ANIMALS
IN NATIVE AMERICAN LIFE WAYS
TEACHER’S PACKET
Caliso Learning
ANIMALS IN NATIVE AMERICAN LIFE WAYS
Integrates current overall social science and life science standards with aspects
of Native American culture and the animal world with activities primarily
focused in language arts, math, and life science.
Lesson ideas presented and compiled with multi-CA state and DSUSD
standards with focus on grades 3rd –5th
Lessons and activities can offer themed segments combined for enhancing math,
science, history-social science, and language and visual arts standards.
It is hoped that activities in this packet help to promote individual responsibility,
respect for, and a sense of connection to the natural world and those it affects.
How This Packet May Be Used
Of course there are many creative ways to use the information in this packet. Some lesson
activities are offered to get you started or to act as guidelines for extended lesson ideas you may
come up with to better match your personal style of teaching.
Information presented here is excerpted from Faunal Resources of the Cahuilla Indians
(Hedgecock, 2005) and touches only a sampling of examples derived from the previous research
of archaeologists, anthropologist, biologists and Native American accounts cited in ―sources.‖
Concentration of this information will be on Cahuilla representations of animal inspiration that
appear in their cosmology and moral teachings as well as practical faunal uses for daily living
and medicine. Other Native American tribes are also represented, as indicated, when discussing
certain animal resources.
To aide in desired applications using this information, the packet is separated into six sections
including (I) standards met for each activity (II) background information on the subject of
Cahuilla animal resources, (III) general faunal uses, followed by (IV) a list of specific animals,
and the way(s) each were utilized, (V) the activities posted in alphabetical order, and a (VI)
solutions page. It is important to note that the animal uses discussed here usually represent one
of many resourceful options. For example, a tremendous variety of plants were used by the
Cahuilla to gain similar results and uses in addition to when animal resources were not always
available—and vice versa.
All of the information in this packet is for the intended use of educational purposes only.
Permission to reproduce any part of this packet is granted for educational purposes with proper
citing where appropriate. Reproduction of text for any use other than educational purposes must
be with written permission and at the discretion of the author(s).
I. STANDARDS MET
__ ACTIVITY LESSONS (alphabetical order)___ _ __
ANIMAL CAVE PAINTINGS
GRADE 3
ARTISTIC PERCEPTION
Develop Perceptual Skills and Visual Arts Vocabulary
1.1 Perceive and describe rhythm and movement in works of art and in the
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environment.
1.3 Identify and describe how foreground, middle ground, and background are used to
create the illusion of space.
CREATIVE EXPRESSION
Communication and Expression Through Original Works of Art
2.4 Create a work of art based on the observation of objects and scenes in daily life.
HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXT
Role and Development of the Visual Arts
3.3 Distinguish and describe representational, abstract, and nonrepresentational works
of art.
CONNECTIONS, RELATIONSHIPS, APPLICATIONS
Visual Literacy
5.3 Look at images in figurative works of art and predict what might happen next,
telling what clues in the work support their ideas.
LIFE SCIENCES
3a. Plants and animals have different structures that serve different functions in
growth, survival, and reproduction.
3b. Know examples of diverse life forms in different environments such as deserts.
3d. When the environment changes, some animals survive, others die or move to new
locations.
3e. Some organisms that once lived on Earth have completely disappeared and some
resemble others that are alive today.
GRADE 4
ARTISTIC PERCEPTION
Develop Perceptual Skills and Visual Arts Vocabulary
1.1 Perceive and describe contrast and emphasis in works of art and in the
environment.
1.2 Describe how negative shapes/forms and positive shapes/forms are used in a
chosen work of art.
1.4 Describe the concept of proportion (in face, figure) as used in works of art.
Analyze Art Elements and Principles of Design
1.5 Describe and analyze the elements of art emphasizing form, as they are used in
works of art and found in the environment.
CREATIVE EXPRESSION
Communication and Expression Through Original Works of Art
2.6 Use the interaction between positive and negative space expressively in a work of art.
2.7 Use contrast (light and dark) expressively in an original work of art.
HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXT
Role and Development of the Visual Arts
3.1 Describe how art plays a role in reflecting life.
Diversity of the Visual Arts
3.2 Identify and discuss the content of works of art in the past and present, focusing
on the different cultures that have contributed to California's history and art
heritage.
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AESTHETIC VALUING
Make Informed Judgments
4.4 Identify and describe how various cultures define and value art differently.
4.5 Describe how the individual experiences of an artist may influence the
development of specific works of art.
GRADE 5
ARTISTIC PERCEPTION
Develop Perceptual Skills and Visual Arts Vocabulary
1.1 Identify and describe the principles of design in visual compositions, emphasizing
unity and harmony.
1.2 Identify and describe characteristics of representational, abstract, and non-
representational works of art.
Analyze Art Elements and Principles of Design
1.3 Use their knowledge of all the elements of art to describe similarities and
differences in works of art and in the environment.
CREATIVE EXPRESSION
Communication and Expression Through Original Works of Art
2.4 Create an expressive abstract composition based on real objects.
2.6 Use perspective in an original work of art to create a real or imaginary scene.
2.7 Communicate values, opinions, or personal insights through an original work of art.
HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXT
Role and Development of the Visual Arts
3.2 Identify and describe various fine, traditional, and folk arts from historical periods
worldwide.
Diversity of the Visual Arts
3.3 Identify and compare works of art from various regions of the United States.
AESTHETIC VALUING
Derive Meaning
4.2 Compare the different purposes of a specific culture for creating art.
CONNECTIONS, RELATIONSHIPS, APPLICATIONS
Visual Literacy
5.2 Identify…graphic devices as symbols for ideas and information.
ANIMAL INSPIRATION: ACROSTIC & HAIKU and
ANIMAL INSPIRATION: POETRY
GRADE 2
LANGUAGE ARTS
Literary Response and Analysis
3.4 Identify the use of rhythm, rhyme, and alliteration in poetry.
GRADE 3
LANGUAGE ARTS
Reading
3.1 Distinguish common forms of literature (e.g. poetry)
Listening and Speaking
1.9 Read prose and poetry aloud with fluency, rhythm, and pace, using appropriate
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intonation and vocal patterns to emphasize important passages of the text being
read.
2.2 Plan and present dramatic interpretations of a poem with clear diction, pitch,
tempo and tone.
2.3 Make descriptive presentations that use concrete sensory details to set forth and
support unified impressions of people, places, things, or experiences.
LIFE SCIENCES
3a. Plants and animals have structures that serve different functions in growth,
survival and reproduction.
3b. Know examples of diverse life forms in different environments such as deserts.
GRADE 4
LANGUAGE ARTS
Literary Response and Analysis
3.5 Define figurative language and identify its use in literary works.
Speaking Applications
2.1 Recite brief poems using clear diction, tempo, volume, and phrasing.
GRADE 5
LANGUAGE ARTS
Reading
1.5 Understand and explain the figurative and metaphorical use of words in context.
BLACK WIDOW GEOMETRY
GRADE 3
MATHEMATICS
Measurement and Geometry
2.1 Identify, describe, and classify polygons.
2.2 Identify attributes of triangles.
2.3 Identify attributes of quadrilaterals.
GRADE 4
MATHEMATICS
Measurement and Geometry
3.7 Know definitions of different triangles and identify their attributes.
3.8 Know the definition of different quadrilaterals.
CALCULATING ANIMALS
GRADE 3
MATHEMATICS
Number Sense
2.1 Find the sum or difference of two whole numbers between 0 and 10,000.
2.2 Memorize to automaticity the multiplication table for numbers between 1 and 10.
2.4 Solve simple problems involving multiplication of multidigit numbers by one-
digit numbers.
2.6 Understand the special properties of 0 and 1 in multiplication and division.
2.8 Solve problems that require two or more of the skills mentioned above.
Algebra and Functions
1.1 Represent relationships of quantities in the form of mathematical expressions,
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equations, or inequalities.
1.2 Solve problems involving numeric equations or inequalities.
GRADE 4
MATHEMATICS
Algebra and Functions
1.1 Use letters, boxes, or other symbols to stand for any number in simple expressions
or equations.
CRITTER MATH
GRADE 3
MATHEMATICS
Number Sense
2.1 Find the sum or difference of two whole numbers between 0 and 10,000.
2.2 Memorize to automaticity the multiplication table for numbers between 1 and 10.
2.4 Solve simple problems involving multiplication of multidigit numbers by one-
digit numbers.
2.6 Understand the special properties of 0 and 1 in multiplication and division.
2.8 Solve problems that require two or more of the skills mentioned above.
Algebra and Functions
2.1 Solve simple problems involving a functional relationship between two quantities.
2.2 Extend and represent a linear pattern by its rules.
Mathematical Reasoning
1.2 Determine when and how to break a problem into simpler parts.
THE HUNTERS
GRADE 2
MATHEMATICS
Number Sense
1.3 Order and compare whole numbers to 1,000 by using the symbols .
Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability
1.2 Represent the same data set in more than one way (e.g. bar graphs).
1.4 Ask and answer simple questions related to data representations.
GRADE 3
MATHEMATICS
Algebra and Functions
1.1 Represent relationships of quantities in the form of mathematical expressions.
1.3 Select appropriate operational and relational symbols to make an expression true.
GRADE 4
MATHEMATICS
Number Sense
1.2 Order and compare whole numbers and decimals to two decimal places.
Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability
1.1 Systematically collect and represent data and coordinate graphs.
1.3 Interpret one-and two-variable data graphs to answer questions about a situation.
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Mathematical Reasoning
2.3 Use a variety of methods such as graphs…to explain mathematical reasoning.
INTO THE WILD: TRACK I.D. FLASHCARDS
GRADE 2
LANGUAGE ARTS
Listening and Speaking
1.1 Determine the purpose or purposes of listening (e.g. to obtain information, to
solve problems, etc.).
1.6 Speak clearly and at an appropriate pace for the type of communication.
GRADE 3
LANGUAGE ARTS
Listening and Speaking
1.8 Clarify and enhance oral presentations through the use of appropriate props (e.g.
illustrations).
MATHEMATICS
Measurement and Geometry
1.1 Choose the appropriate tools and units to estimate and measure length.
SCIENCE
Life Sciences
3a. Animals have structures that serve different functions in growth, survival, and
reproduction.
3b. Know examples of diverse life forms in different environments such as deserts.
3c. Know living things cause changes in the environment in which they live: some
are beneficial.
GRADE 4
SCIENCE
Life Sciences
2b. Know producers and consumers are related in the food webs/chains and may
compete with each other for resources in the ecosystems.
3a. Ecosystems can be characterized by the living and nonliving components.
3c. Know that in any particular environment, some kinds of animals survive well,
some survive less well, and some cannot survive at all.
MESAX
GRADE 3
LANGUAGE ARTS
Decoding and Word Recognition
1.3 Read aloud narrative and expository text fluently and accurately and with
appropriate pacing, intonation, and expression.
Vocabulary and Concept Development
1.5 Demonstrate knowledge of levels of specificity among grade-appropriate words
and explain the importance of these relations (e.g., dog/ mammal/ animal/ living
things).
1.6 Use sentence and word context to find the meaning of unknown words.
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1.7 Use a dictionary to learn the meaning and other features of unknown words.
1.8 Use knowledge of prefixes (e.g., un-, re-, pre-, bi-, mis-, dis-) and suffixes (e.g., -
er, -est, -ful) to determine the meaning of words.
Reading Comprehension
2.2 Ask questions and support answers by connecting prior knowledge with literal
information found in, and inferred from, the text.
2.4 Recall major points in the text and make and modify predictions about
forthcoming information.
2.6 Extract appropriate and significant information from the text, including problems
and solutions.
Literary Response and Analysis
3.1 Distinguish common forms of literature (e.g., poetry, drama, fiction, nonfiction).
3.2 Comprehend basic plots of classic fairy tales, myths, folktales, legends, and fables
from around the world.
3.3 Determine what characters are like by what they say or do and by how the author
or illustrator portrays them.
3.4 Determine the underlying theme or author's message in fiction and nonfiction text.
3.6 Identify the speaker or narrator in a selection.
Writing Strategies
1.1 Create a single paragraph.
1.2 Write legibly in cursive or joined italic, allowing margins and correct spacing
between letters in a word and words in a sentence.
Writing Applications (Genres and Their Characteristics)
2.1 Write narratives: context, plot details, insight.
2.2 Write descriptions that use concrete sensory details to present and support unified
impressions of people, places, things, or experiences.
Written and Oral English Language Conventions
1.1 Understand and be able to use complete and correct declarative, interrogative,
imperative, and exclamatory sentences in writing and speaking.
1.2 Identify subjects and verbs that are in agreement and identify and use pronouns,
adjectives, compound words, and articles correctly in writing and speaking.
1.3 Identify and use past, present, and future verb tenses properly in writing and speaking.
1.4 Identify and use subjects and verbs correctly in speaking and writing simple sentences.
GRADE 4
LANGUAGE ARTS
Literary Response and Analysis
3.1 Describe the structural differences of various imaginative forms of literature,
including fantasies, fables, myths, legends, and fairy tales.
3.2 Identify the main events of the plot, their causes, and the influence of each event
on future actions.
3.3 Use knowledge of the situation and setting and of a character's traits and
motivations to determine the causes for that character's actions.
3.4 Compare and contrast tales from different cultures by tracing the exploits of one
character type and develop theories to account for similar tales in diverse cultures
(e.g., trickster tales).
3.5 Define figurative language (e.g., simile, metaphor, hyperbole, personification) and
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identify its use in literary works.
Writing Strategies
1.1 Select a focus, an organizational structure, and a point of view based upon
purpose, audience, length, and format requirements.
1.2 Create multiple-paragraph compositions: use correct indention, provide an
introductory paragraph, establish and support central idea in beginning paragraph,
include supporting paragraphs and conclusion.
1.3 Use traditional structures for conveying information.
1.4 Write fluidly and legibly in cursive or joined italic.
Writing Applications (Genres and Their Characteristics)
2.1 Write narratives: relate ideas, provide context to enable reader to imagine event,
use concrete sensory details, provide insight to selection.
GRADE 5
LANGUAGE ARTS
Reading
1.5 Understand and explain the figurative and metaphorical use of words in context.
Literary Response and Analysis
3.1 Identify and analyze the characteristics of poetry, drama, fiction, and nonfiction
and explain the appropriateness of the literary forms chosen by an author for a
specific purpose.
3.3 Contrast the actions, motives (e.g., loyalty, selfishness, conscientiousness), and
appearances of characters in a work of fiction and discuss the importance of the
contrasts to the plot or theme.
3.4 Understand that theme refers to the meaning or moral of a selection and recognize
themes (whether implied or stated directly) in sample works.
3.5 Describe the function and effect of common literary devices (e.g., imagery,
metaphor, symbolism).
3.6 Evaluate the meaning of archetypal patterns and symbols that are found in myth
and tradition by using literature from different eras and cultures.
3.7 Evaluate the author's use of various techniques (e.g., appeal of characters in a
picture book, logic and credibility of plots and settings, use of figurative language)
to influence readers' perspectives.
Writing Strategies
1.1 Create multiple-paragraph narrative compositions: establish a plot/situation,
describe setting, present an ending.
Writing Applications (Genres and Their Characteristics)
2.1 Write narratives: establish a plot, point of view, setting, and conflict, show, rather
than tell, the events of the story.
SENTENCE SCRAMBLE—The Golden Eagle
GRADE 2
LANGUAGE ARTS
Written and Oral English Language Conventions
1.1 Distinguish between complete and incomplete sentences.
1.2 Recognize and use the correct word order in written sentences.
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WHO AM I?
GRADE 2
LANGUAGE ARTS
Listening and Speaking
1.1 Determine purpose or purposes of listening.
1.3 Paraphrase information that has been shared by other orally.
GRADE 3
LANGUAGE ARTS
Reading
1.1 Know and use complex word families when reading to decode unfamiliar words.
1.2 Decode regular multi-syllabic words.
1.5 Demonstrate knowledge of levels of specificity among grade-appropriate words
and explain the importance of these relations (e.g., dog/mammal/animal/living
things).
1.7 Use a dictionary to learn the meaning and other features of unknown words.
1.8 Use knowledge of prefixes and suffixes to determine the meaning of words.
2.2 Ask questions and support answers by connecting prior knowledge with literal
information found in, and inferred from, the text.
2.6 Extract appropriate and significant information from the text, including problems
and solutions.
Writing
1.3 Understand the structure and organization of various reference materials (e.g.
encyclopedia, dictionary).
Listening and Speaking
1.1 Recall what has been said by a speaker.
1.3 Respond to questions with appropriate elaboration.
1.11 Distinguish between the speaker’s opinions and verifiable facts.
SCIENCE
Life Sciences
3a. Animals have structures that serve different functions in growth, survival, and
reproduction.
3b. Know examples of diverse life forms in different environments such as deserts.
3c. Living things cause changes in the environment in which they live: some of these
changes are beneficial.
GRADE 4
LANGUAGE ARTS
Reading
1.2 Apply knowledge of word origins to determine meanings of words.
1.4 Know common roots and affixes to analyze the meaning of complex words.
Writing
1.3 Use traditional sources of conveying information (e.g. similarity and difference,
and posing and answering a question.)
1.7 Use various reference materials as an aid.
Listening and Speaking
2.2a Make informal presentations: frame a key question.
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2.2b Include facts and details that help listeners to focus.
GRADE 5
LANGUAGE ARTS
Reading
2.1 Understand how text features (e.g. format, sequence, etc.) make information
accessible and usable.
2.3 Discern main ideas and concepts presented in texts, identifying and assessing
evidence that supports those ideas.
_____________ __ ____PUZZLES (alphabetical order)___ ____
ANIMAL ALPHABET CODE
Place the correct letter from the alphabet code above its matching number to decode a
glimpse into the resourceful ancient Cahuilla and their important connection to the
animal world!
ALPHABET DECODER—Cahuilla Bird Songs & Dances
Figure out the matching letter and you will decode the message.
DESERT CRITTER CROSSWORD
Using pictures, compile a word list to complete a crossword puzzle of animals
found in Cahuilla territory.
DESERT NATIVES WORDSEARCH
Discover the hidden message in the left over letters after finding all of the words
on the list.
FALLING SENTENCES—Coyote: Canis latrans
Learn a little about the coyote connection to the Cahuilla by placing ―fallen‖
letters into their correct position.
FALLING SENTENCES—Pronghorn
Learn a little about the pronghorn antelope connection to the Cahuilla of the past
by placing ―fallen‖ letters into their correct position.
SENTENCE SCRAMBLE—The Golden Eagle
Rearrange the scramble tiles to make complete sentences to find out more about
the golden eagle and the Cahuilla Indians.
All lesson/activity standards listed are based on current CDE California state standards
and DSUSD curriculum content standards, 2005.
II. BACKGROUND
A wealth of natural resources can be found within the environments of southern California from
arid deserts to some of the highest peaks and ranges found in the region. The ecological diversity
expressed in these natural environments led to an assortment of species resources that were
readily utilized by Native Americans of the past. Both plants and animals were utilized by all
tribes, and each fulfilled important roles in the survival and comfort of daily living by providing
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food and nutrition, materials, medicine, community cooperation, and spiritual growth. With this
knowledge, Native Americans reveal an intimate association with the natural environment when
sharing their historical uses of the indigenous species found throughout traditional landscapes.
The Cahuilla territory that these animals were found is based on the expansive and varied
traditional land boundaries and not restricted to today’s reservation lands. These past
boundaries included terrain ranging from more than (-)200 feet below sea level to nearly
11,000 feet in elevation—an environmental variety of faunal niches found in the San Jacinto
Mountains, Santa Rosa Mountains, Orocopia Mountains, and the valley’s desert floor.
It is certain that the ancient Cahuilla and other Native Americans were extremely resourceful and
made practical use of their surrounding environment. Some of the most creative applications,
lessons, and spiritual practices are directly inspired by the animal world. Faunal distribution,
abundance, adaptation, appearance and defense help us explore their connection to native life in
the past. The animals that shared in the natural abundance of the land have always been an
important part of the environment for even the earliest of hunters and gatherers. Native
Americans have interacted with all animals through many roles: as predator, as prey, as
competitor, as regulator, as their protector, to exploit their resource, or earn their guidance.
Nutrition, unique uses, and eloquent teachings gained from the animal world helped to foster
Cahuilla interpretations of natural cycles and events along with sound environmental ethics and
personal responsibility toward a balanced ecosystem.
The animal world was celebrated, revered, managed, protected and respected to ensure a
peaceful coexistence between human and animal spirits. The gift of the animal itself was not
wasted in any respect. All parts were processed and either consumed or used in some appropriate
manner, and always with proper attention given to the animal’s spiritual needs. It could be
considered a symbiotic exchange where both sides benefited. The reciprocal relationship with
animals reflected the sincere belief held by the Cahuilla that we are the ones individually
responsible for protecting the cycle of which each of us is inherently a part.
III. GENERAL FAUNAL USES: Faunal Resources and Hunting
Commonly hunted or trapped animals included small game such as quail, wood rat, rabbits,
squirrels, mice, fish and big game such as deer, bighorn, and pronghorn. Small game provided a
steady supply of meat and actively hunting these herbivores helped to reduce the competition for
plant resources that supported roughly 85% of the native diet. Small game was hunted or trapped
by individuals, by large groups, and by men, women, and children. Small game was sometimes
eaten raw on the spot, but usually roasted or boiled. Generally, if the whole animal was not
prepared in this way, small animal bones were crushed using a pestle and mortar and eaten in
soups or as a mush mixed with other food (Bean, 1972).
Big game hunting was almost exclusively for adult, healthy, young men as it required
tremendous strength, stamina and skill and was often dangerous. Big game was particularly
valued because of its yield and taste. As a common practice when harvesting any type of natural
resource, permission from a neighboring tribe was needed first in order to hunt game inside
respective tribal territories that fell outside the hunter’s region. Large game hunting also required
supernatural powers and followed strict ritual guidelines.
2005 Animals In Native American Life Ways TEACHER’S PACKET, Caliso Learning
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Hunter Rites and Rituals
Subsistence rituals for the Cahuilla involved large game, small game and even insect migrations
or swarms. Ritual obligations and restrictions were functional in maintaining an ecological
balance as well as guiding animal preparation, careful distribution and supply of meat to the
community, and food-related taboos. These rituals also ensured proper communication between
the hunter and the animal’s spiritual guardian, aiding the animal’s spirit into the next world, and
performing responsible hunting practices that would, ideally, be rewarded by its spirits in the
form of successful hunts in the future. Examples are noted, such as the horns from bighorn sheep
that were placed in special ritual piles to appease animal spirits and rabbit heads which were
consumed by the hunter and kept as trophies so the rabbits could not communicate the approach
of the hunter to other animals (Bean, 1972).
The first deer or other large game kill was of tremendous excitement for the young man who
accomplished this feat. It was a celebrated event marked by several important rituals. The
hunting puul, or shaman, would sing over the body of the animal to, ―enlist the guardian animal
spirit,‖ to ensure cooperation between the young hunter and the animal’s spirit and, ―explain to
the spirit of the animal what they were doing and acknowledged their appreciation…for allowing
themselves to be killed‖ (Bean, 1989).
Hunting Tools
Atlatls, traps, nets, bows and arrows, slings, stones, fishing hooks, hooked spears or sticks, clubs
and rabbit sticks illustrate the variety of tools implemented in prehistoric hunts. Fire was an
element used to kill or flush out game as well as flares for night hunting to attract birds (Bean,
1972). As with several other tribes, the ancient Cahuilla made use of all of these reliable hunting
tools, some weapons were enhanced with the parts of previous kills. For example, bighorn and
deer tendons were processed and used as bow strings, and attached to wooden bows to add more
recoil (Cornett, 2000).
The rabbit stick seemed to be a favored tool in hunting jackrabbit and cottontail among Southern
California tribes. Skillfully thrown, it would break the animal’s legs or at least stun the prey long
enough for a clear shot from an arrow.
Hunting Aides and Poisons
Hunters utilized natural blinds such as brush, boulders and waterfalls or made their own using
plants and other natural items in the area to maintain close range and remain hidden, usually near
sources of water that large mammals would eventually need to visit.
Cahuilla hunters would rub white sage or desert lavender on their bodies, or place white sage
under their arm pits to hide their human scent from large game (Bean, 1972). A hunter might
skillfully mimic bighorn or mule deer behavior under the hide and antlers (or horns) of
previously killed animals in order to move in close enough, within or near the herd to make a kill.
Arrow tips dipped in rattlesnake venom, crushed black widows, and rancid meat were some ways
hunters could reduce the time and distance involved in hunting large game over dangerous
terrain (Cornett, 2000).
Hunting puuls would be relied on to use his supernatural power to locate animals for hunters,
encourage animals to make themselves available for the hunters, and even predict the future by
interpreting signs given by birds, and other animals (Bean, 1989).
2005 Animals In Native American Life Ways TEACHER’S PACKET, Caliso Learning
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Hunting Taboos
Hunters were obligated to food and behavioral taboos before organized group or solo hunts.
These included eating bland foods to reduce body odor, avoiding sex, menstruating and pregnant
women so the prey would not react badly to you—menstruating women and pregnancy were
believed to adversely affect the supernatural powers gained by the hunter (Bean, 1972). Ritual
fasting provided conditioning and psychological preparation that aided the hunter while gone and
subsequently left more food available for the rest of the tribe.
Traditionally, hunters would not care for killing large, predatory animals like mountain lion and
bear. These were not only dangerous to hunt in an environment with other food resources, but
believed by the Cahuilla to be transformed shaman (Bean, 1972). A hunter faced with the
decision of whether or not to kill was obligated to warn the animal first that it was about to be
killed and gave it ample opportunity to leave the area (ibid.).
Sacred animals were revered ceremoniously and included mountain lions and raptors. These
animals were generally not hunted for food (Bean, 1991).
Historic Game
Historically, wild horses, donkeys and burros were sometimes hunted for food by the Cahuilla
(Bean 1972).
Faunal Resources as Food
The sustenance derived from animals varied a great deal between regions and tribes. Species
availability was directly related to environment. Space, food, water and shelter accommodated
by each natural setting dictated the abundance and variety of animals found in a location. From
insects to fish, migratory species, rodents, to large game, many animals could be sought.
Despite the abundance of faunal resources, it is generally agreed that animal meat for the
hunter/gatherer accounted for only about 15% of the diet. In some instances, regions with
plentiful faunal resources (or where seasonal rainfall is very important) seem to have more
taboos associated with the killing of animals for food. Areas that may have fewer resources, and
less seasonal rainfall, initially appear to have fewer taboos associated with native faunal
resources. As an example, small lizards, snakes, and carrion eaters were not eaten by most tribes.
Snakes and lizards were widely tabooed by non-desert tribes for fear of suffering ill effects were
you to consume one of these reptiles or possibly due directly to religious taboos. These taboos
may have been altered in areas of low food availability or times of famine (Heizer and Elsasser,
1980). Desert dwelling tribes (including the Cahuilla) commonly caught and consumed several
species of snakes and lizards, including rattlesnakes as these animals were not tabooed. Adding
these reptiles to the diet may have helped increase options needed for valuable sources of protein
and supplemented the diet to offset infrequent kills of large game.
Food Taboos
Mountain lion, bear, raven, eagle, owl, coyote, and fox are examples of animals that were
forbidden to eat. For the Cahuilla, only individuals with access to supernatural power, like elders
or shaman, could consume such animals—they were protected from the animal’s harmful
association with spirit beings (Bean, 1972).
2005 Animals In Native American Life Ways TEACHER’S PACKET, Caliso Learning
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Faunal Resources in Other Uses
Clothing
Cahuilla clothing included the use of bighorn and deer hides, and woven rabbit skins for robes,
blankets and floor coverings; buckskin shirts and ―boots‖ were also fashioned from these animal
hides (Bean and Lawton, 1972). Deer hide sandals were sometimes worn by the Diegueno
(Campbell, 1999).
Personal Adornment
Jewelry, ornaments, and beads could be fashioned from marine and freshwater shells, mammal,
bird, and fish bone, softened hide straps or strings.
Utilitarian Items and Recreation
Deer and bighorn bones, horns and antlers, hide and tendons were very important resources for
all native groups. These animals provided bones, horn and antlers that were shaped into knives,
scrapers, awls, jewelry, whistles, personal ornaments, and even as gaming pieces such as dice.
Social Structure
Animals represent different Cahuilla clans: Ahwalem (dog), iswatem (mountain lion), tokut (bob
cat), univetem (bear), unal (badger). The two moiety divisions from which all Cahuilla are from,
either Wildcat or Coyote, regulated extended family structure needs for marrying and reciprocity.
Binders/Adhesives
Animal hide glue was produced by cooking a deer’s head until soft (Brumgardt, 1981). Fish skin
was an ingredient combined with various plant materials to form glues (Campbell, 1999). Egg
yolks were used as binders for rock art, combined with minerals. Insect deposits from certain
plants were collected and used as adhesives.
Feathers
Several large birds and their feathers were used in making feather cloaks, robes, blankets,
headdresses, as stabilizers for arrows in flight, and ceremonial dress. Quail topknot feathers were
used by rain shaman of many tribes to adorn their headdresses (Cornett, 2000). In the southwest,
eagle feathers were highly prized in trade. Eagle feathers or items such as arrows adorned with
eagle feathers could be traded with some tribes for horses (ibid.).
Pets
The Cahuilla used various types of ―pets‖ to illustrate moral lessons, responsibility,
environmental ethics, and as teaching tools for animal behaviors. Dogs, birds and reptiles were
kept by the Cahuilla. Dogs were used primarily as watch dogs, in hunting, as scavengers to help
keep camp clean, and to teach young hunters through stories and legends revolving around
animal behavior. Dogs were often referred to in human form in stories that deceived, spied on,
or tested humans. It was believed, ―…dogs had souls like humans and…were capable of being
messengers of the shamans,‖ (Bean, 1972).
Sometimes eagles were carefully caught as adults or eaglets were captured from nest and raised
for their feathers or for specific ceremonial purposes by many tribes.
Reptiles as ―pets‖ might refer to animal examples like tortoise and chuckwalla which appear here
as examples of fresh sources of food that could be kept for weeks at a time.
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Ceremonial Uses
The Cahuilla sometimes hunted coyote and fox to obtain the skins which were used to create
ceremonial objects (Bean, 1972). Additional traditional objects included turtle and tortoise shells
valued as ceremonial rattles and gifts. Raptor feathers, particularly eagle feathers, were sacred
for all tribes and were often important accoutrements in ceremonial bundles, regalia and
practices. Marine and freshwater shells worked into beads were offered as ceremonial gifts and
trade, and used as money that could be owned individually, however most shell money was
owned by the net and was used by him in ceremonial exchanges (Bean, 1972).
During the Naming Ceremony, the net chose the names for each child that would give him or her,
a unique identity and a firm place within the community. Boys were given names associated with
animals such as birds, insects, game, and hunting (Bean, 1989).
IV. FAUNAL LIST
The following is a list of specific animals and how they were used. The biological notations
in italics (Reptile—Herbivore—4 legs—Diurnal) are added for the lesson “Who Am I?”
ARTHROPODS
Ants
Cahuilla:
Insect—Herbivore/Omnivore (spp. dependent)—6 legs—Diurnal
Southern California Indians ate ant larvae and adults.
The Cahuilla roasted adult ants by digging up nest and pushing the swarming ants into
pits of hot rocks that roasted them immediately (Bean, 1972).
Among a neighboring tribe, the Luiseno, young men at about 18 years old had to lie
down in a pit and allow ants to bite him. ―If he submitted to this ordeal without flinching
or showing pain, it was believed that he would gain the power of not being hurt by
arrows‖ (Heizer and Elsasser, 1980).
Black Widow Spider (Lactrodectus mactans)
Cahuilla:
Arachnid—Insectivore—8 legs—Nocturnal
Arrow tips could be enhanced with poison by rubbing the tips in crushed black widows
(Cornett, 1987). Poisoned arrow tips were used for hunting large game like Desert
Bighorn and Mule Deer.
Crickets, Cicadas and Grasshoppers
Cahuilla: weitem (grasshopper)
Insect—Herbivore/Omnivore (spp. dependent)—6 legs—Diurnal/Nocturnal (spp. dependent)
Paul Campbell references anthropologists and Cahuilla accounts of the following high
protein resources utilized by many tribes found in Survival Skills of Native California,
including nutritional breakdowns of specific insects:
The Cahuilla gathered ―the nymphs of a cricket in the family Gryllidae,‖ which were
roasted, dried, and stored for consumption.
Newly adult cicadas were gathered from salt bush (Atriplex spp.) and prepared in the
same way as the cricket nymphs, usually eaten as an accompaniment to other foods.
Grasshoppers were eaten wherever they occurred including Cahuilla territory in the
spring. They were eaten or stored for later consumption.
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White-lined Sphinx Moth (Hyles lineata)
Cahuilla:
Insect—Herbivore—6 legs—Nocturnal
The Cahuilla collected the larvae of this nutritious source that feed on a variety of spring
time plants. The caterpillars were easily collected, ―seizing a fat worm, they pull off its
head, and by a dexterous jerk the viscera are ejected, and the wriggling carcass is put into
a small basket or bag…at night at home they parched them and feasted‖ (Campbell,
1999).
The larvae were also heated on the ground next to a fire, dried and stored whole or
pulverized into meal, or skewered on an arrowweed branch and roasted and eaten (ibid.).
Based on additional insects on Campbell’s list, the White-lined Sphinx Moth, also known
as the ―hummingbird‖ moth supplied an additional 36% protein per catch.
The masses of these larvae also indicated the beginning of the First-fruit Rites; rituals and
ceremony that guaranteed plant fertility and governed plant related food
distribution/production.
Scale Insects (Tachardiella larreae)
Cahuilla:
Insect—Herbivore—6 legs—Diurnal
Lac deposited on the branches of sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) and creosote (Larrea
tridentata) from scale insects, was a gum-like substance collected by Cahuilla and other
groups for use as a glue/binder (Campbell, 1999).
BIRDS
In General:
Large feathers like Bald Eagle, Golden Eagle, Raven, Great-horned Owl were worked
into blankets, cloaks or robes. Quail, condor, mallard, woodpecker, hummingbirds are a
sampling of how birds and their feathers were used in ceremonial and daily regalia.
A variety of bird eggs were also gathered for food and also used as a binder. In fact, most
birds found in Cahuilla territory were eaten except for eagles and ravens, which were
ritually significant (Bean, 1972).
Red-tailed Hawk feather quills were used as fletchers for arrows.
Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos)
Cahuilla: aswet
Other—Carnivore—2 legs—Diurnal
Eagle species were not eaten by any tribe under any circumstance.
In many areas of California, raptors were believed to be spiritually powerful, but not
feared ((Heizer and Elsasser, 1980).
An eagle in flight symbolized the shaman’s flight while guiding souls to the ―land of the
dead.‖ Its significance was repeated in ritual Cahuilla regalia and art (Bean, 1972).
Eagle feathers were placed in ceremonial bundles, used to make skirts and headdresses
for ritual dancers, and placed as ceremonial house decoration, each with the intent to
recognize its symbolic importance (ibid.)
Like several other Native groups the eagle was ritually significant for the Cahuilla.
Nukatam was one of the original sacred people created by Mukat, the Creator, and each
lineage was responsible for an eagle that represented ongoing survival or life of the
lineage—perpetual life.
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There is a special Eagle Ritual in Cahuilla tradition that supports this effort. Nukatam was
one of the original sacred people created by Mukat, the Creator, and each lineage was
responsible for an eagle that represented ongoing survival or life of the lineage—
perpetual life. There is a special Eagle Ritual described in Lowell Bean’s Mukat’s People
abbreviated here that supports this effort:
An eagle’s nest was located by an individual, assigned by the net, to observe the
progress and report nesting events to the clan where each stage was celebrated
by particular rituals. These stages included: when the eggs were laid, when they
hatched, when down appeared on the eaglets, when they began eating live food—
each stage having a corresponding ritual back in the village. When the eagle
matured, another ritual was scheduled and invitations were sent to many lineages.
The ceremony could take anywhere from 3 to 7 days and on the last night, the
eagle died, the event heightened by special songs and dances. The eagle body was
plucked of its feathers and ceremoniously buried and mourned as if one of their
own people had passed.
The southern Paiute fed tortoise, chuckwalla and rabbit meat to juvenile eagles captured
as eaglets and raised for ceremonial purposes (Schneider, 1996).
Native Americans recognized the eagle as an uncommon animal and various rules applied
to the limit of eagles collected or killed per year, ―for that reason no village would be
responsible for taking more than two young from a nest in a single year,‖ and the Tohono
O’odam, ―asserted that it was immoral for individuals from a single village to kill more
than one eagle per year‖ (Cornett, 2000).
Owls
Cahuilla: Muut
Other—Carnivore—2 legs—Nocturnal
Owls are stealth, predatory birds usually hunting under the cover of night. They have soft
feathered wingtips that make them silent in flight and their hearing and sight are so highly
adapted for nighttime captures that these and other physical features regarding the nocturnal
habits of owls must add to the mysterious understanding and representation of owls. Traditional
interpretations of owls are usually shrouded in mystery and evolve around the unknown.
Muut, the Cahuilla messenger of death often assumed the appearance or shape of an owl.
Muut was seen as both a blessing and sadness and just the hooting of an owl was
interpreted as an omen of death (Brumgardt and Bowles, 1981).
If an individual saw his soul in a dream in the form of an owl…it was thought to be a
prediction of death and special ceremonies were held when this was experienced to
prevent the possibility of death (ibid.).
Feathers were worked into blankets, cloaks or robes.
Pelican (Pelecanus spp.)
Cahuilla:
Other—Carnivore—2 legs—Diurnal
Pelican leg bones were fashioned into whistles or flutes.
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Quail (Callipepla spp./Oreortyx sp.)
Cahuilla:
Other—Herbivore/Insectivore—2 legs—Diurnal
Quail was a common food source for the Cahuilla and coveys were hunted by men,
women and children usually using snares, bow and arrows and/or long nets that could
entangle several birds at once.
Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo jamaicensis)
Cahuilla:
Other—Carnivore—2 legs—Diurnal
Feather quills were used as fletchers for arrows.
Birds in Ceremony
In addition to ceremonial adaptations of birds already discussed many birds were revered in
Indian mythology and teaching stories. Cahuilla Bird Dances and Songs were—and still are—a
festive occasion in Cahuilla life. Bird Singers today play an irreplaceable role as oral historians
and teachers of traditional Cahuilla history. Historically, men and women came together for Bird
Dances, ―to sing a dramatic song cycle describing various facets of environmental conditions and
historic reactions to them by anthropomorphized birds‖ (Bean, 1972). The dances were very
social and festive events. The songs were performed by men, accompanied by rhythmic rattles,
and recounted ―stories about risks and difficulties which birds (and people) met in real life (Bean,
1972).‖ Today, these melodic songs and dances continue to teach Cahuilla lessons in moral
behavior and instill cultural heritage for a new generation of Cahuilla.
FISH
Other—Omnivore (varies)—0 legs—varies
Your students might be surprised at first to see fish as a common resource for the desert-dwelling
Cahuilla. There were (and are) many freshwater lakes, ponds, streams in the vast Cahuilla territory
including the nearby Salton Sea for marine sources.
Caught in fish traps and nets as a source of food.
Fish skin was an ingredient combined with various plant materials to form glues.
Bones sometimes used to make personal ornaments, jewelry.
MAMMALS
Badger (Taxidea taxus)
Cahuilla: unal
Mammal—Carnivore—4 legs—Diurnal
Animals represent different Cahuilla clans: Ahwalem (dog), iswatem (mountain lion), tokut
(bob cat), univetem (bear), unal (badger).
Black Bear (Ursus americanus)
Cahuilla: univetem
Mammal—Omnivore—4 legs—Diurnal
Traditionally, hunters would not care for killing large, predatory animals like mountain
lion and bear. These were not only dangerous to hunt in an environment with other food
resources, but believed by the Cahuilla to be transformed shaman (Bean, 1972). Sacred
animals were revered ceremoniously and these animals were generally not hunted for
food (Bean, 1991).
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Animals represent different Cahuilla clans: Ahwalem (dog), iswatem (mountain lion),
tokut (bob cat), univetem (bear), unal (badger).
Bobcat / Wildcat (Felis rufus)
Cahuilla: tokut, tuktum
Mammal—Carnivore—4 legs—Nocturnal
The two moiety divisions from which all Cahuilla are from, either Wildcat or Coyote,
regulated extended family structure needs for marrying, reciprocity.
Cottontail (Sylvilagus spp.) and Jackrabbit (Lepus spp.)
Cahuilla: tavut (cottontail)
Mammal—Herbivore—4 legs—Diurnal
Always abundant and widely distributed, cottontail and jackrabbit provided a steady
supply of food and material for clothing, robes and blanket. A description of a rabbit skin
blanket sewn together with fiber cordage is detailed in James W. Cornett’s Indians and
Desert Animals, ―fiber cordage was wrapped with strips of rabbit skin, twining the fur
ropes together to make soft blankets. About twenty jackrabbits or forty cottontails would
be needed.‖
Hunting cottontail and jackrabbit could either be a solo hunt and tracking event, a 2-
person trapping team (one to scare the rabbit to the open area trap, one to spring the trap),
or an event that brought about cooperation between families and sometimes other villages
during rabbit drives. Rabbit drives utilized large groups of people, or sometimes fire lines.
Beginning in a circle everyone was signaled by one individual to begin walking and
making loud noises while moving toward the center, making a tighter and tighter circle.
Forced to the center, animals would move to escape between individuals who were then
close enough to club, net or stone the rabbit.
The Cahuilla also used organized group hunting and nets to entangle rabbits scared down
small game trails. Rabbit sticks were also used to break the legs of rabbits or stun them so
they could be caught or killed.
Coyote (Canis latrans)
Cahuilla: isily, istam
Mammal—Omnivore—4 legs—Nocturnal/Diurnal
Isily was one of the respected cultural heroes of the Cahuilla, therefore the coyote was forbidden
as a food source for the Cahuilla. He was the first paxaa (the paxaa is the ceremonial,
administrative, and adjudicating assistant to the net), who assisted with the funeral ceremonies
for the Creator and journeyed to the sea to gather the materials used to make the first ceremonial
or sacred bundle (Bean, 1972).
The two moiety divisions from which all Cahuilla are from, either Wildcat or Coyote,
regulated extended family structure needs for marrying, reciprocity.
The Cahuilla sometimes hunted coyote and fox to obtain the skins which were used to
create ceremonial objects (Bean, 1972).
Coyote also appears in numerous Native American accounts, moral stories and teachings.
Always the trickster, the prankster, the butt of jokes or bad experiences, thievery,
mischief, cowardice… coyote usually appears as examples of ways not to behave in the
tribal community. Coyote stories taught through outrageous example. They were the
jesters of the tribe, fulfilling a calling to teach by example—a bad one!
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For the Lakota, coyote was Heyoka. Heyoka meant ―contrariness,‖ or ―backwardness.‖
Heyoka initiates walked backwards their whole lives, wore robes in the summer and
loincloths in the winter, or placed their hand in boiling water and announced it was cold
(Palmer, 2001).
Usually seen as a scavenger, coyotes were usually avoided as a food source despite their
abundance and adaptability to just about every Native American territory.
Desert Bighorn (Ovis Canadensis)
Cahuilla: pa’at
Mammal—Herbivore—4 legs—Diurnal
Desert bighorn, deer, and pronghorn were very important to the Cahuilla and other Native
Americans. Meat distribution from such large acquisitions was a regulated tool in reciprocity and
relations between families and villages. A ritual practice guided by the Deer Ceremony—
celebrated when a Cahuilla hunter made his first large game kill—ensured proper distribution of
meat to his future wife’s family, his lineage, elders, and subsequently to the community at large
(Bean, 1972). Large mammals like bighorn, deer and pronghorn were hunted for their meat of
course, but their hides, horn and bones were invaluable resources:
Hides were used in making clothing and bags and other items where material could be
used, such as straps, ties, bow guards, quivers, and moccasins.
The outer sheath of the horns were soaked in hot water to soften and made into knives,
spoons, digging sticks, bows and ornaments (Cornett, 2000).
Bones were shaped and utilized as scrapers, awls for coil basketry, hair ornaments (ibid.),
and other utilitarian items. Bones were also crushed to powder and mixed with other food.
Tendons from bighorn, deer, and pronghorn were used to make fiber-sinew where they
could be used for bow strings, and for binding points and feathers to arrow shafts. Once
wetted by the mouth the sinew stuck to itself and grew tight as it dried (Brumgardt, 1981).
Fresh and/or dried deer brain, soaked or mixed with water, was used to brain-tan hides in
the long process of working them into soft and supple buckskin (Campbell, 1999).
It is hard not to recognize the significance bighorn sheep seem to have for several tribes. Bighorn
figured prominently in Cahuilla dreamtime as guidance. Bighorn and deer were symbolically
important and hunting these animals required specialized rituals to be carried out. Rock art
depictions of bighorn are found throughout the southwest deserts. Interpretations of these
symbols and expressions include theories of shamanistic renderings to bring a successful hunt, or
as plea for rain (Toweill, 2003).
For the Shoshone, ―bighorn sheep were keepers of the rain, able to control the release of
moisture from the underworld‖ (ibid.).
The Sand Papago believed bighorn sheep controlled the wind and piles of their horns
were left near waterholes to keep the wind (wind could bring rain clouds); bones were
also burned to quiet the spirits of the sheep killed so the remaining herds would not leave
the area (Toweill, 2003).
Additionally, the Hopi carved bighorn fetishes from stone or bone to bring the owner
good luck (ibid.).
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Dog (Canis familiaris)
Cahuilla: Ahwalem
Mammal—Omnivore—4 legs—Diurnal
Dogs were used primarily as watch dogs, in hunting, as scavengers to help keep camp
clean.
Dogs help teach young hunters through stories and legends revolving around animal
behavior, often in human form in stories that deceived, spied on, or tested humans.
It was believed, ―…dogs had souls like humans and…were capable of being messengers
of the shamans,‖ (Bean, 1972).
Animals represent different Cahuilla clans: Ahwalem (dog), iswatem (mountain lion), tokut
(bob cat), univetem (bear), unal (badger).
Fox
Cahuilla: kauisiktum
Mammal—Omnivore—4 legs—Primarily nocturnal
Mountain lion, bear, raven, eagle, owl, coyote, and fox are examples of animals that were
forbidden to eat. For the Cahuilla, only individuals with access to supernatural power,
like elders or shaman, could consume such animals—they were protected from the
animal’s harmful association with spirit beings (Bean, 1972).
The Cahuilla sometimes hunted coyote and fox to obtain the skins which were used to
create ceremonial objects (Bean, 1972).
Mountain Lion (Felis concolor)
Cahuilla: iswatem
Mammal—Carnivore—4 legs—Diurnal
Traditionally, hunters would not care for killing large, predatory animals like mountain
lion and bear. These were not only dangerous to hunt in an environment with other food
resources, but believed by the Cahuilla to be transformed shaman (Bean, 1972). A hunter
faced with the decision of whether or not to kill was obligated to warn the animal first
that it was about to be killed and gave it ample opportunity to leave the area (ibid.).
Sacred animals were revered ceremoniously and included mountain lions and raptors.
These animals were generally not hunted for food (Bean, 1991).
Animals represent different Cahuilla clans: Ahwalem (dog), iswatem (mountain lion),
tokut (bob cat), univetem (bear), unal (badger).
Rodent
Cahuilla:
Mammal—spp. dependent—4 legs—Diurnal/Nocturnal
Generally hunted and trapped as a steady source of food; rarely de-boned, just ground and
eaten, sometimes added to other foods.
REPTILES
Chuckwalla Lizard (Sauromelos obesus)
Cahuilla: chaxwal
Reptile—Herbivore—4 legs--Diurnal
Chuckwalla (meat, muscle and bone) was usually roasted among the hot rocks in a fire.
It is possible the smaller bones were also prepared by being ground up like other small
animals are reported to have been ground for their marrow and mixed with other foods.
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Like other meats, chuckwalla was sometimes cooked and dried for storage, to be
consumed during leaner times.
Similar to tortoise collecting, it is reported that non-mortally wounded chuckwallas that
were caught could be kept for several days and even weeks without food or water—
thanks to their low metabolic rate—thus a supply of fresh meat was made available when
other meat could not be gained (Cornett, 2000).
Havasupai mythology and belief protected the chuckwalla from being sought as a source
of food for this group. They believed, ―…that killing the chuckwalla would cause
powerful thunder-storms that might wreak havoc on their villages,‖ and that each
chuckwalla was a manifestation of a man with animal properties, an individual with both
human and animal qualities and characteristics (Cornett, 2000).
One of the survival strategies of the chuckwalla is for it to flee to a nearby rock crevice, wedge
itself in and quickly gulp air to inflate its body, thereby making it nearly impossible for a hungry
predator to remove its prey from the crevice. Resourceful ways of getting around this is
described in James W. Cornett’s Indians and Desert Animals, ―the Seri Indians…would take a
long branch from the white-stemmed milkweed and whip it through the air,‖ the sound would
frightened any chuckwallas nearby and they would escape into hiding, their scales scraping
against the rock and crevices, ―hearing the lizard, a hunter could then easily locate the reptile.‖
Also, the Panamint Indians and other groups had means for removing this meaty catch, by
spearing the large lizard with a sharpened bone hook attached to the end of a stick, deflating its
body and easily removing it from its tight cover.
Desert Tortoise (Gopherus agassizii)
Cahuilla: ayily
Reptile—Herbivore—4 legs--Diurnal
The desert tortoise was an easy meal when encountered or lured out of its burrow. The
Cahuilla captured and roasted tortoises and the shell was used for making rattles used in
ceremony as well as ritual and household items such as utensils and bowls. The carapace
and plastron were fashioned into ladles, seed-parching containers, spoons for children,
digging scoops, and pottery-making tools (Schneider, 1996).
Turtle or tortoise rattles used in ceremonies were made. These rattles were items of great
value and traded far beyond the range of the animal.
Most desert Indians captured tortoises as a reliable source of food. Remains from
some archaeological sites suggest an increased reliance on tortoise meat as large
game resources diminished during lengthy periods of severe drought (Cornett, 2000).
Dogs were used by Native Americans to locate ranging tortoises.
Tortoise shell held a medicinal value for the Yavapai who sometimes ground the shell to
powder to relieve stomach ailments and urinary tract infections (mixing the ground shell
with boiled tortoise urine is additionally mentioned in Cornett, 2000).
Turtle or tortoise rattles were made by lacing or fastening together the plastron and
carapace, likely with sinew before the 20th century, placing hard seeds (possibly palm or
manzanita) or pebbles inside and sealing with asphaltum. These rattles were items of
great value and traded far beyond the range of the animal.
According to a report by Joan S. Schneider, Ph.D. The Desert Tortoise and Early Peoples of the
Western Deserts, an archaeological site documented for Joshua Tree National Park interprets a
cremation of an important person from 1,000 years ago that contained, ―36 burned tortoise
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scapulae…suggesting these bones were…strung as a necklace, used as gaming or divining pieces
or used for other ornamental or ritual purposes,‖ (Schneider, 1996). Schneider further reports on
the symbolism of the desert tortoise within various tribes similar to the Chemehuevi ideal
representing enduring patience, stamina, and courage in the face of hopelessness; also eternal life,
revered old age, or as a foundation for earth’s creation.
Lizard
Cahuilla:
Reptile—Insectivore/Herbivore (spp. dependent)—4 legs—Diurnal
Desert dwelling tribes like the Cahuilla commonly caught and consumed several species
of snakes and lizards. Adding reptiles to the diet may have helped increase the options for
valuable sources of protein and supplemented the diet to offset infrequent kills of large
game.
Rattlesnakes (Crotalus spp.)
Cahuilla: mesax
Reptile—Carnivore—0 legs—Diurnal/Nocturnal
Several snake species were consumed; a particular ―favorite‖ was the rattlesnake.
Rattlesnakes were caught only by skilled men, then roasted or boiled after skinning (Bean,
1972).
Rattlesnake venom was used to poison arrow tips when hunting large game to weaken the
animal faster in order to reduce the distance and time between hunter and prey.
Rattlesnakes frequently appear among the oral traditions of Native Americans. One
example can be found within the Cahuilla, in a teaching story involving Rattlesnake and
Mukat the Creator, and how rattlesnake got its fangs and venom. It is told in the Mesax
(Rattlesnake) lesson of this packet.
***
Bean, L.J. Mukat’s People: The Cahuilla Indians of Southern California. University of
California Press, Los Angeles, CA, 1972.
Bean, L.J. and Lisa Bourgeault. The Cahuilla. Chelsea House Publishers, New York, NY, 1989.
Bean, L.J., Sylvia Brakke Vane and Jackson Young. The Cahuilla Landscape: The Santa Rosa
and San Jacinto Mountains. Ballena Press, Menlo Park, CA, 1991.
Brumgardt, J. R. and Larry L. Bowles. People of the Magic Waters: The Cahuilla Indians of
Palm Springs. ETC Publications, Palm Springs, CA, 1981.
Campbell, P.D. Survival Skills of Native California. Gibbs Smith, Layton, UT, 1999.
Cornett, J.W. Indians and Desert Animals. Nature Trails Press, Palm Springs, CA, 2000.
Heizer, R.F., and Albert B. Elsasser. The Natural World of the California Indians. University of
California Press, Berkely and Los Angeles, CA, 1980.
Palmer, J.D. Animal Wisdom: the Definitive Guide to the Myth, Folklore, and Medicine Power
of Animals. Element, Hammersmith, London, 2001.
Schneider, J.S. The Desert Tortoise and Early Peoples of the Western Deserts, A special report
prepared for the Desert Tortoise Preserve Committee, Inc.1996.
Toweill, D.E. Desert Bighorn Sheep. Nature Trails Press, Palm Springs, CA 2003.
23
V. ACTIVITY LESSONS and PUZZLES
Organized in alphabetical order:
Animal Alphabet Code • Desert Critter Crossword
Animal Cave Paintings • Desert Natives Word Search
Animal Inspiration • The Golden Eagle
Black Widow Geometry • The Hunters
Cahuilla Bird Songs and Dances • Into The Wild: Track I.D. Flashcards
Calculating Animals • Mesax
Coyote: Canis latrans • Pronghorn
Critter Math • Who Am I?
24
Directions: place the correct letter from the alphabet code above its matching number to decode a
glimpse into the resourceful ancient Cahuilla and their important connection to the animal world.
Alphabet A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Code 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
1. ________________ ____ ________________ ____________ ______ ____
3-15-20-20-25-14-20-1-9-12 1-14-4 10-1-3-11-18-1-2-2-9-20-19 16-18-15-22-9-4-5-4 6-15-15-4 1-14-4
_________ ___ _________, ___ ______ ______ ___ _________ .
13-1-20-5-18-9-1-12 6-15-18 3-12-15-20-8-9-14-7 1-14-4 23-15-22-5-14 18-15-2-5-19 1-14-4 2-12-1-14-11-5-20-19
2. __________, _____ ____ ____________ _____ _________ ____ ______
2-9-7-8-15-18-14 4-5-5-18 1-14-4 1-14-20-5-12-15-16-5 23-5-18-5 8-21-14-20-5-4 6-15-18 20-8-5-9-18
_____ . _______, ______ ____ _______ ____________ ______
13-5-1-20 20-8-5-9-18 8-15-18-14 1-14-4 2-15-14-5-19 16-18-15-22-9-4-5-4 13-1-14-25
________________ ________ .
9-13-16-15-18-20-1-14-20 9-20-5-13-19
3. ___________ _____ ________ _____ ____________________ ______________
3-1-8-21-9-12-12-1 2-9-18-4 19-15-14-7-19 23-5-18-5 20-18-1-4-9-20-9-15-14-1-12-12-25 16-5-18-6-15-18-14-5-4
__ ____ _____ ____________ ___________, ____ ______ ___________
2-25 13-5-14 23-9-20-8 18-8-25-20-8-13-9-3 18-1-20-20-12-5-19 1-14-4 20-15-12-4 19-20-15-18-9-5-19
_______ ____ ________ _____ ______ (____ _________) ____ ___
1-2-15-21-20 20-8-5 18-9-19-11-19 20-8-1-20 2-9-18-4-19 (1-14-4 16-5-15-16-12-5) 13-5-20 9-14
______ _____ .
18-5-1-12 12-9-6-5
4. __________ ____ _ ______________ ______________ ______ __ ____
3-15-25-15-20-5 23-1-19 1 18-5-19-16-5-3-20-5-4 3-21-12-20-21-18-1-12 8-5-18 15 15-6 20-8-5
____________, ____ ____ ____________ __ _ ______ __________ .
3-1-8-21-9-12-12-1 1-14-4 23-1-19 6-15-18-2-9-4-4-5-14 1-19 1 6-15-15-4 19-15-21-18-3-5
5. ____ ___________ ____________ _____________ ____ ______ ____ ____
20-8-5 3-1-8-21-9-12-12-1 3-1-16-20-21-18-5-4 20-15-18-20-9-19-5-19 6-15-18 6-15-15-4 1-14-4 6-15-18
________ _______ _____ __ _____________, ________ ____
13-1-11-9-14-7 9-20-5-13-19 19-21-3-8 1-19 21-20-5-14-19-9-12-19 2-15-23-12-19 1-14-4
________________ ____________ .
3-5-18-5-13-15-14-9-1-12 18-1-20-20-12-5-19
Caliso Learning 2005
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Animal Cave Paintings
Activity Description: With ancient Cahuilla connections to animals and the rock art
they’ve left behind as inspiration, use chalk and wet paper to create an original "rock art
drawing" to show in what ways animals were important in past Native American life.
Alternate: Chose an animal(s) important to your family today, communicate images
through your chalk drawing that shows its connection to you.
Materials needed: Overhead projector, chalk, water, bucket or sink you can stopper,
brown construction paper, black construction paper for matting, glue, rock art illustrations
or photos (some examples provided on a page for you to make a transparency).
History: Many thousands of years ago, prehistoric man painted the walls of caves, cliffs
and rock formations which can be found on almost every continent in the world. In
15,000 BC the early artists of France painted horses, deer, and bison on cave walls. Many
rock art sites around the world include animals living today and some that are regionally
or even globally extinct. It is believed these animal subjects were very important in the
lives of ancient people , providing them with food and clothing, and spiritual guidance.
For southwest rock art, many interpretations may apply, though it is generally accepted
that the animals found etched or painted onto native rocks and shelters served as ritual
expression for spiritual enhancement, sustenance needs, or for purposes of
communication for the individuals who created them. Native cultures established a close
connection to the animal world. Hunting rituals, shamanic meditations and even puberty
rites may have used specific animals as symbolic representation to ensure successful
hunts, aide in shamanistic visions, or express individual responsibility in the native
community. Some rock art sites found in the traditional territories of the Cahuilla and
surrounding areas include animal subjects like bear, roadrunner and snakes.
Discussion: Place the transparency of the rock art page provided on an overhead
projector. Calling rock art ―art‖ is questioned by some. Before written language as we
know it today, humans communicated through sound, signing/motioning, and creating
fairly permanent images by painting (pictographs) or etching (petroglyphs) on stone. Was
rock art a means of artistic expression or simply a way to communicate for humans of the
past? With whom were individuals communicating? Did a shaman wish for a good hunt,
bighorn medicine, or rain when creating a bighorn image onto rock? (Some Native
American tribes associated bighorn with the coming of rain.)
Instructions:
Tear off the edges of brown construction paper to simulate a rock appearance.
Dip paper in water first, then crumple paper into a ball.
Flatten paper on top of the table.
With chalk, and without writing words, communicate your story or event in the
style of ancient rock artists by tracing hands, drawing animals, symbols, people.
Let dry.
Glue cave drawings onto black construction paper for framing.
● Have students interpret each others stories by
studying some of the rock art projects. Did they
get the information right? If not, discuss this
problem for scientists trying to interpret sites.
26 Animals In Native American Life Ways TEACHER’S PACKET
2005 Caliso Learning
These images show a variety
of rock art creations from
various parts of the country.
What information do
they tell you?
Pictograph in Cahuilla territory.
27
Name ________________________
ANIMAL INSPIRATION
Discuss some animals and their Cahuilla connections. Animals can inspire you to write
by the way the look, walk, behave, feel, what they eat, when they come out, even how
they taste or make you feel.
The lizard is a timid thing,
That cannot dance or fly or sing;
She hunts for bugs beneath the floor,
And longs to be a dinosaur.
--John Gardner
The rhyme pattern in this poem is AABB. That means that the last words in the first two
lines rhyme (thing/sing) and the last words in the next two lines rhyme (floor/dinosaur).
Each line has 8 beats or syllables (count them to your self).
Directions: Write your own four-line poem by choosing a desert animal that you like and
that the Cahuilla had a connection. Here are some suggestions for animals and rhyming
words:
eagle kangaroo rat king snake bear toad bobcat spider
quail rabbit mountain lion coyote fish rattlesnake
bighorn tortoise pocket mouse rosy boa black widow lizard
cool/pool/fool/rule/jewel tree/me/be/see/free/sea wing/sing/ring/thing
sand/land/and/band heat/meet/seat/beat/neat/feet wink/think/blink/sink
beast/least/east/feast hair/where/lair/there had/bad/sad/glad/pad
run/fun/sun/done/one care/dare/fair fly/high/sky/why
_______________________________________________________________________,
_______________________________________________________________________;
_______________________________________________________________________,
_______________________________________________________________________.
Teacher’s Packet: Animals in Native American Life Ways, Caliso Learning 2005
28
Name ________________________
ANIMAL INSPIRATION: Acrostic and Haiku
Not all poems have to rhyme. Some very beautiful poetry doesn’t have any rhyming
words. Instead, the poet uses images or rhythm to create a mood. You might want to try
an acrostic. An acrostic poem uses the first letter in each line to spell out the name of
something (when read vertically), or conveys some other kind of message.
Example: Canine
Omnivore
Yipping
Opportunistic
Teaching
Engrossed
A haiku is a Japanese poem that has three lines: 5 syllables
7 syllables
5 syllables
Example: The raven swoops by
Black wings whooshing through air.
Does he feel me wish?
Directions: Discuss some animals and their Cahuilla connections. Write at least one style
of poetry (illustrated above) about a desert animal that you like and that the Cahuilla had
an important connection to using the styles above as models.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Teacher’s Packet: Animals in Native American Life Ways, Caliso Learning 2005
29
BLACK WIDOW GEOMETRY Name __________________________
Directions: Carefully read and answer the questions below.
1. The Cahuilla sometimes sought black widow spiders in order to crush them for
use as part of a poisonous concoction applied to arrow points, to help bring down
large game. The black widow spins a sticky, haphazard (random patterns) web to
catch her prey. One way you can identify a black widow’s web is by its ―messy‖
appearance of random strands of silk. Which web below do you think belongs to a
black widow? Circle your answer.
2. Use your pencil to outline as many geometric shapes as you can find in the black
widow’s web below. Identify each type of geometric shape you find and write
them down on the list.
Image © Archive Photos
_________________________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
____________
___________________
Image © Archive Photos
3. Use the photo to answer the questions below.
How many isosceles triangles can you find in her web? ______
How many equilateral triangles? _______
How many right triangles? _______
How many insects are trapped in her web? _______
M.. Hedgecock, 2003 for PSDM Jeepers Creepers, revised 2005 Caliso Learning
30
Cahuilla Bird Songs and Dances
Directions: Each number has a corresponding letter that matches. For example, the
number “14” is coded for the letter “A.” Figure out the matching letter and you will
decode the message! Three letters have been decoded for you to get you started.
Teacher’s Packet: Animals in Native American Life Ways, Caliso Learning 2005
31
Directions: Directions:
Try to fill in the missing numbers. Try to fill in the missing numbers.
Use the numbers 1 through 9 to complete The missing numbers are integers
the equations. between 0 and 9.
Each number is only used once. The numbers in each row add up to totals
to the right.
Each row is a math equation.
The numbers in each column add up to
Each column is a math equation. the totals along the bottom.
Remember that multiplication and division The diagonal lines also add up the totals
are performed before addition and to the right.
subtraction.
Teacher’s Packet: Animals in Native American Life Ways, Caliso Learning 2005
32
COYOTE: Canis latrans
33
Directions: Choose a letter from the corresponding columns and place it in the correct spot to reveal the message.
Teacher’s Packet: Animals in Native American Life Ways, Caliso Learning 2005
CRITTER MATH Name ________________________
The animals below provided moral teachings in many Native American stories based on their
physical appearance, defensive/hunting strategies, social behavior, activity, etc. In addition to their
human uses, each one deserves their place in the natural cycle as illustrated in these math problems.
Directions: Read the information in italics below then answer the math question that follows.
1. The desert tarantula is a large, heavy-bodied, hairy spider. In the fall it is possible to
find many male tarantulas crossing remote roads and desert areas in search of females.
You are walking along a remote desert road and spot a total of 47 tarantulas. How many
tarantula legs did you see? (Hint: how many legs does a spider have?)
Multiplication: ______ tarantulas
x ______ legs each
---------------------------
______ total legs
2. A female black widow spider lives about one year. In her lifetime she consumes about 2,000
insects.
You discover 8 black widows living around your yard, how many total insects could they eat in
one year?
Multiplication: ______ number of insects one black widow eats in her lifetime
x ______ black widows
-------------------------------
______ total insects consumed by the black widows
3. Coyotes are very adaptive animals, meaning they can quickly change their diet and other
habits to survive in different environments. Part of the reason they can easily adapt to their
surroundings is their willingness to eat just about any plant or animal, fresh or scavenged.
During the night a coyote caught and ate a total of 3 kangaroo rats (76 grams each), one
scorpion (17 grams), and one kingsnake (325 grams). How many total grams of food did it eat?
Working it out:
Kangaroo rats = ______ grams each Scorpion = ______ grams
x ______ Kingsnake = ______ grams
-----------------------------
______ grams Kangaroo rats = ______ grams
The coyote ate: ______ grams
______ grams
+ ______ grams
----------------------
______ total grams of food
M. Hedgecock, 2003 for PSDM Jeepers Creepers, revised 2005 Caliso Learning
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Name __________________
DESERT CRITTER CROSSWORD
1 2 3 4
5 6
7
8
9
10
11
ACROSS
2. 8. 10. 11.
DOWN
1. 4. 6. 9.
3. 5. 7.
WORD LIST: ants, bat, bee, black widow, coyote, mountain lion, rodent, scorpion, rattlesnake,
tarantula, toad
2003 M. Bunn-Hedgecock for PSDM Jeepers Creepers
35
DESERT NATIVES
A N I C M A L E S W E E R E P R E O T E T C T E T
C D A N H D R E C K S P E C T E D T B Y A T H A E
C E A H U U I L A N O S I O P L A H O J B S C N D
Z S R J S M C N Y C E L I A U Q K A K Y O B U R M
P V V E I T S K I I Y T O D G J Z Z L W O O C E I
E A D X M E E N W L O R S E C N A L A B S C L S Z
F M L Z L O S N I A Z R S I L Z X O L O N W O D K
L Y O T N E N S N W L B P V X H M N A I V B T R O
F X T D C U E Y N O Z L W Z D E B J P B E R H I N
X A E T D A P L U R I R A B O Z O B G W E I I B J
R R S D M I R N G R F S X Y C W F C F S Z K N J O
M M V S G N I H C A E T I Y Z R W R O G V S G E H
S U F X B D A D R D E S L E A B W U I C Q X A I V
S L O O T B X R P N O Q G A S B R V G G G F S U Z
H O O S L O L I N A R V B D U C E W Y O M T F O B
Y J A F D G C T U W N F B W E T F G H H O O Q W I
T I B B A R X U E O A G P S H T I M F R O Q E H G
S N O P A E W A Z B M H U C V G S R Y D Y M G H H
W U G U Z Y S L T E E L G H A Q A V I C W P N T O
H U N T I N G S X J N F X A F H M U E P G W H C R
E S I O T R O T S L T A L T A P U Z A E S X J T N
H U J G U Y B R E C S V Z T H S J I X G A D V A G
M A T E R I A L A I D J T L F Z M R L S K V D X G
A F E A T H E R S I E A F V P C D M N L Y B Q T R
V R U L J Z G U F A U M L N Y J X D O P A L G D A
ATLATLS CHUCKWALLA HISTORY POISON SPIRITUAL
BALANCE CLOTHING HUNTING QUAIL TABOOS
BIGHORN COEXISTENCE INSECTS RABBIT TEACHINGS
BIRDS COYOTE MATERIAL RATTLESNAKE TOOLS
BOBCAT EAGLE NETS RESOURCES TORTOISE
BOW AND ARROW FEATHERS ORNAMENTS RITUAL WEAPONS
CAHUILLA FOOD
CEREMONY
Place the remaining letters to find the hidden message:
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
Teacher’s Packet: Animals in Native American Life Ways, Caliso Learning 2005
36
THE GOLDEN EAGLE
Directions: Unscramble the tiles to reveal the sentences. Hint: the first blank square in the top left begins with “LIK.”
37
Teacher’s Packet: Animals in Native American Life Ways Caliso Learning 2005
Name
The Hunters
The jackrabbit runs fast. Who can catch it? The desert tortoise walks slow. How
safe is it? A hard shell keeps the desert tortoise safe from most predators. Desert
animals have evolved several tricks for evading natural predators. Many animals
use speed, armor, venom, and/or camouflage to escape predators. Some come
out when their predators are sleeping. But as the competition for food increases,
so do the advantages of predatory animals as their hunting styles evolve to
overcome their evolving prey. Humans had the capacity to coordinate hunts,
communicate, and create tools to catch and kill animals that would normally out
run them, causing additional competition for the other predators who shared the
environment.
Directions: An animal’s speed (or pace) means how fast it can move. The
animals on this list are listed alphabetically, use graph paper to graph each
animal’s speed. Use your graph to determine the answers below by circling the
correct sign in the sentence, greater than (>) or less than ( )
2. GREATER THAN (>); LESS THAN ()
4. LESS THAN ()
60
ATTENTION TEACHERS AND PRINCIPALS!
CALISO LEARNING offers these hands-on, standards-based programs, grades 3RD-5TH
TOPO-LOCO!
Reading maps and trail directions are important to know for a fun and safe adventure.
Topographic maps, commonly used by hikers, surveyors, and scientists use contour
lines to map out the surface of the earth that help them read the shape of the land. Learn
how to read topographic maps and follow temporary trail signs--a must for hikers of any
age! Activities include building your very own topo map using clay and a game of Topo-
bingo using common topographic symbols. An additional activity-lesson involving trail
signs--including materials--to do with your class for a fun activity is provided.
WILD ABOUT WATER!
What, exactly, is H2O and where does it come from? How can you explain staying
completely dry while sitting in a room full of water? How about getting a cup of water
poured onto your head and not getting wet? Would you brush your teeth with the same
water a dinosaur swam in? Find the answers to these puzzling questions and other fun
facts about our most precious resource! Experience the water cycle with activities that
include creating a water cycle bracelet for you to keep, and completing the incredible
journey as a molecule of water!
CAMP TORTOISE
Discover the desert tortoise up close: how it lives, what it likes to eat, and how it survives
in the desert. Learn how to recognize tortoise activity in the wild and why this ancient
survivor needs our protection today. Activities include habitat postcard shuffle, Tortoise
Gamble game, studying a tortoise "fingerprint" through up close scute I.D., tortoise
slide show. Tortoise teacher’s packet is also provided as light extensions for review.
NATURAL RHYTHMS
Feel like you march to the beat of a different drummer? Some animals communicate
among their species by sending and reading specific patterns of sound, light or
movement. For example, toads croak, fireflies flash, and honey bees “dance” in order to
establish territory, attract mates, or give directions to a source of pollen. Activities
include “reading” sound patterns, and the chance for students to find out what it’s like for
critters to find a mate among the sounds of nature during your own “seek for survival”–
by producing rhythmic patterns using a light, clicker and body movements.
Program fee of $75 per class includes the following for any single program
above:
All lesson materials provided for up to 40 students/class
All lessons include elements that integrate California state and district
standards for elementary grades
Qualified instructor
Each lesson is 50-minutes long, presented in your classroom
Hands-on activities
Contact: Michelle Hedgecock (760) 832-0105 or calisolearning@earthlink.net
61
CALISO LEARNING inspires individual and community appreciation and responsibility for our natural and
cultural environments by integrating diverse styles of learning. We support education in the natural and cultural
sciences and related fields through fun and creative programming, and by establishing conscientious partnerships
that will enhance the learning experience.
www.calisolearning.com
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