WOMEN IN THE
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
OF AFRICA
THE CASE OF THE
IGBO WOMEN OF
NIGERIA
PRESENTED BY:
MARY ORIEJI MBA
• PhD Candidate in the
Department of French and
Italian – KU
Research interest:
Representation of Women in
Sub-Saharan French Literature
TABLE OF CONTENT
• Introduction:
– Objective
• THE IGBO IN NIGERIA
– Location
– Values
– Traditional roles of Igbo Women
• SOME MAJOR POLITICAL LANDMARKS
THAT HAVE AFFECTED THE ROLE OF
IGBO WOMEN
– Colonialism
– The Civil War (The Biafran war)
• IGBO WOMEN IN THE ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT OF NIGERIA IN RECENT
HISTORY AND PRESENTLY
– Igbo Women in Nigeria
– Igbo Women in the Diaspora
• CONCLUSION
Igbo woman
In the context of this paper, the Igbo
woman is any woman who is either born
into the Igbo ethnic group or married
into it.
Introduction
• General perception and understanding of
African women:
– Veiled, faceless, behind the scene
– Voiceless
– Helpless
– Dependent
– Violated
– Mostly uneducated
– Passive
Some causes of these misrepresentations
• The “othering of the other” (See Edward
Said‟s Orientalism)
• Generalization
– metonymic representations, using a part as a
whole;
– macroscopic and not microscopic view of “the
other” which makes for homogeneous cultural
representations
– Misinformation
Objective
It is true that there are a lot problems in Africa
which could have come about by many factors
and which affect women in Africa, however,
African women still try to hold up and against all
odds. They still participate actively towards the
development of Africa. My objective is to use the
example of the Igbo women of Nigeria to show
how African Women contribute their quota
towards bettering the lot of Africa despite all that
worked and still work against them. To these
women, globalization has proven to be positive
as it has not affected who they are or their
traditional roles as African Women
LOCATION
The Igbo are found mainly in the Eastern
part of Nigeria. They occupy 5 states
principally which are: Abia, Anambra,
Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo and parts of
Akwa-Ibom, Bayelsa, Delta, Edo, Cross-
River and Rivers States.
Africa
West
Africa
NIGERIA
Igbo area
The Igbo
Igbo Speaking states
1. Abia
2. Anambra
3. Ebonyi
4. Enugu
5. Imo
Parts of:
1. Akwa Ibom
2. Bayelsa
3. Cross Rivers
4. Delta
5. Edo
6. Rivers
THE IGBO IN NIGERIA
• HISTORY
– Pre-colonial
• A stateless society
• Leadership by the hierarchy of elders and
age groups
• Dual-sex system of government
– Occupation and role of women
• local trade, farming, pottery, fishing etc.
• social status: wife, husband, daughter,
sister, head of households, could inherit
and own landed and other property
• Religious positions: Priestesses, female
priests,
• Active participation in providing for their
families and in the welfare of their
communities
Sex and gender construct in
Igboland
For the Igbo, sex and gender are different, while sex is
biologically determined, gender is determined by role. So
some women are called “Okenwanyi” (masculine women)
simply because of the roles they play in the society and
not because of their sexual acts.
Sex (determined by sex Nwoke (man) Nwanyi (woman)
organs), therefore
biologically determined
Gender (determined by Oke (male, Nne (female,
roles one plays), masculine) feminine)
culturally/socially
constructed
A traditional Igbo setting to show the central roles played
by Igbo women traditionally - custodians of the market
place (trade and commerce), disciplinarians of offenders
(male and female), and spiritual roles
“An Igbo village usually lies in the center of
the compounds. It is linked to the village-
group market which lies either in the center
of the village group or on neutral territory in
between two village groups. The Igbo market
was owned and controlled by the whole
village. It was generally supervised by a
council of women who punished violence and
stealing and performed rituals for the
market deity.”(Basden 1921:195 in Müller
1985:54)
Amasiri (1952) (Simon
Ottenberg) women have
Igbo
always been actively
involved in Trade and
Commerce
COLONIAL
• Creation of warrant chiefs
• Early contact with the whites
– legal commerce
– slave trade
– Christianity/education
– imposition of the “Victorian gender ethos”
on Igbo women
• Women’s status reduced to those of
children – could not inherit, must submit
to their husbands, only male heads of
households, no more dual-sex political
system, no more religious roles,
suppression of the voice of Igbo women
• New Gender Construct – political,
occupational, education (sex and gender
roles are now combined. Male = man; and
female = woman)
• The Igbo women’s war of 1929 against
the taxation of market women.
Colonial (cont.)
• Education
– Men trained in a way that facilitated their taking
over from the Colonial Masters
– Women, trained in occupations that will enable
them to attend hands and feet to their families –
Husbands and children – Seamstresses, teachers,
housewives, childcare, cooking, etc.
• More Advanced / New technology
– Enabled men to delve into areas that were
predominantly women’s – farming, palm oil
production, salt mining, etc.
• Natural resources, new jobs and migration to other
places.
– Coal mining in Enugu
– Salt mining in Uburu, Stone quarry in Okigwe/Enugu areas
– Timber businesses in the Delta areas – Sapele etc.
They had a good rapport with the colonial
masters and the Igbo had the majority of
workers in many government offices and also
occupied the highest ranks in the military. At
independence in 1960, an Igbo man Dr.
Nnamdi Azikiwe was the first president and
the first military ruler, General Aguiyi Ironsi
was also Igbo. This led to conspiracy against
the Igbo by the other ethnic groups and to
the Murder of General Aguiyi Ironsi who was
the Military president of Nigeria in 1966:
– killings and reprisal killings
– Biafran War (the Nigerian civil war 1967-1970)
SOME MAJOR POLITICAL
LANDMARKS THAT HAVE AFFECTED
THE IGBO
• THE NIGERIAN CIVIL WAR
– THE IGBO AND SECESSION –
– THE BIAFRAN WAR
• Over a million Igbos were killed
• Many men lost their lives as they
were the ones who fought the war.
• Women took up more responsibilities
- both economically and politically
– “NO VICTOR NO VANQUISHED”?
– ONE NIGERIA?
During the war, it was
reported that the
Nigeria troupe came to
an Igbo village in
Asaba, gathered all
the men with the false
pretence that they
were seeking for
peace and killed them
all off, leaving the
Women to bury them.
(See Gloria Chukwu, Igbo
women and Economic
Transformation in Southeastern
Nigeria, 1900-1960 Routledge,
New York & London, 2005 )
“By the end of the war, the Nigerian government did not keep
its promise of “one Nigeria” as the Igbo were stripped of
their property which were in other ethnic regions, their
middleclass was pauperized as they were offered a twenty
pound ex gratis award by banks in which they had lodged
money before the war and Igbo people in high military
positions were not reabsorbed. With the Igbo stripped of
everything after the war, many of them were forced to
emigrate from the country “ - Ibrahim, Jibril, “The Transformation of
Ethno-Regional identities in Nigeria” in ed. Attahiru Jega, Identity
Transformation and Identity Politics under Structural Adjustment in Nigeria,
Stochholm: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet and Center for Research and
Documentation, 2000:55
THE IGBO IN NIGERIA –
CONT.
• THE EFFECTS OF THE WAR ON
THE IGBO
– THE VANQUISHED
– LOSS OF EMPLOYMENT /
UNEMPLOYMENT LEVEL
– THE IGBO AND THE MILITARY
• ARMORIES MOVED TO THE NORTH
– THE DISILLUSIONMENT OF A
PEOPLE
– MAJOR IGBO EMIGRATION TO
OTHER COUNTRIES
IGBO WOMEN IN THE ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT OF NIGERIA IN RECENT
HISTORY AND PRESENTLY
• More educated Igbo women
• More Igbo women in the public sectors
than men
– less suspicious and frightening than igbo
men
• More women paying tax than before
(Remember that due to the Aba women riot
of 1929, that the British rescinded that
decision to make women pay taxes. But
when a woman works for the Government
as a civil servant, taxes are deducted from
her salary like the male workers
IGBO WOMEN IN THE ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT OF NIGERIA
1. Igbo Women in Nigeria
1. Colonial times
2. From independence to date
2. Igbo Women in the Diaspora
1. Igbo Women in the United States
2. Igbo Women in Europe
COLONIAL PERIOD
Ahebi Ugbabe
• Escaped from slavery
• Learnt to speak broken English and Igala
languages
• Served her community and the colonial masters
with her linguistic skills
• One and only woman warrant chief
• One and only female King in Igboland
– Achebe, Nwando, Farmers, Traders, Warriors,
and Kings. Female power and Authority in
Northern Igboland, 1900-1960 Heinemann,
Portsmouth, NH, 1970;
– Gloria Chukwu, Igbo women and Economic
Transformation in Southeastern Nigeria, 1900-
1960 Routledge, New York & London, 2005 p.
198
Chief Mrs. Margaret Ekpo
(1914 - 2006)
• One of the leaders of the Aba
Women’s riot of 1929
• Elected into the National Executive
Council, the decision making organ of
the National council of the Nigeria
and Cameroons in 1953
• Special member of the eastern House
of chiefs in 1959
• Finally, Vice-president of the NCNC
Women’s wing of Eastern Nigeria.
Chief Mrs. Janet
Mokelu
• Secretary of the Eastern Region of
the NCNC Women’s Association
• Special Member of the House of
Chiefs
• The first Igbo Lady commissioner
• Give the go ahead authorization to
build the famous Onitsha-Owerri
Road
Today, the road is
dilapidated. We probably
need another Igbo woman
to authorize it’s repair.
Mrs. Mary Nzirimo
• Business woman of repute
• Built schools in both the
memories of her husband and
daughter
• Trained many Oguta Children
in Universities abroad
In this age of globalization and economic crisis, how then
are the Igbo women holding up? Do they still
participate actively in the economic development of
the Igbo nation and Nigeria as a whole or have they
finally succumbed to the pressures of neo-colonialism
and Christianity? What about those who are in the
Diaspora, where they are surrounded by people from
other places and cultures and where they intermingle,
where cultures melt away forming through interracial
interethnic marriages, creating a whole new society of
people, how have the Igbo women been able to fit in
and play their part? And finally, have their role
changed from what it used to be traditionally? In this
section, I will present Igbo women living in Nigeria and
later those living abroad, notably, the United States.
Igbo Women have been able to hold up and
find their place in the History of both
Nigeria and Africa. They have become
very active in the political, economic, and
social arenas. The Igbo has produced
many women lawyers, Professors,
Teachers, Engineers, CEOs of businesses
and enterprises, many of them have
occupied different positions in the
government etc. I would just like to
mention a few of them as the list is
endless.
Igbo women in recent
history
Professor Mariam Ikejiani-Clark :
• renowned scholar and professor of Political
Science at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
• She is the Dean of the School of General
Studies.
• The former FCT Minister in the regime of Gen.
Sani Abacha,1993-1997
Senator Chris Anyanwu
• started another Sunday
magazine program syndicated
• A foremost journalist and energy on several stations, called
reporter and correspondent with
NTA
TSM-TV after her release
• A one time Commissioner for
from detention.
Infortion, Youth, Sports, Culture• She ran the program until she
and Social Welfare in Imo State, got the nod of the Federal
1987-1989 Government to begin a private
• the publisher of the popular radio station. The Abuja-
TSM magazine.
based radio station is called
• Detained for 4 years by the
Abacha Administration
Hot F.M.
• Released by Obasanjo in 1999 • Presently a senator of the
Federal Republic of Nigeria.
Dr. Kema Chikwe
• The only female • Current Nigeria
minister of cabinet Ambassador to
rank in the fourth Ireland
republic of president
Olusegun Obasanjo
Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala
• Presently the World
Bank Managing
Director in Nigeria
• Only Woman to hold
the position of
Finance Minister
(2003) and Foreign
Minister (2006) of
Nigeria
Igbo Women in the Diaspora
Igbo women in the United
States
For lack of tangible • The women were from all
information, I had to walks of life:
carry out my own – Home makers (5%) (network
interviews: marketers and card sellers)
• Interviewed over 41 – Nurses (70%)
women and men by – Teachers (10%)
phone – Texas, New – Business women (5%)
York, Virginia – College professors (2%)
• Spent 8 days and – Others (child-care providers,
air hostesses, hair dressers,
interviewed Igbo women hoteliers , estate
in California from July 6th manageresses , retirees,
- July 14th etc.) (8%)
• None of the homemakers I spoke to is
jobless, they all had some things they do
from home such as selling calling cards
and doing network marketing like selling
Mary Kay beauty products etc. Some also
baby sit for people and get paid.
Social status: Educational
– Married and qualifications:
staying together – Graduates with
(65%) Masters or PhD (15%)
– Married but – Professional degrees
separated (20%) such as Nursing
– Single (5%) degrees (80%)
– Divorced (10%) – High/Secondary
– Heads of School degrees only
households (35%) (5%)
Nurses (70%)
• Certified Nursing • Nurse Practitioners (NP
Assistants (CNA $15- $65-$75/hr) - 1%
$20/hr depending on
• Most of them work double
State and
jobs and double shifts.
establishment) – 20%
• If an RN making $50/hr
• Licensed Vocational
works 14hr in a day, she
Nurses (LVN $18 -
will make approximately
$25/hr) – 30%
$700.00 in a day.
• Registered Nurses
• Many of them combine
(RN $35 - $60/hr) –
their professions with
49%
nursing
From the statistics:
• Igbo women in the US are all educated
people. (The Igbo men who come here usually have first degrees or
at least high school diplomas and they marry equally educated Igbo women
who can easily fit in.)
• Most Igbo women are high earners and
even earn more than their husbands.
• Thus they contribute more in most cases
to the economic development of their
people.
How does the Igbo in the Diaspora
contribute ?
• Members of their community development
unions/associations.
• Members support one another – birth, death, help
the jobless and homeless among them, recreate
festivals etc.
• carry out projects in their home communities such
as providing electricity, building and repairing
roads, building civic centers, digging bore holes to
provide clean and potable water in the communities
• Giving scholarships and buying books for students
• Building houses for the elderly and widows
Some examples
The Alayi Development Union • Midwest level
of North America – two parents families -
(Aduna)(Mrs. Lovina Iheke, $700.00
a real Estate Manageress is – Single parent families
a member at both the and singles - $500.00
National and Midwest
levels) • Project – micro
• At the national level- lending to Alayi
– two parents families - women residing in
$1000.00 the village.
– Single parent families
and singles - $500.00
• Project – building a
civic center
Umuogiri Women‟s Meeting (Mrs.
Elizabeth Agu, residing in California is a member)
• Project – building houses for widows
Elizabeth:
• RN
• Works two jobs
• Wife, mother, daughter, sister
• She supports her husband in paying bills and child
care related fees, she supports her brothers,
sisters and in-laws and she also contributes
towards the project her Home association is doing.
Colette Okoronkwo – Northern
Ireland
• Irish woman married to an Igbo man
• Goes home every 2 years. On her first visit,
she saw that the village kids brushed their
mouths with “chewing sticks”, went to school
bare feet, carried their books in “nylon bags”
• Sends home – school bags, exercise books,
pencils, pens, toothpastes, brushes and
other supplies
Conclusion
From my study:
• The presence and achievement of the Igbo women in Nigeria
are more pronounced because they are more involved in
International businesses and in the Government as
Politicians, Chief Executives Officers and Managers of
Multinational Companies and Banks etc.
• But their counterparts in the Diaspora due to their absence
from Nigeria and their involvement in the Home
Associations, contribute more at the local levels – family,
community and village levels
• These are also because those in Nigeria:
– Have more support network such as
• family members
• Maids and servants to help do the house chores
– Have less to pay for
• Those in the Diaspora
– Have limited support network and so they
have to do everything by themselves or pay
for it.
• Childcare
• Cleaning
• Cooking
– They pay for more such as taxes, insurances
etc.
• Though a lot has changed in the social
status of the Igbo woman, their roles have
not changed as they continue to be wives,
mothers, daughters and sisters and they
continue to play their traditional roles of
being their families‟ economists and
managers both in their natal communities
and communities of marriage.
The Igbo women do not just lie down and
bemoan themselves and their situations,
they have turned so many tragedies into
victories and are using globalization and
its agents as strong and positive tools
to advance the causes of the Igbo
nation and Nigeria as a whole.
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Interviews:
All interviews were done between Monday, July 6th, 2009 and Tuesday, July 14th, 2009. I will not
include all the people I interviewed or spoke but only those I have included their direct quotes:
Agu, Elizabeth, (Interviewed on Friday, July 10th) is from Umuogiri village in Ikeduru Imo State.
She also lives in California.
Ekwuribe, Maxwell, (interviewed on Wednesday, July 8th) is from Umuahia in Abia State of
Nigeria. He lives in Brentwood, California
Iheke, Abel Jr., (interviewed on Wednesday, July 8th) is from Ufu-ukwu Umuenyere, Alayi in
Bende Local Government Area of Abia State. He is staying with his daughter, Mrs. Glady
Maxwell Ekwuiribe and I stayed in their house. She helped me contact most of the Women I
spoke to.
Iheke, Lovina (Interviewed Tuesday, July 14th) is from Amankalu Alayi and married to
Umuenyere Alayi. She lives in Dallas Texas.
Okoronkwo, Colette, (Interviewed by telephone, Sunday, July 12th) lives in Northern Ireland.
Okoronkwo, Okorie (Interviewed by telephone, Sunday, July 12th) lives in Northern Ireland.
News paper:
The Daily Sun: The Sun online: all are accessed between July 6, 2009 and July 14, 2009
Adeyi, Clement “I started network marketing with N2,700, today I am a marketing
consultant : Mrs. Chinyere Ohiare”, The Sun Online, Monday, October 9, 2006
http://www.sunnewsonline.com/webpages/features/womenbusiness/2006/oct/09/womeninbus
iness-9-10-2006-001.htm 7/10/2009
Agbaje, Ola, “Mrs Uche Obi: Women need to work more hard to get
noticed” The Sun Online, Monday, January 2, 2006
http://www.sunnewsonline.com/webpages/features/womenbusiness/2006/ja
n/02/womeninbusiness-2-1-2006-001.htm 7/13/2009
Anosike, Peter, “Dr Sandra Ekwunife, CMD, Perfect Herbal Clinic: My life as a
Female herbalist”, The Sun Online, Monday, April 24, 2006
http://www.sunnewsonline.com/webpages/features/womenbusiness/2006/a
pr/24/womeninbusiness-24-04-2006-001.htm 7/11/2009
Oladeinde, Yetunde, “Fishers of new Leaders: Nkechi Nwanko” The Sun Online
Tuesday, March 14, 2006
http://www.sunnewsonline.com/webpages/features/womanofthesun/2006/mar/1
4/womanofthesun-14-03-2006-003.htm, 7/14/2009