MFA Special Study 2005
Mike Samson
“When in conversation I use any such terms
as…‟health‟ or „society' I assume that my listeners
understand more or less the same thing I do. But the
phrase „more or less‟ makes my point. Each word
means something slightly different to each person.”
Carl G. Jung, Man and His Symbols. Part 1, P28
This dissertation is a demonstration of community in action and I have
used its writing as a discursive journal, a derivative of the reflexive
journal (McAleese: 1999). It is comprised of a variety of Historio- and
Socio-critical investigations in an attempt to unpack some of the
rhetoric surrounding the word… community.
Many dictionaries define a community as: the people (or agents in a
more abstract sense) of one local or the locality itself, or as a group of
nations, or the public in general.
Its roots lie in the Latin words „munus‟, which means „gift‟ and „cum‟,
meaning together. A literal translation could be: to give among each
other.
Bearing in mind the internally fractured nature of the concept –
community, I felt justified in beginning this exploration with my own
subjective opinions. The following essay
emerged…
Why Community?
In Sociology the term community is among the most ambiguous. The word is used in a variety of
ways to describe a collective, sharing in common aims or experience. I hope to explore some of
these applications throughout this text and apply some of the findings in my practical work.
There seems to be a deep need for community, simply in an effort to live a more comfortable and
secure existence, but in contemporary society we have increasingly valued individuality and self-
sustenance, ignoring and losing in many cases the ability to participate in and enjoy a sense of
community. An awareness of this loss, and an attempt to reawaken it may be at the root of many
individuals choosing to relocate to a rural setting where it is perceived an immediate and physical
community ideal is still in existence. This desire may also account in part for the popularity of online
communities or the rise in adherence to ethnic or religious communities.
However defined the term community generally holds to certain rules.
•The members of the community are a part of a larger entity.
•The members have a common aim or purpose.
•The members communicate in some form.
These three factors remain true whether or not the „parts‟ of the whole inhabit a common geographic
location; are engaged in a similar profession; or form part of a biological or social structure. Each part
may have a different character and motivation or may possess unique abilities but they are
accountable to the whole for their membership of the given community.
We read headlines that tell of the breakdown of our communities; see articles encouraging us to
become active members of community focus groups; read emails asking us to join online
communities; hear news reports about unrest in particular ethnic communities and read research
relevant to our professional community. Biologists cultivate germ communities and Politicians
espouse the virtues of establishing a consciousness of the Global Community.
The theory of the traditional, communal community is in constant evolution, and in its place we
seem to be filling a needful human condition for community through social and workplace
networks, and the web-based community structure.
We can juxtapose this need to commune with our desire for individuality. We tend to think of
ourselves as self-reliant, but in reality are we? It is not true to say that membership of a community
is the opposite of individuality, indeed individuality is necessary for a healthy community to
develop, each member valued for their particular character and talents. It is however a fact that an
over-emphasis on our self-reliance can make us resentful of the need to engage in community
The media panders to this individuality in their efforts to sell the commodities of the retail sector.
We are given an overwhelming choice and range of products many of which are aimed at our
desire to be „unique‟, (because „we‟re worth it‟). Ironically the logistics of providing us with this
choice provides a negative impact on many aspects of existing communities. Global food transport
is a contributing factor to environmental pollution, as are the creation of „improved‟ road links that
may require routing through existing physical communities. In addition the sourcing of our produce
through the markets of the developing world have resulted in the exploitation of many of the
farmers and communities of developing countries. Our awareness of this can be seen in the
expansion of the „Fair-Trade‟ brands of produce on the supermarket shelf. An additional negative
effect resulting from the multi-national food distributor has been their effect on small community-
based retailers, a fact well documented in recent times.
It has been suggested by various thinkers that once we satisfy the lower order needs of security,
food, shelter, warmth (Maslow:1998) we then progress to satiate our higher level needs of purpose,
meaning and self-actualisation. It would often seem however that as a Society we have an
insatiable desire for accumulating these lower order needs and unfortunately we are then caught in
a cycle where we are required to work harder in order to service those desires, leaving no time for
the development of higher order activities.
It is said, that if man desires the acquisition of material goods or wealth above freedom, he will
eventually lose that also. However, we have come to rely on the services provided by the retail
sector and this, in similarity with the faceless neighbour in our global community can be a fact we
take for granted, but how many of us still have the skills required to hunt and gather our own
produce. If we attempt to condition ourselves into accepting the degree to which we actually need
the support mechanisms of our communities we may begin to value the other members and realise
our responsibilities more fully within that context.
It could also be useful to convince ourselves that participation in a community structure does not in
some way diminish our particular character or individual talents; in the same way as the value of our
hands is not diminished by their connection to our arms. We simply are accountable to each other.
Examples of this accountability may include elements as diverse as taxes, dress code, attendance
at particular institutions or meetings, conformity to social norms or established ethics and obedience
to rules or legal structures.
In a healthy community the individual members gain affirmation from each other and the whole gets
stronger as a result. The focus moves from what do I need? To what can I give? We cannot own
community. In our desperate attempt for self-sufficiency we grab as many commodities as we can
and store them away for use on a future occasion that seldom arrives. We gain little value from our
things and become more isolated from the responsibility of interacting with those around us. It
remains impossible for us to take possession of community; the more we grasp at it, the more
fragmented it becomes.
I accessed „Google‟ and other online dictionaries and
encyclopaedia, they produced definitions of community that
encompassed - local, ethnic, cultural, religious, possessive,
international, common interest, professional, biological,
organic, ecological and environmental, web-based, virtual,
political, co-operative, competitive, formal and informal. Then I
found a popular sociology textbook, and read the chapters on
community.
Additionally, I felt that the approach of writing about
community from my single viewpoint seemed incongruous
with the meaning of the word community itself, so I decided to
utilise members of my community and ask some friends.
Firstly, I visited our village hotel and met with a Doctor of
Philosophy who had given up his academic career to work as
a coordinator for a rural community food co-op. The following
is a transcript of our conversation…
“Can I get you a drink E.?”
“Pint of Guinness extra cold, please Mike”.
“So you studied philosophy?”
“Political Philosophy looking in particular at triggers of community action. I decided to focus on this
aspect for my PHD and stayed on for a year or so beyond that as part of a further research project.”
“How did you become involved in the Food Co-op? Crisps?”
“Salt and vinegar please. Well…I‟d been a student for nearly a decade and was at a stage where I
was beginning to feel that there should be a little less conversation and a little more action.” – takes a
swig of the Guinness and smiles.
“OK, but I‟m just fascinated that an academic like yourself is involved in a small part-time job in a
Community Centre in rural Aberdeenshire, are you not a bit over-qualified?”
“It seemed a fairly logical step to take. I put in to practice the theory used in my research and I get to
meet and work with some very interesting people.”
“I can see how it might be desirable to work for the benefit of the community you inhabit, but, without
wishing to cause offence, why not aim a little higher?”, I asked.
“None taken. I see an importance in interacting with people on a meaningful, everyday level, just
spending time conversing, listening and facilitating the requirements to fulfil a need. Not anything
earth shattering but we are in this life together and interacting with one another and trying to
encourage each other to exercise our capacity for sharing what we can, seems to me a worthwhile
activity. My round?”
The conversation moved on to issues of a spiritual nature (E. adheres to a Buddhist faith and I‟m a
Christian, we‟ve more in common than you‟d think), Then we became involved in a fairly animated
discussion with half a dozen regulars about the „footie‟ that afternoon. There were five Celtic
supporters and one Ranger‟s fan. Despite the fact that E. and I don‟t watch a great deal of football, we
felt it necessary to join in with what turned out to be a bit of light-hearted, „Mickey-taking‟ at the
expense of the Rangers fan whose team was convincingly beaten by Celtic that day. All was taken in
good humour and we wrapped the night up a pint or two later.
“Are you, J. and the kids free to come around for Dinner of Sunday”, I asked.
“That‟d be great. Would two-thirty be good for you guys?”
“Yeah, see you then.”
That was a good night, but I needed more than one insight into
community from someone who obviously had developed, what might be
termed a „social conscience‟.
The following week, standing in the canteen queue at work, I overheard
some teaching staff behind me discussing Society and Marxian
Sociology. I began chatting and they turned out to be Sociology
Lecturers. I asked them to tell me about their understanding of
community…
Their faces lit up and one said, “Ah, Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft”. We sat together during lunch.
Gesellschaft was defined as community motivated by shared interest between self-interested, isolated
individuals entering into a formalised agreement. Gemeinschaft, I discovered, was simply about
affectionate kinship or solidarity, which sounded a bit communist, but it also sounded the closest to what I
felt about community.
They gave me list of relevant literature I should consult and we resolved to set up an online discussion
over summer, exploring shared experience, inter-relational practice and other aspects of community and
society. Despite my best efforts to contact my fellow practitioners, my numerous emails are as yet
unanswered and our online-community remains an unrealised ideal.
As providence would have it, later that week I enjoyed a „face-to-face‟ discussion with a PHD student at
Gray‟s School of Art. Over a coffee we discussed Emmanuel Levinas‟s theories on „alterity‟ and our
perceptions of the „faceless other‟ in society. Perhaps this to some extent explains why it is so easy to
ignore emails. Where we have little or no explicit, personal responsibility, it becomes easy to find reasons
to avoid an active response.
However, most of us (unlike the sociology lecturers) can‟t escape community. Communing with another being, feeling
a common connection however tenuous the link. After all, statisticians believe we are at most, a mere seven steps
removed from every other human being on the globe. We need to utilise each opportunity of communion to the full,
building this into our daily activities.
A prime example of this can be found when looking at how we related to our childhood peer group, where we
„experimented‟ with thoughts and actions assessing response and tailoring future interactions accordingly. This inter-
relational practice, or lack of it, is at the root of our characters past, present and future and we are at risk of losing
our way if we decide to disregard, without consideration, the lessons taught by traditional communal wisdom, or our
schooldays and history books.
As part of a professional qualification through Aberdeen University, I had studied
some of the educational theory espoused by Carl Rogers, Donald Schon and
Abraham Maslow, and looked at ideas surrounding individual‟s experiences of
early years play and the effect of this on future attitudes to learning, sense of
security and general well-being. I decided to match this against my experience,
so I went back to school…
I walked up Reform Street in the city of Dundee towards the imposing structure of my old school. The pseudo-
classical façade implied a long history and unashamedly elitist ideology. The building was part of the fabric of the
city centre and lay adjacent to the D. C. Thomson building housing the city‟s journalists - one of the three J‟s
comprising Dundee‟s industrial heritage along with Jute and Jam. The industries here had evolved, but elements
of it still remained, it gave one a sense of connection with the past.
The playground was empty and I closed my fingers around the black, square railings, stepping onto the low wall. It
was late autumn and the leaves were falling. I remembered playground games, friends, fights, and exams.
Nostalgia can be very selective. I remember more of the interactions during breaks than I do of the tuition in the
classroom. The school was a physical manifestation of a virtual community, so to speak; it was private, and had
no geographical catchments. As a child this created issues, my school peer group was separated from my home
peer group, polarising my interactions with each, resulting in both lacking depth at times.
Membership of these dual communities proved useful on the days of „in-service‟ when the comprehensive school
kids would come down to the City Centre looking for fights with „posh‟ kids who were still in class. One of these
days returning from lunch, in my usual state of self-absorption, I found myself wandering unawares into the middle
of a mob surrounding the school gates. Just prior to the moment of being jumped on and pummelled into the
ground, a boy, ridiculously overly developed for his age, shouted, “Mike, I didn‟t know you went to school here. It‟s
OK guys, he‟s with me, let him through”. Like the Red Sea the mob parted and I strode confidently into the
playground. It‟s good to have friends.
My thoughts returned to more contemporary events and I thought about the school reunion that I had missed a
couple of years ago, and I felt guilty for not attending. I‟m not yet sure about being confronted fully with my
memories of school. I stepped down from the railings and walked around the playground to find a gap between
two of the railings, not wide enough for me now, but it was back then, a point of egress then but no longer a point
of access. I had grown.
School had emphasised the differences in society, „us‟ in „here‟ and „them‟ out „there‟. The encouragement was to
enter necessary, gainful employment and become an upstanding benefactor with a philanthropic attitude towards
the community – Why the role of condescension? Why not a simple protagonist in the sustenance of community?
I re-read William Golding‟s „Lord of the Flies‟ recently and saw the novel as an
anthropological study similar to those embarked on by „sociologists‟ during
the early 19th Century. It charts the degeneration of a society comprised of two
distinct communities. It results in the death of one of the central characters,
“Piggy”, who symbolises the „outsider‟, overweight, bespectacled, different.
Here is a synopsis of the symbolism as explained by the author during a
newspaper interview I found transcribed on the web.
“The theme is an attempt to trace the defects in society back to the defects within human nature. The moral is that
the shape of a society must depend on the ethical nature of the individual and not on any political system however
apparently logical or respectable. The whole book is symbolic in nature except the rescue in the end where adult
life appears, dignified and capable, but in reality enmeshed in the same evil as the symbolic life of the children on
the island. The officer, having interrupted a manhunt, prepares to take the children off the island in a cruiser,
which will presently be hunting its enemy in the same implacable way. And who will rescue the adult and his
cruiser?”
I travelled back to Aberdeen and returned to work. The post I‟ve held for five
years is entitled, Art and Design Lecturer – Community and Lifelong Learning. I
felt that it might prove useful to further reflect on my own experiences… I
decided initially to ask some of the students in the „Community‟ classes what
their experiences of community were…
I wanted a visceral reaction, one that reflected the everyday observations of the individual. One of the most telling
results I gleaned from the questionnaire was the moment I passed copies to the students. The majority seemed to
„waken up‟, responding with smiles and positive comments and the others groaned. I had expected at best looks of
blankness, but I received strong responses It seemed that the subject of community was an emotive one. (I have
included copies of a selection of questionnaires in the „supplementary material‟).
All of the students asked, felt that they had experienced community in their lifetime. Eighty percent felt that their
experience of community was current or ongoing. Eighty percent also felt part of a global community and were
prepared to define at least two rights or responsibilities they felt were important to them in that role. Finally, sixty
percent felt that their experiences of community were mainly positive and additionally, expressed a personal need to
be part of a community.
I don‟t wish to analyse the results too deeply, as with most questionnaires it was simply designed to take a snapshot of
opinion.
I reflected on my experience of community in my teaching practice…
I work in the community. What does that mean? I teach painting and drawing in public buildings to people who live in
various locations across the North-East of Scotland. The emphasis is often as much on the social interaction between
class members as it is on the creative elements, but often it seems a community of sorts is realised.
The classes are not primarily Community Classes – i.e. classes in an existing local community. More often than not
members are not from the same geographical location, or even if they are, the local inhabitants are lacking any
awareness of joint membership of a community. It would be more accurate to define them as classes that facilitate a
framework for community. The members have the common aim of meeting each week around the objective of learning
about the subject taught, and in so doing develop social links. (Whetton, Cameron and Woods: 1994). Student
feedback has also led me to believe that there are positive effects to the general state of health and well being among
class members.
The members are part of the larger entity, the class itself; and beyond that the network of other „community‟ classes
taught throughout the region. They are brought together by a shared interest. This initially acts as a bridging network
where any social or personal differences the individuals have can be addressed and subsequently the social activity
leads to the creation of bonding networks. The individuals maintain and expand the notion of community beyond the
confines of the class and out into society, absorbing new members into their personal, social community. The
members may themselves be absorbed by other networks with similar aims perhaps a distance learning course or
online forum and from that, cross-fertilisation and growth may occur. This example operates much in the same way
a germ community may incorporate disparate organisms and mutate becoming an increasingly complex hybrid, able
to expand beyond its immediate environment and become a hardier perennial.
From this reflection I came to the conclusion that…
Healthy communities should remain dynamic taking on a fluid and organic form, yet retaining elements of its initial
aims, giving a sense of purpose and continuity to its members.
This being said, communities, where the members fail to communicate cease to exist as functioning communities at
all. Real communities whatever forms they take seem necessary for our development intellectually and socially, but
if we undervalue the need for accountability in our actions and transparency in our communications within these
communities, they become lifeless and ultimately fail to fulfil the needs for which they were initiated.
I studied some of the books the sociology lecturers had recommended in an
attempt to gain an historical overview of where my concerns fell within the
larger context.
I‟ll try to cover the ground briefly aided by the following mind map…
It begins in the early 19th Century when „the science of man‟ emerged, or anthropology as we know it.
Physical anthropology, on the one hand, dealt with forms and proto-forms of the species, and Social,
looked primarily at ethnology and the study of cultural traditions, mainly in Africa and Asia. The term
„culture‟, dealt with the non-biological, aspects of what was termed „civilisation‟. The name to remember
here is Edward Tylor and his book – “Primitive Culture”, written in 1871, dealing with the cultural
foundations of man‟s behaviour and thought in society; sub-divided into economics, class, polity and the
one we‟re concerned with; community.
Here „sociology‟ came into being. The word is credited to Auguste Comte who used it to refer to an all-
encompassing science of society. Other „Sociologists‟ of this period defined the discipline as „the
analysis of social problems and their consequences‟. These included notably Frederic Le Play, Alexis de
Tocqueville and the man who sought to define Community and Society; Ferdinand Tonnies (Tonnies:
2003). He saw the major problems in the west as stemming from the transition between communal
societies in the Middle Ages to an individualistic, impersonal society in modern times. In general terms
this seemed to be the view of other thinkers of the time including Max Weber, Georg Simmel and Emile
Durkheim. Weber further narrowed the definition of community to emphasise the importance of the
„nature of interaction‟ and why we do it. On the one hand it can be emotional and traditional, on the
other, purpose-led and rational (“value-reasoning”). He saw social action as consisting of meaningful
behaviour in a meaningful universe and community valued as an end in itself rather than „goal-centred‟.
This suggests that social change has its catalyst in the ways people think, in particular relating to their
„worldview‟.
Weber‟s most famous work is titled „The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism‟, first published in
1905. Here he argues that capitalism did not come about through economic factors alone but also due
to the nature of concepts of „worldly success‟ and „divine election‟, within Calvinism (Turner:1998).
Inadvertently, this set in place the foundation for wealth accumulation, one of the factors of modernity.
Whether or not this concept has its grounds in Weber‟s negativity towards the Catholic Church remains
an interesting theory. Beyond that, Weber predicts a means/ends rationalisation of society at large and
ultimately the growth of bureaucracy – „the more efficient the rational organisation the more
„dehumanising‟ the effect‟. Weber acknowledges that within capitalism there is still some freedom for
individuality and goes on to condemn Marxian Socialism for its ability to crush individualism completely.
Freedom and individuality are recognised as of „absolute‟ value in Weber‟s writings.
An example, (positive or otherwise) relating the value of freedom can be found in the accounts of the Jewish
Zealot community of Masada. Who on finding themselves under threat of attack and enslavement by the State
of Rome, decided under besiegement, to appoint individuals from within their community to kill the other
members. Lots were cast and ten members were given the task of ending the lives of the others. Finally, a
further lot was cast, and one of the ten was elected to kill the remaining nine and ultimately himself. Eventually
after two years, when the Roman garrison ultimately broke the siege, only a handful of women and children
were found hiding in a cave.
So valued was their right to freedom, the members of the community at Masada were willing to die rather than
compromise the integrity of their ideals.
Throughout the texts relating to community numerous factors were cited as causes for the generation of
community the main themes related to political, ethnic, religious, and natural (or organic) issues. In order to give
an overview of some of these factors, I want to spend a moment looking at a few of the more fascinating
examples.
The nation of Israel was unseated from its assumed country of residence by the Romans some 2000 years ago
when it was decided that it should be known as Palestine. In having no country of their own, per se, they
travelled the world setting up communities in various countries bringing with them the core elements of their
culture: their language and religion. Even in relation to food they were self-sustaining, setting up kosher food
shops wherever they went. The Jewish nation‟s natural state was one of travelling the globe, successfully
adapting a locality to suit the aims and objectives of their community. In 1948 Israel was designated its own
country and no longer was considered as a „wandering people‟. The Palestinians ironically became the
refugees, eventually emerging through the P.L.O into a nation state in 1994. As is all too obvious, the Israeli
and Palestinian governments have a long way to go before they would consider agreeing with the widely held
opinion, “We live in a Global Community.”
This scattering of peoples, or Diaspora as experienced by the Jewish community, is exampled nearer home
by the scattering of the British people throughout the world (albeit on a slightly less dramatic scale).
Examples of this include the Highland clearances during the late nineteenth century. These clearances were
imposed on the highlanders by the landowners forcing many to move to the coasts where new communities
were established around fishing. This is up to a point still obvious today by the numerous villages and towns
scattered around the coasts of Scotland to whom fishing is still a major area of economic activity. (This too
could be said to be in a state of evolution, due to legislation from the European Union).
Other notable emigrations from the British Isles include the effects of the 19th Century Irish potato famine
resulting in a large number of Irish nationals setting up communities on the eastern seaboard of the US.
Additionally the movement of convicts from the U.K. to Australia, the establishing of the „British Empire‟, and
not to mention, the growth of the „ex-pat‟ communities around the globe, have ensured that the English
language and culture widely proliferate.
There are examples of communities who have chosen to adapt their culture to moving location on an
ongoing basis. Currently, media attention is focussed on one of the North African tribes, the Toureg of the
Sahel region of Africa. The increase of organised farming and the expansion of the Sahara desert have, over
the past few decades put pressure on these nomadic herdsmen. This combined with a severe drought and
locust infestation on a biblical scale, has led to them becoming part of the subject of an appeal through the
Disasters Emergency Committee.
Until they were forced by the „civilised white-man‟ to change their traditional patterns of movement based
around the feeding habits of the buffalo the North-American Indian had established a thriving, nomadic
community. The buffalo gave the Indian their commodities, food, clothing and shelter from the carcass and
hide and even weapons from the bones and sinews, providing a means for an intricate and well-established
culture.
A final example of a fluid community is that of the „Acadian people‟, of French origin, who after getting used
to adapting to their new country and customs in the northeast of Canada, were shouldered out by incomers
from the U.K., who decided that „Nova Scotia‟ was the place they wanted to re-locate. The French were
exiled to the American states of Louisiana and Mississippi, during the 18th Century. Many French names,
customs, religious festivals, culture and food provide evidence of the history of this community which has
become richer by assimilating its surroundings alongside a strong sense of national identity. The word
„Cajun‟, describing these peoples, and in particular their cooking, is derived from the word Acadian.
Food can be a particularly good form of evidence as to how cultures are transferred around the world. This
can produce interesting hybrids as in the case of the „Cajun‟ people, but it can also result in the phenomena
we know in contemporary society as „le Big Mac.
The rationalisation spoken about by Weber has grown exponentially throughout the 20th Century and filters
into the spheres of traditional morality and culture not only in the west but also widely throughout the
developing world. Mass-democracy, large-scale commercialisation and a rise in affluence, and expectations
relating to standards of living, are symptomatic of the „drip feed‟ of capitalist ideologies throughout the
world, perpetuated through media and migration. A brief note on the media would be better supported
through a synopsis of some of the theories of Theodore Adorno (Adorno:1991), who argued that capitalism
feeds people with the products of a 'culture industry' (mass-media) to keep them passively satisfied and
politically apathetic. Adorno stressed the importance of the role of culture in securing the „status quo‟ within
Society. He suggested that „culture industries‟ would be better replaced by more 'difficult' and critical art
forms that might lead people to actually question social life. False needs are cultivated by these so-called
culture industries. These are needs which can be both created and satisfied by the capitalist system, and
which replace people's 'true' needs of freedom, expression and creativity. He states that popular media and
music products are characterised by standardisation. They are basically formulaic and similar and through
a process of pseudo-individualisation incidental differences are synthesised that make each item seem
distinctive.
In the latter half of the 20th Century, concepts, talking of a cyclical growth and the gradual degeneration of
society, have emerged to present the antithesis to Weber‟s rationalisation argument. In particular,
throughout the 20th Century, elements of Existentialism, with its emphasis on the subjectivity of man‟s
character, and the paradoxical relationships between individuals, have resonated with a populace looking
for meaning in a fractured society, where the debate surrounding the closure of metaphysical discourse,
means that the lessons of the traditional meta-narratives are in part overlooked.
One thinker, whose work was popular with the existentialist Jean Paul Sartre, was the philosopher
Emmanuel Levinas. Influenced by the tutorage of Edmund Husserl, in particular with his theories on
phenomenology, he wrote a book entitled „Existence and the Existents‟ (Levinas:2001) from which the
„existentialists derived their name. It was mainly during the nineteen-fifties that Levinas began to work out
a philosophy of ethics that sought to analyse the „face-to-face‟ relation of „the Self‟, with the Other. A
definitive explanation of this is to be found in his modestly titled work, Totality and Infinity (Levinas:1999).
This theory is perhaps why there has been a movement in recent times towards an art that embraces a
Relational or Social aesthetic. In his book „Relational Aesthetics‟ (2002), Nicolas Bourriard argues that
since the early nineteen- nineties there has been a rise in the popularity of art with a relational aesthetic,
as seen in the work of Artists such as Rikrit Tyrivania, or Mich Febre-Lewin. This can be seen as part of a
re-stitching of a world torn apart by Capitalism. The artist takes on the role of a tour-guide taking the
viewer out from behind the mediator of the television screen and back into the community to rediscover its
roots and develop an inter-relational practice once more.
I wanted to know what was being said currently in relation to community. To
this end I decided to throw caution to the wind ignoring Adorno‟s warnings
about the media. I listened to Radio 4 as much as I could, watched 24-hour
news stations on the television and checked news on the web, also
investigating a few political forums online. I experienced community through
the media.
I discovered that most politicians use the word Community with a capital „C‟,
asserting their „belief’ or ‘faith’ in the Global Community as the way forward. I
thought for a while about what it meant to me to be a member of the Global
Community. I barely felt part of my local community, so I was a bit sceptical…
“The fundamental challenge facing us today is one of connection. We can talk about
global citizenship, but if people have little idea about the world in which they will
become citizens, it is very difficult to turn the concept of citizenship into anything
meaningful.”
Jon Snow, Broadcaster,
ITN at the Developing Global Citizens' Conference 2000
The „Global Community‟ can often be used as a tool for distancing ourselves from responsibility. In real terms,
we are part of a global community; we have responsibility for how we act inasmuch as it may impact on our
global environment, or on the culture, health or livelihood of an individual on another continent.
We can approach this issue somewhere between two extremes.
• Pathological worry about every move we make effecting cataclysmic change somewhere else on the planet,
as espoused by certain radical environmentalists.
• Using the distance of the other members of the community (and consequently the absence and lack of direct
communication) to offset any feelings of guilt for negative behaviours we may find ourselves engaged in.
The problem results from a lack of direct communication and without that factor healthy community does not
exist. That is not to say that the benefits of improved communication through cheap travel, commercial
development and the Internet haven‟t gone some way to deepening our awareness of our global
responsibilities, but it is a point we can too easily ignore in our self-indulgence.
Recent news reports focus on the rise in fundamentalism in ethnic and religious groups. Is it possible that
people feel this lack of accountability in everyday life and seek it in the nearest and most accessible community
structures with whom they have contact? That may be a local art class or it may be the local mosque or church.
The same can be said for gang culture. There is an immediate community for young people; it provides them
with aims, identity and an environment where the ability to communicate is paramount. They become part of a
larger entity whether for good or ill.
Among the myriad of „New Age‟ sites that invariably pop-up, when the phrase Global Community is typed
into a search engine, I found an interesting site relating to an organisation known as the International
Federation of Settlements. The information on the organisation stated that the „Settlement movement‟ has
a history of working to strengthen local communities. The movement started with the development of
Settlements in large cities in the United Kingdom and the United States in the late 19th century. The key
idea was that people concerned about social issues could only be effective in working for improvements if
they have direct experience with the existing problems, by living among people in need and 'settling' into
their neighbourhoods. The International Federation was formed in 1926. In the late 1980s members
decided that there was a real need for an international organisation that could actively support the
international activities of local community organisations in a world of changing and sometimes
disappearing barriers and boundaries. Members include local organisations, ranging from small self-help
groups to large agencies, active across the full range of social, economic, cultural, educational and
environmental needs in their communities. From their web site they list their activities as:
“Developing international co-operation projects; providing practical advice and information; organising
training and exchanges; helping to assess needs and achievements; representing members' interests and
concerns.”
IFS has a wide network of international, national and local contacts and consultative status with the United
Nations and the Council of Europe.
I was also quite encouraged by the approach of a paper I found produced by the Scottish Executive on
Community-based Learning that began with the phrase “Think Global – Act Local”. It was an elaborate
document that seemed to cover all the right ground using words like – empowerment; participation;
inclusion; self-determination; partnership. Most of the document read like a „positive thinking‟ or self-help
book, but there were also more practical exemplars and some down-to-earth suggestions on the
cultivation of a stance on Global Community within the learning environment.
Then I did a little more research into how the theory of „Global
Community‟ was used by the politicians…
" Unless we act together as a Global Community we
are less likely to be able to deal with problems "
Tony Blair
One in five of the world's population - 1.2 billion people
- live in abject poverty, without adequate food, water,
sanitation, healthcare or education for their children.
And yet this is a time of a growing abundance of
knowledge, technology and capital, which is generating
growing wealth and material plenty...if we do not do
better in reducing inequality it will lead to growing
conflict, refugee movements, environmental
degradation, disease and natural disasters… we need
to work together to promote public understanding of
Globalisation - both its risks and its benefits.
George Foulkes MP
"We in Scotland will not be all that we can be unless we
lift our eyes to the horizon and look beyond our own set
of circumstances.... There is injustice internationally
which those of us who believe in a fairer distribution of
power, wealth and opportunity cannot and will not
accept. Ultimately we are all interdependent, we share
the same planet and the actions of one will matter to
others"
Jack McConnell - Johannesburg Summit 2002
In addition to the media coverage, I received a lot of information from a friend involved in local council
activities, giving me an insight into how the theory of community was viewed in local politics. There were
details of initiatives, one in particular caught my attention it was called „A Virtuous Circle‟. It was a research
project for exploring the role of volunteering as a means to inclusion through participation. It was conducted
in order to investigate the methodology required to enhance volunteering activities for people with extra
support needs. Other positive examples of encouraging this sense of community, were found in the
„Community of the year award, as sponsored by Calor Gas. (communityoftheyear.org.uk – see
supplementary material). In some texts there were memorable catchphrases; “Think into a new way of
acting: Act into a new way of Thinking” (Scottish Communities Foundation website), which seemed to hark
back to the notion of „social change through how we think‟, as defined by Durkheim, Simmell and Weber.
The documentation often repeated phrases such as „…the importance of a sense of Community in the
generation of social capital…‟. The term „social capital‟ I discovered is understood to mean the skills,
resources, networks, opportunities, confidence and motivation, which characterise empowered communities.
I began to feel a little uneasier when a piece of local council documentation stated we could „… create a
sense of Community if we all attended the ballot box…‟ In this particular document there were over sixty
typed pages disseminating what Community meant and how it was going to be achieved and whom I should
contact if I wanted to know more about the development strategy my government and council had decided to
employ. Towards the end of the documents I found a small paragraph telling me that people could be
involved in Community if they contacted their local Councillor. I remember a quote from one of the sociology
books stating that ‟community is the people, not the process‟ and I felt a little disillusioned about the political
approach to community.
Then the doorbell rang. It was Jenny, Bert the builder‟s
wife from down the road. She had a punnet of
strawberries she had just picked for my wife and me.
That seemed more like community. So we had a cup of
tea and I didn‟t feel so bad.
In an effort to reach a hypothesis somewhere between
Weber‟s de-humanising Capitalist Rationalisation and the
Existentialist‟s absolute personal subjectivity I began to
explore a process of confession, forgiveness and
collaboration, with emphasis on individuality in a
discursive context…
On re-reading the text of Arthur Miller‟s play „The Crucible‟, I found it to be a useful text to briefly
consider in a further step of unpacking the term Community.
In its entirety, the play can be seen as symbolic of the paranoia surrounding communism, which
pervaded America in the 1950s. Several parallels exist between the House of Un-American Activities
Committee‟s rooting out of suspected communists during this time and the seventeenth-century witch-
hunt depicted in The Crucible, including the narrow-mindedness, excessive zeal and disregard for the
individuals that characterize the government‟s effort to stamp out a perceived social ill. Further, as
with the alleged witches of Salem, suspected Communists were encouraged to confess their crimes
and to “name names,” identifying others sympathetic to their radical cause. Some have criticized Miller
for oversimplifying matters, in that while there were (as far as we know) no actual witches in Salem,
there were certainly Communists in 1950s America. However, one can argue that Miller‟s concern in
The Crucible is not with whether the accused actually are witches, but rather with the unwillingness of
the court officials to believe that they are not. In light of McCarthyist excesses, which wronged many
innocents, this parallel was felt strongly in Miller‟s own time. Now we have no communist threat, must
we find some other to fill its place?
In contemporary society it doesn‟t take us too long to find that perhaps we don‟t learn by our mistakes
until we have no other option, and that the meanings expressed in „The Crucible‟ are of imminent
relevance.
As with „Lord of the Flies‟, we encounter the need of society to identify and persecute those who are
seen as being different. Is it the case that as individuals we are unable to face up to the
responsibilities of our weaknesses and by denouncing the „witch‟ in our midst we appear to be
comparatively innocent? Do we need to offload our malcontent onto a party in whom we perceive
guilt? Or would we be better advised to restrain judgement and instead embark on an honest
reflection and discursive examination of the facts. I once remember hearing a piece of received
wisdom that mentions a „speck‟ and a „plank‟…
“Burn in hell you Bastards!” reads the Headline on the front page of the tabloid, with the pictures of
London‟s, suspected July terrorists. We, as reflected or perhaps directed, by our media, are quick to point
the finger and ask the questions later. We need the dialogue, we need to find out really who is to blame,
and re-evaluate the nature of our primary concern, do we want to establish blame or reach a place of
relative understanding where we can exercise our right to individuality and feel secure enough to be
tolerant of opposing views. Is it possible to talk with people who do not necessarily agree with us and
actually hear them, discuss ideas and let them take an honest attempt at poking a hole in our worldview?
In general, I would not favour discussion with a lone terrorist or splinter group intent on the destruction of
particular individuals or communities, this could result in an undermining of the foundations of security
necessary for the existence of community, but by reacting with violence against the violator we are in
danger of perpetuating the very evil we are trying to purge. It needs to be recognised that behind the
misguided act of violence is often a legitimate concern in need of open debate.
If we are to further accept William Golding‟s analysis that society is not changed by some clever rational,
or political system, but in fact by the ethics of the individual, it is down to you and me to exercise this. In
this sense I am in agreement with Max Weber in his deductions that Freedom and Individualism are
absolute values to be defended at all costs, but I would also assert that collaboration in the form of active,
personal communities, is another of these absolute values. Perhaps the hypothesis between Weber‟s de-
humanising Capitalist Rationalisation and the Existentialist‟s absolute personal subjectivity can be found
in a process of confession, forgiveness and collaboration, conducted on a personal level within a
framework of honest reflection and discussion.
I would like to take advantage of this opportunity to exercise my
idealism. Consider, if you will an alternative reality for a
moment…
“Here on CNN we bring you the latest update in today‟s horrifying terrorist attacks which include the
destruction of the „World Trade Center and the deaths of several thousand innocent people”.
“Yes Diane, and we can now go live to the Oval Office where the president has just convened a special
press conference”.
“People of America. I first want to say that my prayers go out to those who have been affected by today‟s
atrocities and I would encourage all Americans to be strong and help those around you who are in pain.
This is our time of mourning for our loved ones who have lost their lives. Additionally, I can give my
absolute assurance that we will do our best to find the networks behind these deplorable acts and ensure
that nothing like this ever occurs in the future of humanity. I call upon those responsible to meet with me
openly and discuss the cessation of hostilities. I personally will look these individuals in the eye and tell
them - Together we can work to avoid any nation having to face the pain we are experiencing. For our part
- America forgives you”.
This is obviously not going to happen and while the above fantasy may be an interesting one it may only
serve to condone terrorist violence. However, the desire to understand the motivations of „the Other‟ in any
circumstances should be seen as a primary and necessary action in the breaking of the cycle of violent
action and reaction. This stance is subject to the willingness of both parties to lay aside what might be
determined as a „hierarchy of power‟ that exists in any discourse. The stronger party in this hierarchy is
usually determined in „capitalist‟ societies, as the one with the dominant economy It requires the sacrifice
of the right of this dominant party to react negatively to a provocation, developing a positive stance of
empathy, and in that act, to become a symbolic „scapegoat‟ for the past „sins‟ of that particular cycle. It
also requires the weaker party, to exercise empathy towards the stronger, accepting the offering of
forgiveness with „good grace‟. The process could be termed „a dialectic of conscience‟.
I looked into the term „scapegoat‟ and found its origins lie in the religious traditions in Judaism, where annually, the
high priest confessed the sins of the community while laying hands on an unblemished lamb or yearling goat. The
animal was, as part of a more elaborate symbolic ritual, cast into the wilderness along with the sins of the
community. This exercise acted as a genuine catharsis for the Jewish people and the ideology associated with it
continues into the Christian faith with the death and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth. A common manifestation of
confession is still practised widely in the Catholic faith, but how many of us still have a way of exorcising the
wrongs we have done and the wrongs done to us? Presuming the act of sacrifice and forgiveness is a desirable
and necessary function for the sustaining of a healthy community, a concerted effort to „kill-off‟ the current „blame-
culture‟ and replace it with one of mediation and humility could seem a positive step to take.
What of people who reject communities or feel alienated or exiled? On many occasions this phenomena may be
of their own making as allegorised in Mary Shelley‟s story of Frankenstein and his monster. As Sartre stated, there
is no such thing as a given „human-nature‟ determining how we act and behave, on the contrary, our acts and
choices make up our identity. Sartre argues, „man exists first of all, then defines himself afterwards‟.
Starting from the point of analysing the internal fracturing of the term community, we began to build a picture of
community as influenced by the spirit of capitalism and attempt to understand how our needs and attitudes were
influenced by the quality of our interactions. During the journey individuals and groups were introduced, who
collectively formed part of a personal community, and the positive and sometimes negative effects of our reliance
on others in the community setting were experienced. Abraham Maslow gave an exposition of childhood
development, from which developed theories of social action, interaction and reaction, through the literary works
of William Golding and Arthur Miller. The „bigger picture‟ of sociology provided the backdrop to a historical
synopsis of particular communities, and from there we saw the roots of our current situation with Max Weber‟s
ideas of capitalist rationalisation. Levinas and the existentialists provided a breath of fresh-air before the
politicians with their slippery tongues assured us that they had community in hand.
Our outlook is less clear. It would seem from history that we often require a common enemy to unite against
before we are willing to lay aside our differences and truly experience community. Perhaps H.G. Wells „War of the
Worlds‟ is as pertinent an example as any in showing the bringing together of disparate groups to form one „global
community‟. The re-release of this film is timed well with the focus on Bush and Blair‟s „war on terror‟, an alien
invasion from out with the bounds of known society. Can‟t we find some other less hostile cause with which to
fuse our collective efforts? The environment? Global poverty? How about just talking to the person next door?
Despite its use as common currency, in my attempts to „un-pack‟ the
meanings of the term community, I have been unable to reveal a
clear and univocal understanding of the concept. However it has
been important to observe the diversity of shapes that community
has adapted to. The term carries a considerable ambiguity that
refers both to its formal definitions and its applications within a
discursive practice. Its strength seems to lie in the fluidity of its
meaning. Much in the same way as the inherent strength of a
community is found in its ability to evolve and adapt to its changing
circumstances.
Word count: 8553
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Thanks
Ian Wright
Phil Alder
The Community Art Students
The Sociology Lecturers
Ed, Jess, Bert and Jenny