apply
3. Does the specific situation/topic meet the conditions that make the generalization/
principle apply?
Yes? No?
4. Conclusion/Prediction 4. No Conclusion/Prediction
Applying basic grammar rules to authentic speaking/ writing; cause/
effect; analysis of how parts of speech are used (together & apart);
are the risks of intercourse worth it?; steps in a lab project; ability
to use notes in exams; getting better results from a skills through
adjustments; given pieces of information; prepare a final document;
Kennedy assassination; drawing conclusions; math problem solving;
formula based problems; putting things “all together”; focusing on
the Spanish tradition of family; understanding the joining of metals
through fusion; factoring; how supply and demand affect society;
interpret data recorded from an experiment
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 65
Conflict Clarification Matrix
Issue
Personal perspective
Reasons/logic behind my
personal perspective
Different perspective
Reasons/logic behind
different perspective
Conclusion/awareness
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 66
Experimental Inquiry
Observation:
Relevant Theory/Rule: Relevant Theory/Rule:
Possible Explanation:
Prediction:
Activity/Experiment:
Results:
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 67
Investigation
Concept/Scenario:
Known or Agreed Upon: Confusions or Contradictions:
• •
• •
• •
Resolution:
_____ Improving Student Achievement Through the Use of Visual Organizers 68