www nccarf edu au

							Aagaard, T. and B. Greenwood, Eds. (1994). Suspended sediment transport and the
role of infragravity waves in a barred surf zone.

Abbott, I. A. N. and D. Le Maitre (2010). "Monitoring the impact of climate change on
biodiversity: The challenge of megadiverse Mediterranean climate ecosystems." Austral
Ecology 35(4): 406-422.
       The Mediterranean climate regions of Western Australia and South Africa are
       recognized as global hot spots of diversity. Both are threatened by climate
       changes that are projected to have significant impacts on the quantity and
       variability of rainfall and affect key ecosystem drivers (e.g. fire regimes). This
       poses significant challenges to monitoring programs designed to detect these
       impacts. Effective monitoring of the impact of climate change on biodiversity
       (rather than individual species) requires a cross-disciplinary, coordinated,
       focused and integrated approach. Ideally, this should involve a multidisciplinary
       team of specialists working to a common plan on the same set of plots. The
       contributions of ‗citizen scientists‘ are potentially useful if well managed.
       Biodiversity per se (across all kingdoms of life, and including the levels of the
       gene, population and community) should be monitored, especially key species
       interactions and processes. Forestcheck is an example of such a program which
       has been applied in forests in south-west Western Australia since 2001. In
       concert with measuring the direct impact of climate change on biodiversity and
       the indirect impact of factors that affect biodiversity (such as disease, invasive
       species, fire regime and habitat removal), there is a need for a proactive focus on
       creating, maintaining and monitoring resilience to climate change impacts in
       ecosystems. It is also necessary to monitor the effectiveness of management
       actions such as vegetation thinning, changes in fire regimes, species
       translocations and revegetation of farmland to link isolated protected areas in
       agricultural landscapes, remnant native vegetation in rangelands and extensive
       protected areas. A pluralist approach is recommended. This should include
       natural experiments, matched photographs where available, passive adaptive
       management, active adaptive management and traditional reductionist scientific
       investigation. The resultant synthesis of information from this range of sources is
       likely to be a predictive, robust and credible record of historical change.


Abuodha, P. A. O. and C. D. Woodroffe (2010). "Assessing vulnerability to sea-level rise
using a coastal sensitivity index: a case study from southeast Australia." Journal of
Coastal Conservation 14(3): 189.
       Many of the world's coasts appear vulnerable to the impacts of climate change
       and sea-level rise. This paper assesses the application of a coastal sensitivity
       index (CSI) to the Illawarra coast, a relatively well-studied shoreline in southeast
       Australia. Nine variables, namely (a) rock type, (b) coastal slope (c)
       geomorphology (d) barrier type (e) shoreline exposure (f) shoreline change (g)
       relative sea-level rise (h) mean wave height and (j) mean tide range, were
       adopted in calculation of the CSI (the square root of the product of the ranked
       variables divided by the number of variables). Two new variables, shoreline
      exposure and barrier type, were trialled in this analysis and the extent to which
      these increased the discriminatory power of the index was assessed. Four
      iterations of the CSI were undertaken using different combinations of ranked
      variables for each of 105 cells in a grid template, and the index values derived
      were displayed based on quartiles, indicating sections of coast with very high,
      high, moderate and low sensitivity. Increasing the number of variables increased
      the discriminatory power of the index, but the broad pattern and the rank order
      were very similar for each of the iterations. Rocky and cliffed sections of coast
      are least sensitive whereas sandy beaches backed by low plains or dunes record
      the highest sensitivity. It is difficult to determine shoreline change on this coast,
      because individual storms result in substantial erosion of beaches, but there are
      prolonged subsequent periods of accretion and foredune rebuilding.
      Consequently this variable is not a good indicator of shoreline sensitivity and the
      index is unlikely to provide a clear basis for forecasting future recession of
      beaches. The results of this study provide a framework for coastal managers and
      planners to prioritize efforts to enhance the resilience or consider adaptation
      measures in the coastal zone within a study region. Sensitivity of the coast if
      considered in conjunction with other social factors may be an input into broader
      assessments of the overall vulnerability of coasts and their
      communities.[PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]

Acer Wargon Chapman (1994). Tweed River Entrance Maintenance Dredging and
Associated Nourishment of Southern Gold Coast Beaches: Environmental Impact
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Ecology
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s44-s52.

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South Wales, Australia." Australian Journal of Ecology 14(4): 515-545.

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Protection Agency.

Alongi, D. (2008). "Mangrove forests: Resilience, protection from tsunamis, and
responses to global climate change." Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 76: 1-13.

Andrews, M. and WBM Oceanics Australia (1999). Currumbin and Tallebudgera Creeks
Entrance Dredging Study. Prepared for Qld Transport-Maritime Division, WBM
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Anonymous (2009). "Marine Biology; Study findings on marine biology are outlined in
reports from Griffith University." Ecology, Environment & Conservation: 494.
       According to recent research from Gold Coast, Australia, Very high rates of
       extinction are recorded in freshwater ecosystems, with coastally distributed
       species threatened by urban development, pollution and climate change.

Are, K., O. Tonu, et al. (2002). "Biophysical impacts of climate change on some
terrestrial ecosystems in Estonia." GeoJournal 57(3): 169.
       Climate warming due to the enhanced greenhouse effect is expected to have a
       significant impact on the natural environment and human activity in high latitudes.
       Because of its geography, wide coastal areas, water resources, forests, and
       wetlands, the environment of Estonia is sensitive to climate change and sea level
       rise. Climate change scenarios for Estonia were generated using a Model for the
       Assessment of Greenhouse-gas Induced Climate Change (MAGICC) and a
       regional climate change database, Scenario Generator (SCENGEN). Three
       alternative emission scenarios were combined with data from 14 general
       circulation model experiments. The assessment results of forest resources using
       RipFor, a forest-soil-atmosphere model, show that climate warming would
       enhance forest growth in Estonia resulting in increased productivity (2-9%) of
       harvestable timber on highly productive sites. Nutrient mobility increases greatly
       and in highly permeable soils with stable vegetation, increased mobility may
       result in nutrient losses through leaching. The assessment results of water
       resources using the simple water balance model, WatBal, show that the runoff
       regime of Estonian rivers would equilibrate and the groundwater table would rise.
       Climate warming would not cause any particular problems with water supply but
       the groundwater quality may suffer from increased leaching. Due to milder
       winters and increased storminess, the destruction of coastal areas, inundation of
       wetlands and disappearance of rare plant communities in coastal areas would be
       the most damaging results of climate change. Most sandy beaches high in
       recreational value would disappear. However, isostatic uplift and settlements
       inland from the present coastline reduce the risk of socio-economic decline.

Arrow, K., B. Bolin, et al. (1995). "Economic growth, carrying capacity, and the
Environment." Science 268: 520-521.
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management." Ecological Management & Restoration 10: S79-S87.

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2007). "2006 Census QuickStats : Gold Coast (C)
(Local Government Area). ." Retrieved 17 May, 2008, from www.abs.gov.au.

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2007). "Regional Population Growth, Australia.
Estimated Resident Population, Statistical Local Areas, Queensland. Catalogue
3218.0." Retrieved 17 May, 2008, from www.abs.gov.au.

Australian Local Government Association (2005). Discussion paper: Increasing coastal
councils capacity to manage the natural resource Australian Local Government
Association.

Australian Local Government Association and A. Shephard (2005). Coastal Survey
Report A. L. G. Association.

Barr, D. A. (1974). "Progress in Costal Sand Dune Reclamation in Queensland,
Australia." Int. J. of Biometeorol 18: 137-141.

Barr, D. A. (1983). The Management of Coastal Sand Dunes in Queensland. 5th
Australian Conference on Coastal and ocean Engineering. Perth, Western Australia.

Barr, D. A. and J. B. McKenzie (1977). Progress in coastal sand dune stabilisation and
management experiments on South Stradbroke Island, Queensland. . 3rd Australian
Conference on Coastal and Ocean Engineering Institution of Engineers of Australia,
Sydney, National Conference

Barter, M. (2002). Shorebirds of the Yellow Sea: importance, threats and conservation
status. W. International. Australia.

Bates, B., Z. W. Kundzewicz, et al. (2008). Climate Change and Water. Technical Paper
of the IPCC. IPCC Secretariat, Geneva: 210.

Beard, N. J. (2001). An Investigation into Sediment Transport and Beach Dynamics at
Burleigh Beach, Gold Coast, Australia. Gold Coast, Griffith University: 150.

Beentjes, M. P., G. D. Carbines, et al. (2006). "Effects of beach erosion on abundance
and distribution of toheroa (Paphies ventricosa) at Bluecliffs Beach, Southland, New
Zealand." Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 40: 439-543.

Birkemeier, W. A. (1991). Coastal Engineering Research Center, US Army Corps of
Engineers Waterways Experiment Station. DELILAH Investigator's Report (draft). T.
Report. Vicksburg, MS: Partie II-5.
Birrell, C. L., L. J. McCook, et al. (2005). "Effects of algal turfs and sediment on coral
settlement." Marine Pollution Bulletin 51(1-4): 408-414.

Bjorndal, K. A., A. B. Bolten, et al. (1994). "Ingestion of marine debris by juvenile sea
turtles in coastal Florida habitats." Marine Pollution Bulletin 28(3): 154-158.

Blanch, S. (2008). "Steps to a sustainable Northern Australia." Ecological Management
& Restoration 9(2): 110-115.

Blomberg, G. D. (1982). "Coastal Amenities and Values: Some Pervasive Perceptions
Expressed in the Literature." Coastal Zone Management Journal 10(1-2): 53-78.

Boak, E. H., L. A. Jackson, et al. (2001). An Overview of Gold Coast Coastal
Management 1960 - 2001. Proceedings of the combined 15th Australasian Coastal and
Ocean Engineering and 8th Australasian Port and Harbour Conference, Gold Coast,
Australia.

Boak, L., McGrath, J. and Jackson, L.A. (2000). IENCE - A Case Study: The Northern
Gold Coast Beach Protection Strategy, International Coastal Management.

Boczar-Karakiewicz, B., A. Jackson, et al. (1993). Nearshore bars and shore zone
dynamics. 11th Australasian Conference on Coastal and Ocean Engineering,
Townsville, Queensland.

Boulton, A. J. (2000). "River Ecosystem Health Down Under: Assessing Ecological
Condition in Riverine Groundwater Zones in Australia." Ecosystem Health 6: 108-118.

Boyce, D. G., M. R. Lewis, et al. (2010). "Global phytoplankton decline over the past
century." Nature 466: 591-596.

Boyd, R., K. Ruming, et al. (2008). "Highstand transport of coastal sand to the deep
ocean: A case study from Fraser Island, southeast Australia." Geology 36: 15.

Brander, R. W. (1996). Field observations on the morphodynamics of rip currents.
Coastal Studies Unit, University of Sydney. Doctor of Philosophy thesis.

Brown, A. C. and A. McLachlan (1990). Ecology of sandy shores. Elsevier. Amsterdam.

Brown, A. C. and A. McLachlan (2002). "Sandy shore ecosystems and the threats
facing them: some predictions for the year 2025." Environmental Conservation 29(1):
62-77.

Brown, C. J., E. A. Fulton, et al. (2010). "Effects of climate-driven primary production
change on marine food webs: implications for fisheries and conservation." Global
Change Biology 16: 1194-1212.
Bruce, G. T., J. C. Peter, et al. (2006). "Discussion of: Cowell et al., 2006. Management
of Uncertainty in Predicting Climate-Change Impacts on Beaches, Journal of Coastal
Research, 22(1), 232-245/Reply to: Pilkey, O.H. and Cooper, A.G., 2006. Discussion of:
Cowell et al., 2006. Management of Uncertainty in Predicting Climate-Change Impacts
on Beaches, Journal of Coastal Research, 22(2), 232-245; Journal of Coastal
Research, 22(6) 1577-1579." Journal of Coastal Research 22(6): 1577.
      The main emphasis of their paper is on allowing greater freedom in quantifying
      some of the model input parameters that influence coastal response to sea-level
      rise (sediment supply, underlying geology, profile shape). 2006) provide two case
      studies of model application that demonstrate the effect of considering
      uncertainty in model input parameters (profile shape, geological outcrop, seawall
      presence, longshore sediment supply. Similarly, COOPER and NAVAS (2004)
      demonstrated in Dundrum Bay, Northern Ireland, that natural bathymetric change
      produced by sediment accumulation on the inner shelf modified the pattern of
      wave-sediment interactions across the surf zone. Isolating the effects of sea-level
      change from storms and other influences at decadal timescales has proved
      impossible, and no study has yet been able to demonstrate a conclusive link
      between sea-level change and coastal response at decadal timescales on an
      open ocean coast. Simple geometric models of shoreline response to sea-level
      change rely on a variety of assumptions regarding the relationship between wave
      energy, sediment grain size, and profile shape.

Bryant, E. A. (1990). "Sea level change and greenhouse: implications for wetlands."
Wetlands (Australia) 10: 7-14.

Bryce, S., P. Larcombe, et al. (2003). "Hydrodynamic and geomorphological controls on
suspended sediment transport in mangrove creek systems, a case study: Cocoa Creek,
Townsville, Australia." Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 56: 415-431.

Buckley, R. (2010). "Australia's Biodiversity and Climate Change." Austral Ecology
35(6): 712-712.
       This book is a solid summary of the current situation, by the Australian
       Government's Expert Advisory Group on Biodiversity and Climate Change. It
       includes lots of good information, is logically assembled and well presented. The
       book is published by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
       Organisation (CSIRO) and the Australian Government and has a ‗CSIRO report‘
       style, covering the bases broadly rather than homing in or hammering home a
       single point. It assembles research from a range of sources, but it is not in itself a
       research publication. It will be a useful reference for natural resource
       management coordinators, but it is too detailed to be read by practising
       politicians. It will be useful in teaching, though the introductory chapters should
       already be familiar to most biology students.

There are eight chapters with text boxes by additional contributors. Some of these are
      referenced, some not. There are no lists of text boxes or contributing authors,
      figures or tables. There is no summary, and the introduction reads as terms of
       reference. Chapters two and three provide an overview of Australian biodiversity,
       its origins and values. Figure 3.7 (p. 30) seems to have a printing error, with
       countries in sub-Saharan Africa shown using the same symbols and colours as
       those in central Asia.

Chapter four provides a condensed overview of climate change projections, using
      relatively complex graphical presentations. References are a little confusing. For
      example, figures 4.5 and 4.6 (p. 60) are based on a 2007 article in Science, with
      2008 data provided by two of the authors of that article but referenced to the
      American Association for the Advancement of Science. Similarly, the caption to
      figure 7.1 on p. 145 refers to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
      (IPCC) Third Assessment Report but actually references the Fourth.

For a number of climate change parameters, measured values in recent years exceed
       even the ‗worst-case‘ IPCC scenarios, so-called business as usual. This is
       entirely unsurprising, since business, in fact, continues to grow; and the $5 trillion
       ‗economic crisis‘ of the last couple of years was a barely detectable blip in its
       growth. The simplified comparison in figure 7.2 (p. 145), showing the IPCC's
       ‗runaway‘, ‗stabilization‘ and ‗recovery‘ scenarios mentions that ‗runaway‘ is in
       fact only ‗business as usual‘. It does not mention, however, that it is at least as
       likely, if not even more so, that economic growth and carbon emissions will
       continue to accelerate, so that climate change may well exceed even the
       ‗runaway‘ scenario.

Chapter five is perhaps the core of the book, reviewing research on actual and
      projected responses of Australian species and ecosystems to climate change.
      There are generalized discussions of lags, thresholds, feedback and nonlinearity;
      and examples drawn from a range of terrestrial and marine ecosystems.

Chapter six argues that current approaches to conservation policy, themselves relatively
      weak, will be even less effective under climate change. It suggests four
      now-standard adaptive responses: enhanced resilience, landscape connectivity,
      enlarged reserves and ex-situ conservation. Off-reserve conservation and
      ecosystem restoration are mentioned, but barely. The authors note the ‗historical
      dominance of production industries over conservation‘ (p. 140) but they argue for
      combining the two on the same landscape. Perhaps what they have in mind is
      the conversion of production forests and private farmland to conservation. But
      the forestry, fisheries and mining industries will interpret this phrase to mean that
      they should have access to protected areas.

Chapter seven provides a synthesis, largely through some multi-page fine-print tables.
      Table 7.1 (pp. 154–158) contrasts biodiversity management under ‗stationary‘
      and ‗changing‘ climates. Most strategies listed, however, would apply equally to
      both. Table 7.2 suggests funding mechanisms for conservation in different
      landscapes: amenity migrants, conservation stewardship payments, carbon
      offsets, industry levies and land buy-backs. These have been debated for
       decades: each is possible, but none is easy. Other suggestions are: an annual
       national forum; a national biodiversity trust; and a new profession of biodiversity
       conservation facilitators. Nature conservation trusts already exist. The profession
       of private conservation broker also exists in the USA, supported by tax
       arrangements for conservation easements that do not yet apply in Australia.

A short concluding chapter argues only for: new approaches, public debate, more
      funding, better governance and emission mitigation as well as adaptation. These
      are broad and generalized, so the federal government can endorse them without
      political risk. The strength of this volume therefore is not in its rather weak policy
      recommendations, but in the large central synthesis chapter on impacts, and the
      subsequent discussions on potential management approaches

Bulleri, F. and M. G. Chapman (2004). "The introduction of coastal infrastructure as a
driver of change in marine environments." Journal of Applied Ecology 47(1): 26-35.
        1. Coastal landscapes are being transformed as a consequence of the increasing
        demand for urban infrastructure to sustain commercial, residential and tourist
        activities. A variety of man-made structures, such as breakwaters, jetties and
        seawalls have thus become ubiquitous features of intertidal and shallow subtidal
        habitats. This transformation will accelerate in response to the exponential
        growth of human populations and to global changes, such as sea-level rise and
        increased frequency of extreme meteorological events (e.g. storms). Here, we
        provide a critical overview of the major ecological effects of increasing
        infrastructure to marine habitats, we identify future research directions for
        advancing our understanding of marine urban ecosystems and we highlight how
        alternative management options might mitigate their impacts. 2. Urban
        infrastructure supports different epibiota and associated assemblages and does
        not function as surrogate of natural rocky habitats. Its introduction in the intertidal
        zone or in near-shore waters can cause fragmentation and loss of natural
        habitats. Furthermore, the provision of novel habitat (hard substrata) along
        sedimentary shores can alter local and regional biodiversity by modifying natural
        patterns of dispersal of species, or by facilitating the establishment and spread of
        exotic species. 3. Attempts to use ecological criteria to solve problems of urban
        infrastructure are promising. Incorporating natural elements of habitat (e.g.
        wetland vegetation; seagrass) into shoreline stabilization can reduce ecological
        impacts, without impinging on its efficacy in halting erosion. Likewise, improving
        the ecological value of artificial structures by adding features of habitat that are
        generally missing from such structures (e.g. rock-pools) can contribute to
        mitigation of the detrimental effects of urbanization on biodiversity. Management
        of anthropogenic disturbances (e.g. maintenance works; harvesting) to artificial
        habitat is, however, necessary if such attempts are to be successful. 4. Synthesis
        and applications. Increasing our understanding of the ecological functioning of
        marine habitats created by urban infrastructure and incorporating ecological
        criteria into coastal engineering are crucial for preserving biodiversity in the face
        of the growth of human populations in coastal areas and of forecasted global
        changes. Achieving this goal will need strong collaboration between engineers,
       managers and ecologists.

Burbidge, A. (2010). "Global hotspot under stress: while the south-west corner of
Western Australia is recognised as a global biodiversity hotspot, its unique ecosystems
have suffered land clearing, introduced pests and weeds, a changed fire regime, loss of
water and salinisation. climate change may tip the balance for some species, unless
effective action is taken." Ecos(153).

Burger, J. (1991). "Foraging behavior and the effect of human disturbance on the piping
plover (Charadrius melodus)." Journal of Coastal Research 7: 39-52.

Burnley, I. H. and P. Murphy (2004). Sea Change: Movement from Metropolitan to
Arcadian Australia. Sydney, UNSW Press.

Butler, A. J., T. Rees, et al. (2010). "Marine biodiversity in the Australian region." PloS
one 5: e11831.

Cahoon D.R, P. F. Hensel, et al. (2006). "Coastal wetland vulnerability to relative
sea-level rise: wetland elevation trends and process controls. ." Ecological Studies 190:
271-292.

Callaghan, J. and P. Helman (2008). Severe storms on the east coast of Australia
1770-2008. R. Tomlinson. Gold Coast, Griffith Centre for Coastal Management: 240.

Cannon, L. R., G. B. Goeden, et al. (1987). "Community patterns revealed by trawling in
the inter-reef regions of the Great Barrier Reef." Memoirs of the Queensland Museum
25(1): 45-70.

Carless, R. J. (1974). Tallebudgera Creek Groyne - Investigations, GCCC Beaches and
Waterways. Report N°9.

Carlson, L. H. and P. J. Godfrey (1989). "Human impact management in a coastal
recreation and natural area." Biological Conservation 49: 141-156.

Carr, A. (1987). "Impact of non-degradable marine debris on the ecology and survival
outlook of sea turtles." Marine Pollution Bulletin 18(6): 352-356.

Carr, A. J. L. (2004). "Why do we all need community science?" Society and Natural
Resources 17: 841-849.

Cary, G. J., R. E. Keane, et al. (2006). "Comparison of the sensitivity of landscape
fire-succession models to variation in terrain, fuel pattern, climate and weather."
Ecology, Environment & Conservation 21: 121-137.

Castelle, B. (2004). Modélisation de l'hydrodynamique sédimentaire au-dessus des
barres sableuses soumises à l'action de la houle : application à la côte aquitaine.
Océanographie. Bordeaux, université Bordeaux-1. PhD: 340.

Castelle, B. (2006). Morphological study of the mouth of Tallebudgera and Currumbin
creeks -Delft 3D modelling, GCCM. No 52.

Castelle, B., Y. Le Corre, et al. (2008). "Can the gold coast beaches withstand extreme
events?" Geo-Marine Letters 28(1): 23-30.
       The Gold Coast sandy beaches of Queensland (Australia) are exposed to
       energetic wave conditions. Storms, particularly tropical cyclones, have a high
       potential of destruction. The Gold Coast has not experienced excessive erosive
       events over the past 30Â years. However, some climate indicators suggest that
       cyclone frequency is likely to increase in response to global climate change
       within the near future. Over a 2-month period in early 2006, beach surveys were
       undertaken with a theodolite total station at four different sites. Offshore wave
       conditions were provided by SWAN regional wave modelling. During this study,
       the Gold Coast was exposed to three major storms, the first one being the
       second most energetic over the past 30Â years. Results show a substantial
       variability of the beach response to these events along the Gold Coast, and that
       engineering structures do not have marked effects. Easterly swells have the
       greatest impact on the Gold Coast sub-aerial beach morphology. When low
       wave-energy conditions prevail, the southern Gold Coast beaches recover more
       quickly than the northern ones, as they are sheltered from high SE waves and
       draw advantage from the artificial sand bypassing system. Nevertheless, the data
       show that the Gold Coast beaches are exceedingly fragile. For instance, the
       early March decadal event considerably weakened the beaches, which resulted
       in surprisingly high erosion rates all along the Gold Coast during the two
       following annual wave events. This study suggests that the Gold Coast beaches
       would not be able to withstand the impact of an increased frequency of extreme
       events similar in scale to those of 1967.

Castelle, B., I. L. Turner, et al. (2009). "Beach nourishments at Coolangatta Bay over
the period 1987-2005: Impacts and lessons." Coastal Engineering 56(9): 940-950.
       Erosion of the southern Gold Coast beaches (SE Queensland, Australia) was
       exacerbated after the extension of the Tweed River training walls in the early
       1960s. To achieve the objective of restoring and maintaining beach amenity,
       significant nourishment works have been undertaken in Coolangatta Bay over the
       past 30 years. Particularly, under the Tweed River Entrance Sand Bypassing
       Project (TRESBP) since 1995, a number of nourishment campaigns and the
       implementation of a permanent sand bypass system in 2001 have resulted in
       significant changes of Coolangatta Bay morphology. The present case study
       investigates the influence of both wave climate and nourishment works on the
       area extending from the updrift Snapper Rocks area to downdrift Kirra Beach.
       SWAN spectral wave model is implemented at Coolangatta Bay area and forced
       by the global wave model WW3 to estimate wave forcing and the potential
       natural longshore drift entering in Coolangatta. Specific transects extracted from
       accurate bathymetric surveys are used to investigate and quantify Coolangatta
       Bay sedimentation for the period 1987-2005. A network of Argus video stations
       provides high sample rate information on the shoreline evolution. Results show
       that, over the past 10 years, Coolangatta Bay has infilled rapidly. Sedimentation
       reached up to 6 m in some areas between 1995 and 2005, with beach width
       increasing by 200 m at Kirra Beach. Rapid seaward shoreline migration is
       consistent with the intense over-pumping of sand relative to the natural potential
       to move sand alongshore. The nourishment strategy used during this project has
       successfully delivered large amounts of sand to the southern Gold Coast
       embayment, although it has been up to now controversial from many community
       perspectives. The artificial sand bypassing process proved to be much more
       efficient than depositing the dredged sand in the nearshore area which requires a
       significant period of low energy condition in order for the deposited sediment to
       migrate shoreward and weld to the shore. This case study confirms that, when
       carefully undertaken, sand bypassing is a sustainable and flexible soft
       engineering approach which can work in concert with natural processes.

Castelle, B., I. L. Turner, et al. (2007). "Impacts of storms on beach erosion:
Broadbeach (Gold Coast Australia)." Journal of Coastal Research Vol. SI (50)(Coastal
Education and Research foundation, Inc.): pp. 534-539.

Castro, P. and M. E. Huber (1997). Marine Biology. USA.

Centre, C. R. R. (2005) Fisheries of Queensland‘s East Coast: Aquarium Fish.
Volume, DOI:

Challenger, P. (2007). G. Officer.

Chambers, L. E. and M. R. Keatley (2010). "Australian bird phenology: a search for
climate signals." Austral Ecology 35(8): 969-979.
       Temporal and climate-related changes in avian phenology were assessed for
       seven species of south-eastern Australia using data obtained from members of
       the public, naturalist groups and other organizations. Despite significantly warmer
       temperatures (∼0.02–0.03°C per year) and reduced rainfall (∼1.6–8.0 mm per
       year) over much of south-eastern Australia in recent decades, most species
       showed no corresponding trends in their timing of migration or breeding, the
       notable exceptions being the grey fantail (Rhipidura fuliginosa) and the flame
       robin (Petroica phoenicea), which migrate through Melbourne, Victoria, during
       autumn and spring. In many species, however, migration or breeding timing
       appeared to be influenced to some extent by local, rather than regional, climate
       conditions, particularly local daily maximum and minimum temperatures. Whether
       these species will noticeably change their phenology to match projected changes
       in climate, perhaps when a currently unknown climate threshold is crossed, or
       whether these species are sufficiently flexible in their foraging strategies or food
       sources to be able to maintain their current timing, remains to be seen

Chapman, D. (1980). "Coastal erosion and the sediment budget, with special reference
to the gold coast, Australia." Coastal Engineering 4: 207-227.

Chapman, D. M. (1981). Coastal erosion and the sediment budget, with special
reference to the Gold Coast, Australia. Coastal Engineering. 4: 207-227.

Cheplick, G. P. (2005). "Patterns in the distribution of American beachgrass (Ammophila
breviligulata) and the density and reproduction of annual plants on a coastal beach."
Plant Ecology 180: 59-69.

Cheplick, G. P. and K. Grandstaff (1997). "Effects of sand burial on purple sandgrass
(Triplasis purpurea): the significance of seed heteromorphism." Plant Ecology 133:
79-89.

Church, J., H. Freeland, et al. (1986). "Coastal-Trapped Waves on the East Australian
Continental Shelf Part I: Propagation of Modes." Journal of Physical Oceanography 16:
1929-1943.

Church, J. A., N. J. White, et al. (2004). "Estimates of the Regional Distribution of Sea
Level Rise over the 1950–2000 Period." Journal of Climate 17: 2609.

Clark, J. R. (1998). Coastal Seas: The Conservation Challenge. B. Science. Oxford.

Clarke, B. (2003). Coastcare, Australia's Community-Based Coastal Management
Program: An Effective Model of Integrated Coastal Management? Department of
Groegraphy and Environmental Studies. Adeliade, The University of Adelaide.

Clarke, B. (2006). "Australia's Coastcare Program (1995-2002): Its Purpose,
Components and Outcomes." Geographical Research 44(3): 310-322.

Clifford, J. (2007). F. W. R. G. Officer.

Coaldrake, J. E. (1962). "The Coastal Sand Dunes of southern Queensland." Proc. R.
Soc. Queensl. 72: 101-115.

Coaldrake, J. E. (1979). "Coastal sandmining and landscape rehabilitation in Eastern
Australia." Landscape and Planning 6(3-4): 359-374.

Coaldrake, J. E. and P. A. Roe (1976). Rehabilitation after Mining in ―Moreton
Island-Environmental Impact Study and Strategic Plan‖. In: Co-ordinator General's
Department. Brisbane.

Coenen, F. H. J. M., D. Huitema, et al., Eds. (1998). Participation and the quality of
environmental decision-making Dordecht, Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Committee;, A. S. o. t. E. (2006). Australia, state of the environment 2006 : Independent
report to the Australian Government Minister for the Environment and Heritage / 2006
Australian State of the Environment Committee. Canberra :, Dept. of the Environment
and Heritage.

Commonwealth of Australia (1995). Living on the Coast: Commonwealth Coastal Policy
Canberra, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

Commonwealth of Australia (2006). National Cooperative Approach to Integrated
Coastal Zone Management. Framework and Implementation Plan. Natural Resource
Ministerial Council. Canberra, Department of the Environment and Heritage.

Conacher, A. and J. Conacher (2000). Environmental Planning and Management in
Australia Melbourne, Oxford University Press.

Condie, S. and P. Harris (2006). "Interactions between physical, chemical, biological,
and sedimentological processes in Australia‘s shelf seas (30, WS)." The Sea 14:
1413-1450.

Connolly, R. M. (1994). "Removal of seagrass canopy: effects on small fish and their
prey." Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 184: 99-110.

Connolly, R. M. (1995). "Effects of removal of seagrass canopy on assemblages of
small, motile invertebrates." Marine Ecology Progress Series 118: 129-137.

Connolly, R. M. and J. S. Hindell (2006). "Review of nekton patterns and ecological
processes in seagrass landscapes." Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 68: 433-444.

Connolly, R. M., J. S. Hindell, et al. (2005). "Seagrass and epiphytic algae support the
nutrition of a fisheries species, Sillago schomburgkii , in adjacent intertidal habitats."
Marine Ecology Progress Series 286: 69-79.

Cowell, P. J., B. G. Thom, et al. (2006). "Management of uncertainty in predicting
climate change impacts on beaches." Journal of Coastal Research 22: 232-245.

Cox, M., R. Lee, et al. (2008). "Rates of shoreline progradation during the last 1700
years at Beachmere, Southeastern Queensland, Australia, based on optically stimulated
luminescence dating of beach ridges." Journal of Coastal Research 24(3): 640-648.
       The optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating method was used to
       determine the geochronology of seven relict beach ridges that sit immediately
       behind the modern beach at Beachmere, a low-energy sandy coast within
       Moreton Bay, Queensland. Between 2600 ± 400 and 1700 ± 130 years ago,
       the shoreline eroded and foreshore sediment was deposited over the older beach
       deposit. Subsequently, there was a 1500-year period of shoreline progradation:
       the shoreline advanced 0.16 m/y between 1700 ± 130 and 1140 ± 80 years
       ago; and 0.41 m/y between 1140 ± 80 and around 200 years ago. Shortly after
       690 ± 60 years ago, a series of well-developed regularly spaced beach ridges
       gave way to an intertidal flat and then deposition of a set of lower amplitude,
       closely spaced beach ridges. The younger ridges were deposited between 230
       ± 40 and 140 ± 50 years ago, at a rate of around 1.06 m/y. During the last
       several decades, much of the Beachmere shoreline has eroded into these
       younger relict ridges. Drivers of these changes in shoreline sedimentary regime
       are yet to be accurately determined; however, it seems likely they are related to
       switches that occur in the nearshore sand transport pathway. Our results
       demonstrate the utility of the OSL method for providing insights into coastal
       change that occurred in the historical and recent geological period. Better
       understanding the tempo of shoreline change in the recent past is particularly
       relevant for assessments of vulnerability to erosion of rapidly developing,
       low-lying sandy coasts such as northern Moreton Bay. [PUBLICATION
       ABSTRACT]

Craft, C., J. Clough, et al. (2008). "Forecasting the effects of accelerated sea-level rise
on tidal marsh ecosystem services." Frontiers in Ecology.

CRC for Australian Weed Management (2007) Weed Management. Volume, DOI:

Crimp, O. N. (1992). Moreton Bay in the balance: proceedings of the symposium held in
Brisbane, July 1989. A. L. S. I. a. A. M. S. Consortium.

Crowe, T. P., R. C. Thompson, et al. (2002). "Rocky intertidal communities: past
environmental changes, present status and predictions for the next 25 years."
Environmental Conservation 29(2): 168-191.
       Rocky shores occur at the interface of the land and sea. Typically they are open
       ecosystems, with steep environmental gradients. Their accessibility to man has
       rendered them susceptible to a variety of impacts since prehistoric times. Access
       can be regulated, however, and they are more amenable to management than
       open ocean habitats. This review uses examples from throughout the world to
       demonstrate the extent to which rocky shores have been, and are currently,
       affected by pollution (examples used are endocrine disrupters, oil,
       eutrophication), over-collection of living resources, introduced alien species,
       modification of coastal processes (coastal defences, siltation) and global change
       (climate, sea level). These impacts are put into the context of natural fluctuations
       in time and variability in space of both the environment and the organisms. The
       relative magnitudes of some anthropogenic disturbances differ between the
       industrialized, developed world and the developing world. For example, in
       developed, industrialized countries pollution based impacts should diminish over
       the next 25 years due to improved regulation and a reduction in older 'dirtier'
       heavy industry. Conversely, in many developing countries pollution will increase
       as a consequence of growth in the human population and industrialization.
       Except for large-scale disasters such as oil spills, pollution tends mainly to
       influence embayed coastlines. Chronic effects such as eutrophication can have
       broader-scale impacts over whole coastlines and elevated nutrient levels have
       also been implicated in a trend of increasing frequency of catastrophic kills due to
       harmful algal. Direct removal of living resources has had major effects on
      coastlines at both local and regional scales and is likely to increase over the next
      25 years, especially in developing countries where rapidly expanding human
      populations will put further pressure on resources. Impacts from recreational
      activities are likely to increase with greater leisure time in wealthier regions of the
      world, and cheaper travel will spread these impacts to poorer regions. Invasions
      by alien species have increased in frequency during the last 20 years leading to
      some dramatic effects on native assemblages. Problems associated with alien
      species, especially pathogens, will continue to increase over the next few
      decades. The proportion of the coastline modified by artificial structures
      (breakwaters, seawalls, groynes) will increase because of coastal development
      and defences against sea-level rise and the greater frequency of storms. This will
      increase connectivity between areas of rocky habitat. Siltation will continue to
      increase due to urbanization of catchments and estuaries, and changes in
      agricultural practice. This may have considerable impacts at local and regional
      scales, favouring sediment tolerant organisms such as turf algae and anemones.
      In the future, greater frequency of environmental extremes is likely, including
      large-scale events such as the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Global
      change in temperature, sea-level rise and increases in the frequency of storms
      will affect rocky shores throughout the world, but this will occur over long time
      scales; over the next 25 years most of the responses by rocky shore
      communities will mostly be quite subtle. Thus rocky shores will be subject to
      increasing degradation over the next 25 years. They are, however, less
      vulnerable than many other aquatic habitats due to their hard substratum (rock),
      their relative lack of large biogenic structures and to their generally open nature.
      They are also remarkably resilient, and rec Their susceptibility to both terrestrial
      and marine disturbances does make them more vulnerable than sublittoral and
      offshore habitats. There are considerable gaps in knowledge, particularly of
      certain microhabitats such as crevices, boulders, sand-scoured areas and rock
      pools. These have been much less studied than more accessible assemblages
      on open, freely draining rock. More research is needed to establish the effects of
      increasing sediment loads, ultraviolet radiation and introduced species on rocky
      shore communities. Strategic and applied research programmes should integrate
      field experiments and carefully selected monitoring programmes to verify
      management regimes. Hindcasting from the palaeo-record would be valuable, to
      compare rates of predicted change with periods when change was rapid in the
      past. This information could, in principle, be used to help conserve rocky shores
      through networks of marine protected areas and a general reduction of
      environmental pollution.

CSIRO-BOM (2007). Climate change in Australia : technical report 2007 / [CSIRO and
the Bureau of Meteorology]. [Aspendale, Vic. :, CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric
Research].

Cuttriss, A. (2007) 2006/2007 Marine turtle nesting densities and trends, post nesting
movements and marine turtle threats. Volume, DOI:
D‘Agata, M. and R. B. Tomlinson (2003). Dredging management plan for Currumbin
creek, Gold Coast City Council.

Dale, P. E. R. and J. M. Knight (2008). "Wetlands and mosquitoes: a review." Wetlands
Ecology and Management 16(4): 255-276.
       This review brings together information on mosquitoes, the diseases they
       transmit and the wetlands that provide habitats for the immature stages (eggs
       and larvae). Wetland values are mentioned, though the main literature on this
       does not generally overlap the mosquito issue. Mosquito management is
       overviewed to include: the use of larvicides, source reduction in intertidal
       wetlands and management in freshwater systems. There is not a great deal of
       information on mosquitoes and freshwater systems, except for constructed
       wetlands and they are considered separately. We then consider restoration
       mainly in the context of wetlands that have been the subject of habitat
       modification for mosquito control. Land use and climate change, as they affect
       mosquitoes and the diseases they transmit, are also reviewed, as this will affect
       wetlands via management activities. Finally the review addresses the critical
       issue of balancing health, both human and environmental, in an adaptive
       framework. It concludes that there is a need to ensure that both mosquito and
       wetland management communicate and integrate to sustain wetland and human
       health.

Davenport, J. and J. L. Davenport (2006). "The impact of tourism and personal leisure
transport on coastal environments: a review." Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 67:
280-292.

David, A., W. Geoff, et al. (2009). "Valuing climate change impacts on Sydney beaches
to inform coastal management decisions: A research outline." Management of
Environmental Quality 20(4): 408.
        Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the critical need for
        economic information to inform the selection of coastal management options for
        the beaches of the Sydney region and to outline the project currently under way
        to address this information gap. Design/methodology/approach - The critical
        need for the current case study is framed through presenting a summary of the
        threats posed by current climate change projections, the legislative requirements
        for economic valuation of natural resources, and the role which economics can
        play in selection of appropriate coastal management options in response to
        climate change impacts. Findings - The paper presents the valuation methods
        that were selected for use in the Sydney Beaches Valuation Project and outlines
        the rationale behind their selection. Originality/value - No current, empirical
        estimates of the economic value of Sydney beaches are available, which means
        that managers must use estimates from studies which may not reflect the unique
        characteristics of either the Sydney beaches or the social context. The results of
        the study, in terms of both unit measures of economic value and lessons learned
        during the survey design process, will therefore be of great value to coastal
        managers in the Sydney region. An external link provides details of the mixed
       mode survey instrument, which can be used to inform the design of other similar
       studies. Given the critical role of economic appraisal methods in selection of
       coastal management alternatives, the survey structure is potentially of great use
       to coastal managers in similarly threatened coastal locations elsewhere.

Davis, R. A. and W. T. Fox (1972). "Coastal processes and nearshore sandbars."
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology Vol. 42(No. 2): pp. 401-412.

DCCEE (2009). Climate change risks to Australia's coast : a first pass national
assessment. [Canberra] :, Australian Dept. of Climate Change.

DCCEE (2010). Developing a national coastal adaptation agenda: A report on the
national climate change forum. Adelaide: 48.

de Moor, F. C. and V. D. Ivanov (2008). "Global diversity of caddisflies (Trichoptera:
Insecta) in freshwater." Hydrobiologia 595(1): 393-407.
       The not yet uploaded Trichoptera World Checklist (TWC) [
       http://entweb.clemson.edu/database/trichopt/search.htm ], as at July 2006,
       recorded 12,627 species, 610 genera and 46 families of extant and in addition
       488 species, 78 genera and 7 families of fossil Trichoptera. An analysis of the
       2001 TWC list of present-day Trichoptera diversity at species,
       generic/subgeneric and family level along the selected Afrotropical, Neotropical,
       Australian, Oriental, Nearctic and Palaearctic (as a unit or assessed as Eastern
       and Western) regions reveals uneven distribution patterns. The Oriental and
       Neotropical are the two most species diverse with 47â€―77% of the species in
       widespread genera being recorded in these two regions. Five Trichoptera
       families comprise 55% of the world’s species and 19 families contain fewer
       than 30 species per family. Ten out of 620 genera contain 29% of the world’s
       known species. Considerable underestimates of Trichoptera diversity for certain
       regions are recognised. Historical processes in Trichoptera evolution dating back
       to the middle and late Triassic reveal that the major phylogenetic differentiation in
       Trichoptera had occurred during the Jurrasic and early Cretaceous. The breakup
       of Gondwana in the Cretaceous led to further isolation and diversification of
       Trichoptera. High species endemism is noted to be in tropical or mountainous
       regions correlated with humid or high rainfall conditions. Repetitive patterns of
       shared taxa between biogeographical regions suggest possible centres of origin,
       vicariant events or distribution routes. Related taxa associations between
       different regions suggest that an alternative biogeographical map reflecting
       Trichoptera distribution patterns different from the Wallace (The Geographical
       Distribution of Animals: With a Study of the Relations of Living and Extinct
       Faunas as Elucidating the Past Changes of the Earth’s Surface, Vol. 1, 503
       pp., Vol. 2, 607 pp., Macmillan, London, 1876) proposed biogeography patterns
       should be considered. Anthropogenic development threatens biodiversity and the
       value of Trichoptera as important functional components of aquatic ecosystems,
       indicator species of deteriorating conditions and custodians of environmental
       protection are realised.
De Paiva. (2007). C. Fisherman.

De Ruyck, M. C., A. G. Soares, et al. (1997). "Social carrying capacity as a
management tool for sandy beaches." Journal of Coastal Research 13: 822-830.

Dean, R. (2004). Coastal processes with engineering applications, Cambridge
University Press.

DECCW (2009). New South Wales state of the environment / Environment, Climate
Change & Water. Sydney :, Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water: v.
:.

Defeo, O. and A. De Alava (1995). "Effects of human activities on long-term trends in
sandy beach populations: the wedge clam Donax hanleyanus in Uruguay." Marine
Ecology Progress Series 123: 73-82.

Defeo, O. and A. McLachlan (2005). "Patterns, processes and regulatory mechanisms
in sandy beach macrofauna: a multi-scale analysis." Marine Ecology Progress Series
295: 1-20.

Delft Hydraulics Laboratory (1965). Queensland Coastal Erosion – Recommendations
for a Comprehensive Coastal Investigation. The Netherlands, DHL, Report R257.

Delft Hydraulics Laboratory (1970). Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia - Coastal
Erosion and Related Problems, Gold Coast City Council. Volume 1.

Delft Hydraulics Laboratory (1992). Southern Gold Coast Littoral Sand Supply. The
Netherlands, DHL, Report H85.

Department of the Environment and Water Resources. (2007) Recovery plan for marine
turtles in Australia. Volume, DOI:

DERM (2008). State of the environment Queensland 2007 : key findings / Queensland
Government Environmental Protection Agency. Brisbane :, Environmental Protection
Agency: 28 p. :.

Diaz, R., J., and R. Rosenberg (1995). "Marine benthic hypoxia: A review of its
ecological effects and the bahavioural responses of benthic macrofauna."
Oceanography and Marine Biology: Annual review 33: 245-303.

Dillman, D. A. (2007). Mail and Internet Surveys: The Tailored Design Method.
Hoboken, New Jersey, Wiley.

Doak, D. F. and W. F. Morris (2010). "Demographic compensation and tipping points in
climate-induced range shifts." Nature 467: 959-962.
Dobson, A. P., A. D. Bradshaw, et al. (1997). "Hopes for the future: Restoration ecology
and conservation biology." SCIENCE 277(5325): 515-522.
      Conversion of natural habitats into agricultural and industrial landscapes, and
      ultimately into degraded land, is the major impact of humans on the natural
      environment, posing a great threat to biodiversity. The emerging discipline of
      restoration ecology provides a powerful suite of tools for speeding the recovery of
      degraded lands. In doing so, restoration ecology provides a crucial complement
      to the establishment of nature reserves as a way of increasing land for the
      preservation of biodiversity. An integrated understanding of how human
      population growth and changes in agricultural practice interact with natural
      recovery processes and restoration ecology provides some hope for the future of
      the environment.

Dolan, R. and D. Stewart (2006). "A Concept for Reducing Ecological Impacts of Beach
Nourishment and tidal Inlet Bypassing." Shore and Beach 74(1): 28-31.

Done, T. J. (1982). "Patterns in the distribution of coral communities across the central
Great Barrier Reef." Coral Reefs 1: 95-107.

Dovers, S. and D. Lindenmayer (1997). "Managing the Environment: Rhetoric, Policy
and Reality." Australian Journal of Public Administration 56(2): 65-80.

DPI and F (2006). Annual Status Report 2006 - Rocky Reef Finfish Fishery, State of
Queensland, Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries.

DPI and F. (2007). "Annual Status Report 2007 - Rocky Reef Finfish Fishery, State of
Queensland, Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries."

DSE (2009). The Victorian government response : state of the environment report
Victoria 2008. East Melbourne :, Dept. of Sustainability and Environment: 71 p. :.

Dugan, J. E. and D. M. Hubbard (2006). "Ecological responses to coastal armouring on
exposed sandy beaches." Shore and Beach 74: 10-16.

Dugan, J. E., D. M. Hubbard, et al. (2003). "The response of macrofauna communities
and shorebirds to macrophyte wrack subsidies on exposed sandy beaches of southern
California." Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 58: 25-40.

Dye, A. H. (2006). "Influence of isolation from the sea on spatial patterns of
macroinfauna in intermittently closed/open coastal lakes in New South Wales." Austral
Ecology 31(8): 913-924.
        Intermittently open/closed coastal lakes and lagoons are susceptible to
      contamination and nutrient-enrichment. Although many of them are considered to
      be degraded, our understanding of their ecology and the effects of anthropogenic
      activity is limited. This study of coastal lakes in New South Wales compared the
       density and distribution of macrobenthos in localities that differed in their degree
       of isolation from the sea, that is, open versus closed lakes and mouths versus
       inner reaches. Lakes kept open artificially (to improve water quality and reduce
       flooding), were also compared with naturally open or closed lakes. Densities of
       macrobenthos were usually greater in the mouths of open than of closed lakes,
       but the opposite was true in inner reaches. While isolated localities differed more
       between lakes than did mouths, small-scale variability was greater in the latter.
       Spatial patterns were less temporally consistent in inner reaches than in mouths.
       Differences in densities and spatial variability between mouths and inner reaches
       were influenced primarily by whether a lake was open or closed and secondarily
       by manipulation of the mouth. While, for example, densities in open manipulated
       systems were usually greater in the mouths, but smaller in the inner reaches, the
       effect of manipulation was less obvious in closed lakes. Differences in density
       between types of lakes were not clearly related to physical factors although,
       within lakes, benthos generally correlated negatively with salinity and positively
       with median particle-size, silt and organic content. The effects of factors that
       modify the degree of isolation of coastal lakes are discussed and it is concluded
       that current levels of isolation do not appear to affect macrobenthos adversely.
       Nevertheless, increased isolation, which is likely as a result of climatic change,
       may well do so, particularly in lakes already stressed by human impacts.

Dyer, K. R. (1997). Estuaries: a physical introduction (2nd edition), John Wiley & Sons.

Edmondson, T. (2007). Queensland's Coastal Management Planning. Shifting Sands:
Inaugural Queensland Coastal Conference. Bundaberg, Burnett Mary Regional Group.

Edwards, R. A. (2003). An investigation into the biodiversity of a geotextile artificial reef:
Narrowneck, Gold Coast, Qld. Armidale, NSW, University of New England.

Edwards, R. A. and S. D. A. Smith (2005). "Subtidal assemblages associated with a
geotextile reef in south-east Queensland, Australia." Marine and Freshwater Research
56: 133-142.

Eliot, I., C. M. Finlayson, et al. (1999). "Predicted climate change , sea-level rise and
wetland management in the Australian wet-dry tropics." Wetlands Ecology and
Management 7: 63-81.

Eliot, M. J., A. Travers, et al. (2006). "Morphology of a Low-Energy Beach, Como
Beach, Western Australia." Journal of Coastal Research 22(1): 63-77.
        The morphology of Como Beach in the Swan River Estuary, Western Australia, is
        described. Como Beach is in a microtidal estuarine environment in which modal
        wave conditions are extremely low and nontidal fluctuations in water level are
        principally determined by storm surges and low-frequency changes in ocean
        water levels. Detailed descriptions of sandy beaches in very sheltered locations,
        such as Como, are uncommon in the literature, although these beaches are a
        common feature of coastal environments. In contrast to beaches in
      wave-dominated environments, those in very sheltered, low-energy locations
      may support subtidal terraces and beach profiles that differ in form and scale
      from the bars and intertidal flats in wave- and tide-dominated environments. At
      Como, beach profiles are superimposed on a subtidal terrace rising steeply from
      waters several metres deep to -1.5 m (Australian Height Datum; AHD), then with
      a low gradient to approximately -0.3 m (AHD) at the shore. The profiles range
      from planar forms on which very small waves (H^sub b^ less than 0.1 m) are
      dissipated to curvilinear forms that reflect higher waves (H^sub b^ > 0.2 m) from
      the beachface. A transitional form with a segmented profile comprising a steep
      beachface and flat inshore occurs, particularly where littoral drift is apparent.
      [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]

EPA. (2004) Annual report 2003-2004. Statutory authorities reporting to the Minister of
the Environment. Beach Protection Authority. Volume, DOI:

EPA. (2005) Regional Ecosystem Description Database (REDD), Version 4.2.
Volume, DOI:

EPA. (2006) South-east Queensland Regional Coastal Management Plan. Volume,
DOI:

Erwin, K. L. (2009). "Wetlands and global climate change: the role of wetland restoration
in a changing world." Wetlands Ecology and Management 17(1): 71-84.
       Global climate change is recognized as a threat to species survival and the
       health of natural systems. Scientists worldwide are looking at the ecological and
       hydrological impacts resulting from climate change. Climate change will make
       future efforts to restore and manage wetlands more complex. Wetland systems
       are vulnerable to changes in quantity and quality of their water supply, and it is
       expected that climate change will have a pronounced effect on wetlands through
       alterations in hydrological regimes with great global variability. Wetland habitat
       responses to climate change and the implications for restoration will be realized
       differently on a regional and mega-watershed level, making it important to
       recognize that specific restoration and management plans will require
       examination by habitat. Floodplains, mangroves, seagrasses, saltmarshes, arctic
       wetlands, peatlands, freshwater marshes and forests are very diverse habitats,
       with different stressors and hence different management and restoration
       techniques are needed. The Sundarban (Bangladesh and India), Mekong river
       delta (Vietnam), and southern Ontario (Canada) are examples of major wetland
       complexes where the effects of climate change are evolving in different ways.
       Thus, successful long term restoration and management of these systems will
       hinge on how we choose to respond to the effects of climate change. How will we
       choose priorities for restoration and research? Will enough water be available to
       rehabilitate currently damaged, water-starved wetland ecosystems? This is a
       policy paper originally produced at the request of the Ramsar Convention on
       Wetlands and incorporates opinion, interpretation and scientific-based
       arguments.
Everts, C. H., B. G. Thom, et al. (2006). "Management of Uncertainty in Predicting
Climate-Change Impacts on Beaches." Journal of Coastal Research 22(1): 232-245.
       Management of uncertainty in model predictions of long-term coastal change
       begins by admitting uncertainty. In the case of geometric mass-balance models,
       the first step is to relax restrictive assumptions to allow for open sediment
       budgets, time-dependent morphology, effects of mixed sediment sizes, and
       variable resistance in substrate material. These refinements introduce new
       uncertainty regarding the choice of parameter values. The next step is to actively
       manage uncertainty using techniques readily available from information science.
       The final step requires a shift in coastal management culture to accept decision
       making based on risk-management protocols. Stochastic simulation was applied
       to manage predictive uncertainty in cases involving complications resulting from
       open sediment budgets, rock reefs, and seawalls. In these examples, the
       respective effects caused between 20% and 60% difference from conventional
       predictions based solely on equilibrium assumptions and substrates comprised
       entirely of sand. Stochastic simulation makes it possible to establish confidence
       limits and determine the statistical significance of differences caused by varying
       effects such as substrate resistance and shoreface geometry. It also enables the
       likelihood of critical impacts to be specified in terms of probability. Moreover,
       probabilistic forecasts provide a transparent basis for coastal management
       decisions by revealing the consequences if quantitative estimates prove to be
       wrong. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]

Fabricius, K., G. De‘ath, et al. (2005). Changes in algal, coral and fish assemblages
along water gradients. In: Hutchings, P.A., Haynes, D. (Eds.). Catchment to Reef: Water
Quality in the Great Barrier Reef Region Conference.

Fairweather, P. F. (1990). "Ecological changes due to our use of the coast: research
needs versus effort." Proceedings of the Ecological Society of Australia 16(71-7).

Fairweather, P. G. and R. J. Henry (2003). "To clean or not to clean? Ecologically
sensitive management
of wrack deposits on sandy beaches." Ecological Management & Restoration 4(3):
       227-228.

Fanini, L., C. M. Cantarino, et al. (2005). "Relationships between the dynamics of two
Talitrus saltator populations and the impacts of activities linked to tourism."
Oceanologia(47): 93-112.

Feagin, R. A., D. J. Sherman, et al. (2005). "Coastal erosion, global sea-level rise, and
the loss of sand dune plant habitats." Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment(3):
359-364.

Fearon, R., P. Wulf, et al. (2006). International Institutional Arrangements Influencing
Australian Integrated Coastal Management. Coastal Management in Australia: Key
Institutional and Governance Issues for Coastal Natural Resource Management and
Planning. Lazarow N, Souter R, Fearon R and Dovers S. Brisbane, Cooperative
Research Centre for Coastal Zone, Estuary and Waterway Management: 19-28.

Fien, J., T. S. Smith, et al. (2006). "Urban Research Toolbox."     Retrieved October 12,
2007, from https://www3.secure.griffith.edu.au/03/toolbox/.

Finlayson, C. M. (1999). "Coastal wetlands and climate change: the role of governance
and science." Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 9(6): 621-626.

Finlayson, C. M. (2005). "Plant Ecology of Australia's Tropical Floodplain Wetlands: A
Review." Annals of Botany 96(4): 541-555.
       Aims Despite the biodiversity values of the freshwater floodplains of northern
       Australia being widely recognized, there has not been a concomitant investment
       in developing the extent of knowledge of the basic functions and ecological
       processes that underpin the ecological character of these habitats. This review
       addresses the extent of our knowledge on the plant ecology of these wetlands
       and covers: the relationships between the climate and the hydrological regime on
       the floodplain; the vegetation patterns, succession and adaptation; and primary
       production. Scope Information is available on the seasonal, but less regularly on
       the inter-annual, dynamics of the macrophytic vegetation and its evident
       inter-relationship with the extent, depth and duration of inundation by seasonal
       flooding. The available scientifically collected information on plant distribution and
       relationship with the water regime could be complemented by more attention to
       traditional knowledge. The productivity of the vegetation is high-the dominant
       wetland grass species have an annual dry weight production of 0.5-2.1 kg m(-2)
       and the surrounding riparian (Melaleuca) trees contribute litterfall of 0.7-1.5 kg
       (dry weight) m(-2) year(-1), similar to 70 % due to leaf-fall. The availability of
       dissolved oxygen in the water is known to vary diurnally and seasonally, at least
       in some habitats. The importance of seasonal differences in the availability of
       dissolved oxygen for the growth of micro- and macrophytic vegetation has not
       been investigated. The seasonal distribution and growth of plant species on a
       few floodplains have been investigated, and maps at scales of 1 : 10 000 to 1 :
       100 000 are available for these. However, only on a few occasions have longer
       term analyses been conducted and long-term changes in the vegetation
       measured and assessed. Species lists and categorization of growth strategies
       and forms are available and provide a basis for further ecological investigation.
       Conclusions Despite the large investment in managing the many pressures that
       have degraded the ecological character of these highly valued wetlands, the
       fundamental ecological processes that underpin the biodiversity values have not
       received the same level of attention. Further information on plant growth and the
       environmental factors that drive seasonal and annual changes in vegetation
       distribution and productivity is required to assist managers in attending to
       changes due to increasing invasive species and changes in fire regimes.

Finlayson, C. M., M. G. Bellio, et al. (2005). "A conceptual basis for the wise use of
wetlands in northern Australia—linking information needs, integrated analyses, drivers
of change and human well-being." Marine and Freshwater Research 56: 269-277.

Fischer, H. B. (1979). Mixing in inland and coastal waters / Hugo B. Fischer ... [et al.].
New York :, Academic Press.

Fisher, F. (2000). Citizens, Experts and the Environment: the Politics of Local
Knowledge. New York, Oxford University Press.

Fisheries Research Consultants. (1995). Tweed River Entrance Sand Bypassing Project
Monitoring Study of the Impacts of Stage 1 (A) Nourishment on Kirra Reef, May, 1995.
Tweed River Entrance Sand Bypassing Project. N. S. W. P. Works.

Fisheries Research Consultants. (1996). Tweed River Entrance Sand Bypassing
Project, Monitoring Study of the Impacts of Stage 1(A) Nourishment on Kirra Reef.
Tweed River Entrance Sand Bypassing Project. N. S. W. P. Works.

FitzGerald, D. M., M. S. Fenster, et al. (2008). "Coastal Impacts Due to Sea-Level
Rise." Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 36: 601-647.

Flaherty, T. and K. Sampson (2005). Taking NRM Beyond the Shore: Integrating Marine
and Coastal Issues into Natural Resource Management. Manly, Marine and Coastal
Community Network.

Foxwell-Norton, K. (2006). Communicating the Australian Coast: Communities, Cultures
and Coastcare. Faculty of Arts. Brisbane, Griffith University.

Francis, D., J. Searle, et al. (2005). Gold Coast City Nature Conservation Mapping
Review, Stage 2 – Significant Mapping (Common Nature Conservation Classification
System). C. E. P. a. L. A. P. L. f. G. C. C. Council.

FRC Environmental. (2001). Tweed River Entrance Sand Bypassing Project, Monitoring
of Kirra Reef, January 2001. P. f. B. a. R. Services.

FRC Environmental. (2003). Tweed River Entrance Sand Bypassing Project, Kirra Reef
Ecological Monitoring 2003. D. o. I. P. a. N. Resources.

FRC Environmental. (2004). Tweed River Entrance Sand Bypassing Project, Kirra Reef
Ecological Monitoring 2004. D. o. I. P. a. N. Resources.

FRC Environmental. (2005). Tweed River Entrance Sand Bypassing Project, Kirra Reef
Ecological Monitoring 2005. D. o. I. P. a. N. Resources.

Freiberg, M. and S. M. Turton (2007). "Importance of drought on the distribution of the
birds nest fern, Asplenium nidus, in the canopy of a lowland tropical rainforest in
north-eastern Australia." Austral Ecology 32(1): 70-76.
      The birds nest fern, Asplenium nidus, contributes greatly to the epiphytic biomass
      in the canopies of both south-east Asia and tropical north Queensland
      rainforests. It is generally believed that their abundance and their capacity to
      store water is an important feature for habitat fragmentation in the canopy. We
      investigated the microclimate of A. nidus and the effects of severe drought
      periods on the A. nidus population over a 20-year period, hypothesizing that
      water availability is the most important factor controlling the population under
      drought conditions. One of two neighbouring A. nidus plants of the same size and
      age was irrigated artificially before, during and after a significant dry period in
      2000. By monitoring the microclimate within and around both ferns we were able
      to estimate that four continuous weeks of rainless weather completely dried out
      the accumulated humus of the non-irrigated A. nidus fern. Prolonged dry periods
      were shown to kill the roots of A. nidus, which attach the fern to the bark and
      eventually the affected A. nidus on verticals stems fell to the ground. Periods
      longer than 8 weeks may even kill adult plants sitting in more protected branch
      forks. Analysis of the whole A. nidus population within the 1-ha Canopy Crane
      plot and the determination of the morphological age of all plants enabled an
      evaluation of the historical development of the population. The oldest plant
      originated in 1985, just 1 year after the longest recorded drought for the site. We
      suspect that the 1984 drought killed every A. nidus plant within the study plot.
      Years with low recruitment coincide with years with long drought periods.

Studies in the Neotropics (Freiberg 1997, 2001; Freiberg & Freiberg 2000) have shown
      that canopy epiphytes and their accumulated dead organic matter (ramosphere)
      reflect the microclimatic conditions of the forest floor suspended within a much
      drier and warmer environment of the aerosphere (Freiberg 1996). A study in
      Sabah (Ellwood et al. 2002) of Asplenium nidus in the canopy showed that this
      species contributes about one tonne of dry mass per hectare and may hold up to
      93% of the total number of invertebrates in the crown. The physiology of A. nidus
      was investigated in detail in Singapore (Kluge et al. 1989) and although the
      duration of the longest drought period was just 5 days, it has been hypothesized
      that A. nidus is a stress tolerant plant that stores enough water in its root-debris
      system to overcome periods of drought. The apical meristem of A. nidus is well
      protected in a fur of scaly hairs. Falling leaf litter and other material accumulate
      inside the basket and between the leaves and roots of the A. nidus creating a
      suspended organic soil. The fleshy rhizome of A. nidus may reach a diameter of
      up to 6 cm in adult plants and is probably an additional store of water in the dry
      season. The physiological adaptations to drought of this pure C3 plant are not
      known (carbon dioxide ratio δ13C of −26.8‰, Kluge et al. 1989; Holtum & Winter
      1999). While A. nidus is also the most common epiphyte in the tropical areas of
      north-eastern Australia, the climate of this region is rather different from Sabah
      and Singapore with drought periods of several weeks not uncommon due to the
      strongly seasonal rainfall regime (Tracey 1982). The Intergovernmental Panel on
      Climate Change (IPCC 1996) predicts even more prolonged dry seasons for
      north-eastern Australia by the end of the 21st century (Meehl 1997). In order to
      predict the influence of an increase in drought length on the survival and
      recruitment of the epiphytic vegetation in tropical rainforests, we investigate the
      response of A. nidus to drought under natural conditions. By estimating the age
      of individual plants and by using historical climate data it was possible to
      determine what drought characteristics are important for the A. nidus population
      at the study site. We also conducted a dry season field experiment on two
      adjacent A. nidus plants, where one plant was artificially irrigated and the other
      was left exposed to ambient weather conditions.

Furnas, M. (2003). Catchments and Corals: Terrestrial Runoff to the Great Barrier Reef.
A. I. o. M. Science. Townsville.

Furnas, M. J. (2003). Catchments and corals: terrestrial runoff to the Great Barrier Reef,
Australian Institute of Marine Science.

Furukawa, K. (1997). "Currents and Sediment Transport in Mangrove Forests."
Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 44: 301-310.

Gadgil, R. L. and F. J. Ede (1998). "Application of scientific principles to sand dune
stabilization in New Zealand: Past progress and future needs." Land Degradation and
Development 9(2): 131-142.

Gallagher, R., Beaumont LJ, et al. (2009). "Projecting the impact of climate change on
bitou bush distributions in Australia. ." Plant Protection Quarterly: 23: 37.

Garden, J. G., C. A. McAlpine, et al. (2007). "Habitat structure is more important than
vegetation composition for local-level management of native terrestrial reptile and small
mammal species living in urban remnants: A case study from Brisbane, Australia."
Austral Ecology 32(6): 669-685.
      Abstract As urban areas continue to expand and replace natural and
      agricultural landscapes, the ability to manage and conserve native wildlife within
      urban environments is becoming increasingly important. To do so we first need to
      understand species' responses to local-level habitat attributes in order to inform
      the decision-making process and on-ground conservation actions. Patterns in the
      occurrence of native terrestrial reptile and small mammal species in 59 sites
      located in remnant urban habitat fragments of Brisbane City were assessed
      against local-level environmental characteristics of each site. Cluster analysis,
      multidimensional scaling ordination, and principal axis correlation were used to
      investigate relationships between species' occurrences and environmental
      characteristics. Native reptiles were most strongly associated with the presence
      of termite mounds, a high amount of fallen woody material, and a moderate
      amount of weed cover. Native small mammals were most strongly associated
      with the presence of grass trees (Xanthorrhoea spp.), and both reptiles and small
      mammals were negatively influenced by increased soil compaction. Significant
      floristic characteristics were considered to be important as structural, rather than
      compositional, habitat elements. Therefore, habitat structure, rather than
      vegetation composition, appears to be most important for determining native,
       terrestrial reptile and small mammal species assemblages in urban forest
       fragments. We discuss the management implications in relation to human
       disturbances and local-level management of urban remnants.


Gardner. G.T. and P. C. Stern (1996). Environmental problems and human behaviour
United States, Allyn & Bacon.

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Garnaut Review Secretariat.

GBRMPA. (2001) Marine Turtles in the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area. Great
Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. Volume, DOI:

GCCC. (2007) Policy 15: Management of Coastal Dune Areas. . Volume, DOI:

GCCC. (2007). "Loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) and green turtle (Chelonia mydas)."

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P. E. Report.

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changes at sandy beaches." Marine Environmental Research(60): 245-265.

Gilman, E. L., J. Ellison, et al. (2008). "Threats to mangroves from climate change and
adaptation options: A review." Aquatic Botany 89: 237-250.

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Cod." Oceanus (23): 56-67.

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Community Services Guide." Retrieved 30 May, 2008, from
www.goldcoast.qld.gov.au.

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2006, from http://www.goldcoastcity.com.au/t_standard2.aspx?pid=5069.

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bars: Hahoterim beach, Southeastern Mediterranean." Journal of Sedimentary
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Australia, and its relationship to the El Niño—Southern Oscillation since 1878A.D."
International Journal of Climatology 25: 1715-1729.

Goonan, P., J. Tibby, et al. (2007). "Against the tide: the freshening of naturally saline
coastal lakes, southeastern South Australia." Hydrobiologia 591(1): 165-183.
      Diatom analyses of sediment cores extracted from three lakes in coastal
      southeastern South Australia reveal that, for most of the mid-late Holocene, they
      were shallow, brackish to saline systems with limited flow of water from
      continental sources. The construction of a substantial network of drains in the
      early years of settlement, to maximise transportation and agricultural production
      through wet winters, lead to abrupt freshening of the lakes. Interestingly, despite
      substantial nutrient loads to Lake Bonney SE (there are two Lakes Bonney and
      Frome in South Australia, which is why the lakes in the southeast of the state are
      differentiated with ‘SE’) associated with the commissioning and expansion
      of pulp and paper mills, a wastewater treatment plant discharge and agricultural
      runoff, there is only moderate evidence of nutrient enrichment in the lake,
      possibly because the post-impact assemblages are dominated by taxa with
      broad ecological preferences. Despite being preserved within a conservation
      park, eutrophication associated with agriculture is evident in the diatom
      assemblages of Lake Frome SE, which has a catchment more than twice that of
      Lake Bonney SE. Mullins Swamp, on the other hand, supports few indicators of
      eutrophic conditions. The freshening of these lakes is against the tide of
      salinisation from rising saline groundwaters in most wetlands across
      southeastern Australia.

Gordon, A. W., D. Lord, et al. (1978). Byron Bay - Hastings Point Erosion Study, Report
PWD 78026. Sydney, DPWS.

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of Coastal Engineering edited by Kraus. New York, N.C. ASCE.

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State Development: Coastal Development in NSW – Public Concerns and Government
Processes. , Parliament of NSW. Discussion Paper No. 2.

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Counsel, Government of Queensland, Brisbane.

Government of Queensland (1997). Integrated Planning Act. Q. P. Counsel,
Government of Queensland. Reprint No. 8H.

Government of Queensland (2001). State Coastal Management Plan - Queensland's
Coastal Policy. E. P. Agency, Government of Queensland.

Government of Queensland (2007). State and Regional Coastal Management Plans.
Queenslands's Coastal Policy: Implementing Guideline for Planning Schemes
November 2007. Brisbane, Environmental Protection Agency: 57 pages.

Government of Queensland (2007). State and Regional Coastal Management Plans.
Queensland's Coastal Policy: Implemention Guideline for Development Assessment
November 2007. Brisbane, Environmental Protection Agency: 62 pages.

Government of Queensland. (2008). "Coastal Management." Retrieved 15 March,
2008, from
http://www.epa.qld.gov.au/environmental_management/coast_and_oceans/coastal_ma
nagement/).

Government of Queensland. (2008). "Implementing State and Regional Coastal Plans."
Retrieved 15 March, 2008, from
http://www.epa.qld.gov.au/environmental_management/coast_and_oceans/coastal_ma
nagement/implementing_state_and_regional_coastal_plans/.

Gräwe, U., J.-O. Wolff, et al. (2010). "Impact of climate variability on an east Australian
bay." Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 86: 247-257.

Graymore, M., N. Sipe, et al. (2002). South East Queensland‘s Sustainable Human
Carrying Capacity. C. t. C. 2002. Gold Coast.

Green, J., A. Reichelt-Brushett, et al. (2009). "Re-establishing a saltmarsh vegetation
structure in a changing climate." Ecological Management & Restoration 10(1): 20-30.

Greene, K. (2002). Beach Nourishment: A Review of the Biological and Physical
Impacts. Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission. H. M. S. 7.

Griffith Centre for Coastal Management (2001). Technical Report: Coastal Processes
Assessment for Palm Beach Beach Protection Strategy Gold Coast City Council. 1.

Griffith Centre for Coastal Management (2001). Scoping Study Report and
Recommendations for Palm Beach Beach Protection Strategy Palm Beach Beach
Protection Strategy, Griffith Centre for Coastal Management. 1.

Griffith University. (2007) Australian Rivers Institute. Volume, DOI:

Grimstone, L. R. (1974). A Model for the sediment budget of Gold Coast Beaches
during the last 100 000 years 2nd Australian Conference on Coastal and Ocean
Engineering. I. o. E. Australia. Queensland, Gold Coast City Council. National
Conference Publications

Griswold, M. W. (2008). Riparian zone management in coastal plain streams:
Multi-scale effects of habitat fragmentation.
       Riparian zones filter nutrients, sediment, and provide food and habitat for
       terrestrial and aquatic organisms. Georgia's forestry practices were evaluated in
       coastal plain streams by manipulating harvest regimes in headwater streams.
       Macroinvertebrate and their food sources were sampled before and after harvest.

Group, E. W. W. (2002). South-east Queensland Environmental Weeds Strategy. D. o.
N. Resources, Queensland Government.

Guest, M. A. and Connolly R.M. (2006). "Movement of carbon among estuarine
habitats: the influence of saltmarsh patch size." Marine Ecology Progress Series 310:
15-24.

Guest, M. A., Connolly RM., et al. (2004). "Carbon movement and assimilation by
invertebrates in estuarine habitats occurring at a scale of metres." Marine Ecology
Progress Series 278: 27-34.

Guinotte, J. M., J. Orr, et al. (2006). "Will human-induced changes in seawater
chemistry alter the distribution of deep-sea scleractinian corals? ." Frontiers in Ecology
and the Environment 4(3): 141-146.

Gurran, N., E. Blakely, et al. (2007). "Governance Responses to Rapid Growth in
Envrionmentally Sensitive Areas of Coastal Australia." Coastal Management 35(4):
445-465.

Gurran, N., C. Squires, et al. (2005). Meeting the Sea Change Challenge. Sea Change
Communities in Coastal Australia. Report to the National Sea Change Taskforce.
Sydney, The University of Sydney, Faculty of Architecture, Planning Research Centre.

Gurran, N., C. Squires, et al. (2006). Meeting the Sea Change Challenge: Best Practice
Models of Local and Regional Planning for Sea Change Communities. Report No. 2 for
the National Sea Change Taaskforce. Sydney, University of Sydney.

Hacking, N. (2007). "Effects of Physical State and Latitude on Sandy Beach Macrofauna
of Eastern and Southern Australia." Journal of Coastal Research 23(4): 899-910.
       Macrofaunal communities of beaches in eastern Australia were investigated for
       relationships of species number, abundance, and biomass with the physical
       characteristics of the beach environment (expressed numerically as the
       dimensionless fall velocity and beach state index [BSI]). A range of physical
       beach states across three biogeographical regions was sampled for macrofauna
       at low tide during summer months, and the data were regressed and compared.
       Results showed that species number, abundance, and biomass increased from
       reflective to ultradissipative shore conditions (abundance and biomass increasing
       logarithmically). Species number showed the same numerical relationship with
       BSI for each of the regions studied, the common regression equation showing
       that nearly 90% of variation in macrofaunal species number between beaches
       can be explained by this compound index of physical parameters. Abundance
       and biomass showed similarities in response to BSI, although at different orders
       of magnitude by region. The results of a multiple regression including latitude
       suggest that, although species richness is almost directly related to physical
       beach processes, abundance and biomass are determined more by a
       combination of surf zone processes and climatic factors specific to each
       biogeographic region. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]
Hancock, T. E. (2009). Ecophysiology of barrier island beach plants: Responses in form
and function to daily, seasonal and episodic stresses.
      Barrier islands (BIs) are transient, highly dynamic geological structures of fairly
      recent origin found along most continental shorelines. The small suite of plant
      species that survive in this habitat have been the subject of numerous ecological
      studies for greater than one-hundred years. Unfortunately, research on the
      physiological ecology of BI beach plants is essentially nonexistent. The most
      general objective of this dissertation is to incorporate the tools of physiological
      ecology into an ecological study that investigates the response of four plant
      species representing different functional groups to daily, seasonal and episodic
      stresses present on Topsail Island, North Carolina (USA).

Harley, C. D. G., A. R. Hughes, et al. (2006). "The impacts of climate change in coastal
marine systems." Ecology Letters(9): 500-500.

Harper, B., K. Granger, et al. (2000). Chapter 4: Tropical Cyclone Risks. Natural
hazards and the risks they pose to South-East Queensland K. Granger and M. Hayne.
Canberra, Australian Geological Survey Organisation

Harrington, L., K. Fabricius, et al. (2005). "Synergistic effects of diuron and
sedimentation on photosynthesis and survival of crustose coralline algae." Marine
Pollution Bulletin 51(1-4): 415-427.

Harvey, N. and B. Caton (2003). Coastal Management in Australia. Melbourne, Oxford
University Press.

Harvey, N. and C. D. Woodroffe (2008). "Australian approaches to coastal vulnerability
assessment." Sustainability Science 3(1): 67-87.
      The Australian coastline is one of the longest and most diverse of any in the
      world, and Australian researchers have developed preliminary models of the
      behaviour of major coastal systems such as beaches and reefs. The Australian
      population is particularly focused along the coastline, especially in metropolitan
      centres; however, the population of regional centres along the coast is increasing
      steadily in response to a phenomenon termed seachange. Coastal systems are
      increasingly threatened by potential impacts as a result of climate change, as
      indicated by the successive assessments by the Intergovernmental Panel on
      Climate Change (IPCC). Although Australia played a central role in applying a
      common methodology (CM), developed from IPCC guidelines in the 1990s, and
      in devising alternative approaches, which were initially trialled at nine sites on the
      Australian coast, there has not been a nationally co-ordinated approach to
      assessing the coastal vulnerability of Australia, and such an approach is only
      emerging now. Instead, there have been a series of different approaches
      adopted to look at the different parts of the Australian coast, including wetland
      mapping in northern Australia; geomorphic unit mapping in South Australia;
      storm surge vulnerability modelling in Queensland; probabilistic approaches to
       beach erosion in New South Wales; indicative mapping of potential coastal
       retreat in Tasmania. Additionally, there have been methods proposed by insurers
       and coastal engineers to meet their requirements. Since 2005, the Australian
       government has once again seen the need for a national coastal vulnerability
       assessment, and a series of studies are planned or under way to achieve the
       aims of a National Climate Change Adaptation Framework.

Hayasaka, D. and K. Fujiwara (2005). "Species composition and environmental factors,
including human impacts, on coastal sand-dunes and maritime strand-forests in
Southern Thailand." Tropics 14(3): 245-254.

Heilmayer, O., J. r. Laudien, et al. (2008). "Climate variability and El Nino Southern
Oscillation: implications for natural coastal resources and management." Helgoland
Marine Research 62(1): 5-14.
       The El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) significantly influences marine
       ecosystems and the sustained exploitation of marine resources in the coastal
       zone of the Humboldt Current upwelling system. Both its warm (El Niño: EN)
       and cold (La Niña: LN) phase have drastic implications for the ecology,
       socio-economy and infrastructure along most of Pacific South America. Local
       artisanal fisheries, which especially suffer from the effects of EN, represent a
       major part for the domestic economy of Chile and Peru and in consequence a
       huge amount of published and unpublished studies exists aiming at identifying
       effects of EN and LN. However, most processes and underlying mechanisms
       fostering the ecology of organisms along Pacific South America have not been
       analyzed yet and for the marine realm most knowledge is traditionally based on
       rather descriptive approaches. We herein advocate that small-scale comparative
       and interdisciplinary process studies work as one possible solution to understand
       better the variability observed in EN/LN effects at local scale. We propose that
       differences in small-scale impacts of ENSO along the coast rather than the
       macro-ecological and oceanographic view are essential for the sustainable
       management of costal ecosystems and the livelihood of the people depending on
       it. Based on this, we summarize the conceptual approach from the EU-funded
       International Science and Technology Cooperation (INCO) project “Climate
       variability and El Niño Southern Oscillation: Implications for Natural Coastal
       Resources and Management (CENSOR)― that aims at enhancing the
       detection, compilation, and understanding of EN and LN effects on the coastal
       zone and its natural resources. We promote a multidisciplinary avenue within
       present international funding schemes, with the intention to bridge the traditional
       gap between basic and applied coastal research. The long-term aim is an
       increased mitigation of harm caused by EN as well as a better use of beneficial
       effects, with the possibility to improve the livelihood of human coastal populations
       along Pacific South America and taking differences between local
       socio-economic structures of the countries affected by EN into consideration. The
       success of such an approach however, does finally rely upon a willingness of the
       recourse users and the various political and economic stakeholders involved to
       taking on the message as part of sustainable management strategies.
Hemer, M., K. McInnes, et al. (2008). Variability and trends in the Australian wave
climate and consequent coastal vulnerability, Report to Department of Climate Change
(Canberra) by CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research & Antarctic Climate and
Ecosystems Co-operative Research Centre (Hobart), 92pp: 119.

Hemer, M. A., J. Church, et al. (2007). A wave climatology for the Australian region.
Report prepared for the Australian Greenhouse Office, Dept. of Environment and Water
Resources, CSIRO: 63.

Hendon, H. H., D. W. J. Thompson, et al. (2007). "Australian Rainfall and Surface
Temperature Variations Associated with the Southern Hemisphere Annular Mode."
Journal of Climate 20: 2452-2467.

Hennessy, K., C. Lucas, et al. (2005). Climate Change Impacts on Fire-weather in
South-east
Australia. . CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric
Research, Aspendale, Vic.

Herbert, H. W. and N. C. Stevens (1983). Positions of the coastlines over the ages: The
Ancient History of the Gold Coast.

Herbert, R. J. H., A. J. Southward, et al. (2008). "Complex interactions in a rapidly
changing world: responses of rocky shore communities to recent climate change."
Climate Research 37(2-3): 123-133.
      Warming of the planet has accelerated in recent years and is predicted to
      continue over the next 50 to 100 yr. Evidence of responses to present warming in
      marine ecosystems include Shifts in the geographic range of species as well as
      in the composition of pelagic and demersal fish, benthic and intertidal
      assemblages, Here we provide a review of the changes, in geographic
      distributions and population abundance of species detected on rocky shores of
      the NE Atlantic over the last 60 yr. This period encompassed the warm 1950s, a
      colder period between 1963 and the late 1980s and the recent period of
      accelerating warming to levels above those of the 1950s. The likely
      consequences of these responses are then explored. To do this, a summary of
      the dynamic balance between grazers, macroalgae and barnacles in structuring
      mid-shore communities is given before outlining experimental work on
      interactions between key components of rocky shore communities. Modelling and
      quantitative forecasting were used to predict changes in community composition
      and dynamics in a warmer world and their consequences for ecosystem
      functioning discussed. We then identify areas that need further work before
      making a case for the use of rocky shore species not just as inexpensive
      indicators of change offshore, but as tractable models to explore the direct and
      indirect effects of climate change in marine and coastal ecosystems, We also
      provide a societal perspective emphasising the value of long-term Studies in
      informing adaptation to climate change.
Hewson, I., J. M. O‘Neil, et al. (2001). "A low latitude bloom of the surf zone diatom,
Anaulus Australis (Centrales Bacillariophyta) on the coast of southern Queensland
(Australia)." Journal of Plankton Research 23(11): 1233-1236.

Hilbert, D. W., B. Ostendorf, et al. (2001). "Sensitivity of tropical forests to climate
change in the humid tropics of north Queensland." Austral Ecology 26(6): 590-603.
       An analysis using an artificial neural network model suggests that the tropical
       forests of north Queensland are highly sensitive to climate change within the
       range that is likely to occur in the next 50–100 years. The distribution and extent
       of environments suitable for 15 structural forest types were estimated, using the
       model, in 10 climate scenarios that include warming up to 1°C and altered
       precipitation from –10% to +20%. Large changes in the distribution of forest
       environments are predicted with even minor climate change. Increased
       precipitation favours some rainforest types, whereas decreased rainfall increases
       the area suitable for forests dominated by sclerophyllous genera such as
       Eucalyptus and Allocasuarina. Rainforest environments respond differentially to
       increased temperature. The area of lowland mesophyll vine forest environments
       increases with warming, whereas upland complex notophyll vine forest
       environments respond either positively or negatively to temperature, depending
       on precipitation. Highland rainforest environments (simple notophyll and simple
       microphyll vine fern forests and thickets), the habitat for many of the region‘s
       endemic vertebrates, decrease by 50% with only a 1°C warming. Estimates of
       the stress to present forests resulting from spatial shifts of forest environments
       (assuming no change in the present forest distributions) indicate that several
       forest types would be highly stressed by a 1°C warming and most are sensitive to
       any change in rainfall. Most forests will experience climates in the near future
       that are more appropriate to some other structural forest type. Thus, the
       propensity for ecological change in the region is high and, in the long term,
       significant shifts in the extent and spatial distribution of forests are likely. A
       detailed spatial analysis of the sensitivity to climate change indicates that the
       strongest effects of climate change will be experienced at boundaries between
       forest classes and in ecotonal communities between rainforest and open
       woodland.


Hilton, M. and N. Harvey (2002). Management and Implications of Exotic Dune Grasses
on the Sir Richard Peninsula. Coast to Coast, South Australia.

Hoegh-Guldberg O, Hughes L, et al. (2008). "Assisted colonization and rapid climate
change." Science 321: 345-346.

Horn, D. P. (2002). "Mesoscale beach processes." Progress in Physical Geography
26(2): 271-289.

Hosier, P. E., M. Kochhar, et al. (1981). "Off-road vehicle and pedestrian track effects
on the sea-approach of hatchling loggerhead turtles." Environmental Conservation 8(2):
157-161.

Hubbard, D. M. and J. E. Dugan (2003). "Shorebird use of an exposed sandy beach in
southern California." Estuary, Coastal and Shelf Science 58(s): 41-54.

Hubbard, D. M. and J. E. Dugan (2003). "Shorebird use of an exposed sandy beach in
southern California." Estuary.

Hubbard, D. M. and J. E. Dugan (2010). "Loss of Coastal Strand Habitat in Southern
California: The Role of Beach Grooming." Estuaries and Coasts 33(1): 67-77.
       We investigated the role of beach grooming in the loss of coastal strand
       ecosystems. On groomed beaches, unvegetated dry sand zones were four times
       wider, macrophyte wrack cover was >9 times lower, and native plant abundance
       and richness were 15 and >3 times lower, respectively, compared to ungroomed
       beaches. Experimental comparisons of native plant performance were consistent
       with our survey results: although initial germination was similar, seed bank,
       survival, and reproduction were significantly lower in groomed compared to
       ungroomed plots. Rates of aeolian sand transport were significantly higher in
       groomed plots, while native plants or wrack placed in that zone reduced sand
       transport. Our results suggest beach grooming has contributed to widespread
       conversion of coastal strand ecosystems to unvegetated sand. Increased
       conservation of these threatened coastal ecosystems could help retain sediment,
       promote the formation of dunes, and maintain biodiversity, wildlife, and human
       use in the face of rising sea levels.

Hughes, L. (2003). "Climate change and Australia: trends, projections and impacts."
Austral Ecology 28: 423 - 443.

Hutchings, P. and D. Haynes (2005). "Catchment to Reef: Water Quality Issues in the
Great Barrier Reef Region." Marine Pollution Bulletin 51(1-4): 1-2.

Hutchings, P., D. Haynes, et al. (2005). "Catchment to Reef: Water quality issues in the
Great Barrier Reef Region – An overview of papers." Marine Pollution Bulletin 51(1-4):
3-8.

Huyer, A., R. Smith, et al. (1988). "Currents off south-eastern Australia: results from the
Australian Coastal Experiment." Marine and Freshwater Research 39: 245-288.

Hyder Consulting Pty Ltd, P. B. P. P. L. a. W. O. A. J. V. (1997). Tweed River Entrance
Sand Bypassing Project, Permanent Bypassing System, Environmental Impact
Statement-Impact
Assessment Study. N. D. o. L. a. W. C. a. Q. D. o. E. a. Heritage. Sydney and Brisbane.

Hylgaard, T. and M. J. Liddle (1981). "The Effect of Human Trampling on a Sand Dune
Ecosystem Dominated by Empetrum nigrum." The Journal of Applied Ecology 18(2):
559-569.

Ian, M., R. Darren, et al. (2008). "Impacts of Off-Road Vehicles (ORVs) on
Macrobenthic Assemblages on Sandy Beaches." Environmental Management 41(6):
878-892.
       Sandy beaches are the prime sites for human recreation and underpin many
       coastal economies and developments. In many coastal areas worldwide, beach
       recreation relies on the use of off-road vehicles (ORVs) driven on the shore. Yet,
       the use of ORVs is not universally embraced due to social conflicts with other
       beach user groups and putative environmental consequences of vehicle traffic on
       sandy shores. Such ecological impacts of ORVs are, however, poorly understood
       for endobenthic invertebrates of the intertidal zone seawards of the dunes.
       Consequently, this study quantified the degree to which assemblages of intertidal
       beach invertebrates are affected by traffic. The study design comprised a series
       of temporally replicated spatial contrasts between two reference sites (no ORVs)
       and two beaches with heavy ORV traffic (in excess of 250,000 vehicles per year)
       located in South-East Queensland, Australia. Macrobenthic assemblages on
       ORV-impacted beaches had significantly fewer species at substantially reduced
       densities, resulting in marked shifts in community composition and structure.
       These shifts were particularly strong on the middle and upper shore where
       vehicle traffic was concentrated. Strong effects of ORVs were detectable in all
       seasons, but increased towards the summer months as a result of heavier traffic
       volumes. This study provides clear evidence that ORVs can have substantial
       impacts on sandy beach invertebrates that are manifested throughout the whole
       community. Demonstrating such an ecological impact caused by a single type of
       human use poses a formidable challenge to management, which needs to
       develop multi-faceted approaches to balance environmental, social, cultural, and
       economic arguments in the use of sandy shores, including management of
       "beach traffic." (PUBLICATION ABSTRACT)

IPCC (2007). Climate Change 2007 : impacts, adaptation and vulnerability, contribution
of Working Group II to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change / edited Martin Parry ... [et al.]. Cambridge, U.K. ; New York :,
Cambridge University Press: ix, 976 p. :.

Jackson, A. (1993). Research on beach profile changes.

Jackson L., Reichelt R.E., et al. (2004). Marine Ecosystem Enhancement on a
Geotextile Coastal Protection Reef - Narrowneck Reef Case Study. International
Conference on Coastal Engineering 2004, Lisbon, Portugal.

Jackson, L. A. (1989). Gold Coast beaches, review of protection, management and
funding strategies, Gold Coast City Council.

Jackson, L. A. (1989). Gold Coast beaches, review of protection, management and
funding strategies Report 010/89. Gold Coast, Gold Coast City Council.
Jackson, L. A. (1995). Maintenance Options for Tallebudgera Creek and Currumbin
Creek Estuaries, International Coastal Management.

Jackson, L. A. and J. Mc Grath (1998). Review of Gold Coast Boulder sea wall
construction, Gold Coast City Council Research and Developpement.

Jackson, L. A. and R. B. Tomlinson (1990). Nearshore nourishment implementation,
monitoring and model studies of 1.5 Mm³ at Kirra beach. 22nd Int. Conf. on Coastal
Engineering, Delft, Netherlands.

James, R. J. (2000). "From beaches to beach environments: linking the ecology,
human-use and management of beaches in Australia." Ocean and Coastal
Management 43: 495-514.

Jelbart JE., Ross PM., et al. (2006). "Edge effects and patch size in seagrass
landscapes: an experimental test using fish." Marine Ecology Progress Series 319:
93-102.

Johnson, J., P. Marshall, et al. (2007). Climate change and the Great Barrier Reef : a
vulnerability assessment / edited by Johanna E Johnson and Paul A Marshall.
Townsville, Qld. :, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority: x, 818 p. :.

Jon, M. E., C. Debbie, et al. (2002). "Kelp forest ecosystems: biodiversity, stability,
resilience and future; R.S. Steneck et al.; Kelp forest ecosystems." Environmental
Conservation 29(4): 436.
        Kelp forests are phyletically diverse, structurally complex and highly productive
        components of coldwater rocky marine coastlines. This paper reviews the
        conditions in which kelp forests develop globally and where, why and at what rate
        they become deforested. The ecology and long archaeological history of kelp
        forests are examined through case studies from southern California, the Aleutian
        Islands and the western North Atlantic, well-studied locations that represent the
        widest possible range in kelp forest biodiversity. Global distribution of kelp forests
        is physiologically constrained by light at high latitudes and by nutrients, warm
        temperatures and other macrophytes at low latitudes. Within mid-latitude belts
        (roughly 40-60° latitude in both hemispheres) well-developed kelp forests are
        most threatened by herbivory, usually from sea urchins. Overfishing and
        extirpation of highly valued vertebrate apex predators often triggered herbivore
        population increases, leading to widespread kelp deforestation. Such
        deforestations have the most profound and lasting impacts on
        species-depauperate systems, such as those in Alaska and the western North
        Atlantic. Globally urchin-induced deforestation has been increasing over the past
        2-3 decades. Continued fishing down of coastal food webs has resulted in
        shifting harvesting targets from apex predators to their invertebrate prey,
        including kelp-grazing herbivores. The recent global expansion of sea urchin
        harvesting has led to the widespread extirpation of this herbivore, and kelp
      forests have returned in some locations but, for the first time, these forests are
      devoid of vertebrate apex predators. In the western North Atlantic, large
      predatory crabs have recently filled this void and they have become the new
      apex predator in this system. Similar shifts from fish- to crab-dominance may
      have occurred in coastal zones of the United Kingdom and Japan, where large
      predatory finfish were extirpated long ago. Three North American case studies of
      kelp forests were examined to determine their long history with humans and
      project the status of future kelp forests to the year 2025. Fishing impacts on kelp
      forest systems have been both profound and much longer in duration than
      previously thought. Archaeological data suggest that coastal peoples exploited
      kelp forest organisms for thousands of years, occasionally resulting in localized
      losses of apex predators, outbreaks of sea urchin populations and probably
      small-scale deforestation. Over the past two centuries, commercial exploitation
      for export led to the extirpation of sea urchin predators, such as the sea otter in
      the North Pacific and predatory fishes like the cod in the North Atlantic. The
      large-scale removal of predators for export markets increased sea urchin
      abundances and promoted the decline of kelp forests over vast areas. Despite
      southern California having one of the longest known associations with coastal
      kelp forests, widespread deforestation is rare. It is possible that functional
      redundancies among predators and herbivores make this most diverse system
      most stable. Such biodiverse kelp forests may also resist invasion from
      non-native species. In the species-depauperate western North Atlantic,
      introduced algal competitors carpet the benthos and threaten future kelp
      dominance. There, other non-native herbivores and predators have become
      established and dominant components of this system. Climate changes have had
      measurable impacts on kelp forest ecosystems and efforts to control the
      emission of greenhouse gasses should be a global priority. However, overfishing
      appears to be the greatest manageable threat to kelp forest ecosystems over the
      2025 time horizon. Management should focus on minimizing fishing impacts and
      restoring populations of functionally important species in these systems.
      [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]

Jones, A., W. Gladstone, et al. (2004). Sandy-Beach Ecosystems and Climate Change:
Potential Ecological Consequences and Management Implications. In: The Second
Decade - Coastal Planning and Management in Australia towards 2014. Coast to Coast
2004, Australia's 6th National Coastal Management Conference, Hobart 2004.

Jones, A., N. Hacking, et al. (2003). Sandy Beach Ecology and Management. NSW
Coastal Conference 2003. 12th Annual Conference Port Macquarie.

Jones, A. R., W. Gladstone, et al. (2008). "Australian sandy-beach ecosystems and
climate change: ecology and
management. ." Zoologist 34: 190-202.

Jones, A. R., A. Murray, et al. (2008). "The effects of beach nourishment on the
sandy-beach amphipod Exoediceros fossor: impact and recovery in Botany Bay, New
South Wales, Australia." Marine Ecology 29: 28-36.

Jones, M. A., J. Stauber, et al. (2005). "A risk assessment approach to contaminants in
Port Curtis,Queensland,Australia." Marine Pollution Bulletin 51(1-4): 448-458.

Jones. A. (2005). "Sandy Beaches (Part II): Ecosystems under pressure." Waves 11(1):
10-11.

Karsten, U., J. Maier, et al. (1998). "Seasonality in UV-absorbing compounds of
cyanobacterial mat communities from an intertidal mangrove flat. ." Aquatic
Microbiology and Ecology 16: 37 - 44.

Kay, R. and J. Alder (1999). Coastal Planning and Management. London, E & FN Spon
(Routledge).

Keatley, M. R., T. D. Fletcher, et al. (2002). "Phenological studies in Australia: potential
application in historical and future climate analysis." International Journal of Climatology
22(14): 1769-1780.

Kench, P. S. (1999). "Geomorphology of Australian estuaries: Review and prospect."
Australian Journal of Ecology 24(4): 367-380.

Kennedy, A. D. and C. A. Jacoby (1999). "Biological indicators of marine environmental
health: meiofauna a neglected benthic component." Environmental Monitoring and
Assessment 54: 47-68.

Knight, J., P. Dale, et al. (2008). "Patterns of tidal flooding within a mangrove forest:
Coombabah Lake, Southeast Queensland, Australia." Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf
Science 76: 580-593.

Knutson, T. R., J. L. McBride, et al. (2010). "Tropical cyclones and climate change."
Nature Geoscience 3: 157-163.

Kobashi, D. and Y. Mazda (2005). "Tidal Flow in Riverine-Type Mangroves." Wetlands
Ecology and Management 13: 615-619.

Komar, P. D., Ed. (1998). Fine sediment transport by long waves in the swash zone of a
plane beach.

Komar, P. D. (1998). "The 1997-98 El Nino and Erosion on the Oregon Coast." Shore
and Beach 66(3): 33-41.

Larson, M., N. C. Kraus, et al., Eds. (1999). Equilibrium beach profiles under breaking
and non-breaking waves.

Laughlin, G. P. (1997). The User's Guide to the Australian Coast, New Holland
Publishers.

Law, B., C. Mackowski, et al. (2000). "Flowering phenology of myrtaceous trees and
their relation to climatic, environmental and disturbance variables in northern New South
Wales." Austral Ecology 25(2): 160-178.

Law, B. S. (1994). "Climatic limitation of the southern distribution of the common
blossom bat Syconycteris australis in New South Wales." Australian Journal of Ecology
19(4): 366-374.
       Abstract This study investigates the importance of climate as a factor influencing
       the southern distributional limit of the common blossom bat (Syconycteris
       australis). Using the climatic predictive model BIOCLIM and 73 locality records,
       5. australis was predicted to have a coastal distribution in eastern Australia,
       where winter temperatures are relatively warm and moist conditions prevail
       throughout the year. The actual southern limit of S. australis, determined by
       mist-netting suitable habitats, was found to be at Booti-Booti (32°19'S 152°3l'E)
       on the mid-north coast of New South Wales. BIOCLIM predicted the southerly
       limit of 5. australis to be 150–200km further south of their actual limit. Booti-Booti
       was occupied at relatively low levels of abundance year round, while the
       abundance of S. australis at a site 50 km to the north was much greater,
       fluctuating with changes in Banksia flower numbers. Seasonal range extensions
       beyond Booti-Booti were not detected, despite the availability of apparently
       suitable habitat at Myall Lakes only 20–35 km further south. Metabolic costs of S.
       australis at Booti-Booti were estimated to exceed basal metabolic rate (BMR) by
       4.5 times, well above the physiologically predicted limit of 2.5 times BMR. These
       results, together with the lack of range extensions and the close correspondence
       of BIOCLIM'S predicted southern limit of S. australis with their actual limit,
       suggest that the bat's southern distribution is limited by cold, wet winters and dry
       summers

Lazarow, N. (2002). The Role of the Community in Decision Making for Coastal
Planning and Management in NSW Graduate School for the Environment. Sydney,
Macquarie University.

Lazarow, N. (2006). Community Participation in ICZM - Lessons and Areas for
Improvement in Governance. Coastal Management in Australia: Key Institutional and
Governance Issues for Coastal Natural Resource Management and Planning. Lazarow
N, Souter R, Fearon R and Dovers S. Brisbane, Cooperative Research Centre for
Coastal Zone, Estuary and Waterway Management: 79-88.

Lean, D. R. S. and S. Perin (2004). "The effects of ultraviolet-B radiation on freshwater
ecosystems of the Arctic: Influence from stratospheric ozone depletion and climate
change." Environmental Reviews 12(1): 1-70.

Leck, M. A. (2004). "Seeds, seed banks and wetlands." Seed Science Research 14(3):
259-266.
Lee, R., S. Wallace, et al. (2007). "Scaling coastal upwelling features of the East
Australian Current." Journal of Coastal Research (SI 50) SI: 1152-1162.

Lee, S. Y., R. Dunn, et al. (2006). "Impact of urbanisation on coastal wetland structure
and function." Austral Ecology 31: 184-198.

Lee, S. Y., R. J. K. Dunn, et al. (2006). "Impact of urbanization on coastal wetland
structure and function." Austral Ecology 31(2): 149-163.
       Urbanization is a major cause of loss of coastal wetlands. Urbanization also
       exerts significant influences on the structure and function of coastal wetlands,
       mainly through modifying the hydrological and sedimentation regimes, and the
       dynamics of nutrients and chemical pollutants. Natural coastal wetlands are
       characterized by a hydrological regime comprising concentrated flow to estuarine
       and coastal areas during flood events, and diffused discharge into groundwater
       and waterways during the non-flood periods. Urbanization, through increasing
       the amount of impervious areas in the catchment, results in a replacement of this
       regime by concentrating rain run-off. Quality of run-off is also modified in urban
       areas, as loadings of sediment, nutrients and pollutants are increased in urban
       areas. While the effects of such modifications on the biota and the physical
       environment have been relatively well studied, there is to date little information
       on their impact at the ecosystem level. Methodological issues, such as a lack of
       sufficient replication at the whole-habitat level, the lack of suitable indices of
       urbanization and tools for assessing hydrological connectivity, have to be
       overcome to allow the effects of urbanization to be assessed at the ecosystem
       level. A functional model is presented to demonstrate the impact of urbanization
       on coastal wetland structure and function.

Lees, B. (2006). "Timing and Formation of Coastal Dunes in Northern and Eastern
Australia." Journal of Coastal Research
 22(1): 78-89.
       This article revisits the debate about the processes of coastal dune initiation in
       Australia. A review of the dates published so far on coastal dunes in Australia
       indicates that these belong to identifiable process regions. Those to the north
       and northeast seem to be largely derived from the deflation, at low sea levels, of
       exposed deltaic sediments, which are subsequently reworked by episodes of
       active transgressive dune development. In the southeast, the dunes, like other
       coastal depositional features, are largely derived from the alongshore sediment
       transport system, which is active along this coast at times of higher sea level.
       Apart from during glacial maxima, episodes of dune transgression, where a
       source is identifiable, seem to be initiated along the shoreline, strongly
       suggesting that marine disturbance is the trigger. Although, in many cases, these
       are also at times when climate is favourable to active transgressive dune
       development, the eastern Cape York dune fields make it clear that this is not a
       necessary condition.
Levinton, J. S. (2001). Marine Biology: Function, Biodiversity, Ecology. New York.

Levitus, S. (2005). "Warming of the world ocean, 1955–2003." Geophysical Research
Letters 32.

Lippmann, T. and R. Holman (1990). "The spatial and temporal variability of sandbar
morphology." Journal of Geophysical Research Vol. 95. C7: pp. 11575-11590.

Lippmann, T. C. and R. A. Holman (1989). "Quantification of sand bar morphology: a
video technique based on wave dissipation." Journal of Geophysical Research Vol. 94
(C1): pp. 995- 1011.

Little, C. (2000). The Biology of Soft Shores and Estuaries. New York.

Liu, W.-C., M.-H. Hsu, et al. (2003). "Modeling of Flow Resistance in Mangrove Swamp
at Mouth of Tidal Keelung River, Taiwan." Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and
Ocean Engineering 129: 86.

Llewellyn, P. J. and S. E. Shackley (1996). "The effects of mechanical beach cleaning
on invertebrate populations." British Wildlife(7): 147-155.

Lockie, S., S. Rockloff, et al. (2005). A Conceptual Framework for Selecting and Testing
Potential Social and Community Health Indicators Linked to Changes in Resource
Management and Condition: A Discussion Paper. Brisbane, Cooperative Researhc
Centre for Coastal Zone, Estuary and Waterway Management.

Low Choy, D. (2006). Coastal NRM Challenges: Meeting Regional Challenges Through
Local Government Planning Processes. Coastal Management in Australia: Key
Institutional and Governance Issues for Coastal Natural Resource Management and
Planning. N. Lazarow, R. Souter, R. Fearon and S. Dovers. Brisbane, Cooperative
Research Centre for Coastal Zone, Estuary and Waterway Management: 47-58.

Lucrezi, S., S. Walker, et al. (2009). "Monitoring human impacts on sandy shore
ecosystems: a test of ghost crabs ( Ocypode spp.) as biological indicators on an urban
beach." Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 152(1): 413-424.
      Sandy beaches comprise one of the most important coastal resources worldwide,
      providing habitats to threatened vertebrates, supporting underappreciated
      invertebrate biodiversity, and delivering crucial ecosystem services and
      economic benefits to mankind. Monitoring of the natural resource condition of
      sandy beaches and assessments of the ecological impacts of human disturbance
      are, however, rare on sandy shores. Because a crucial step in developing beach
      monitoring is to identify and test biological indicators, we evaluated the utility of
      using population densities of ghost crabs (genus Ocypode) to measure how
      beach biota respond to human pressures. Densities of crabsâ€‖estimated via
      burrow countsâ€‖were quantified at two sites exposed to high and low levels of
      human disturbance on an urban beach in eastern Australia. Human disturbance
      consisted of pedestrian trampling and shoreline armouring which led to the loss
      of dune habitat. Overall, crab numbers were halved in disturbed areas, but
      contrasts between impact and control sites were not necessarily consistent over
      time and varied between different levels of the shore: stronger and more
      consistent effect sizes were recorded on the upper shore than further seawards.
      In addition to lowering crab densities, human disturbance also caused shifts in
      intertidal distributions, with a greater proportion of individuals occurring lower on
      the shore in the impacted beach sections. The number of visible burrow openings
      also changed in response to weather conditions (temperature and wind). We
      demonstrate that spatial contrasts of burrow counts are broadly useful to indicate
      the existence of a human-induced disturbance effect on urban beaches; we also
      highlight a number of critical, hitherto unknown, issues in the application of this
      monitoring technique; these encompass three broad dimensions: (1) a need for
      standardised protocols; (2) unresolved causal links between observed patterns
      and putative pressures; and (3) uncertainties of how organisms responds
      specifically to both natural and human changes of environmental conditions on
      sandy shores.

Lukacs, G. P. and C. M. Finlayson (2010). "An evaluation of ecological information on
Australia's northern tropical rivers and wetlands." Wetlands Ecology and Management
18(5): 597.
       Issue Title: Special Issue: Tropical and Subtropical Wetlands Guest editors:
       George Lukacs and James Cook

Lutz, P. L. and J. A. Muscick (1997). The Biology of Sea Turtles.

MacLeod, M. and J. A. G. Cooper (2005). Carrying Capacity in Coastal Areas. London.

Main Beach Progress Association Inc. (2002). "Federation Walk Management Plan."

Malvárez, A. I. and M. Brinson (2002). "Temperate freshwater wetlands: types, status,
and threats." Environmental Conservation 29(2): 115-133.
       This review examines the status of temperate-zone freshwater wetlands and
       makes projections of how changes over the 2025 time horizon might affect their
       biodiversity. The six geographic regions addressed are temperate areas of North
       America, South America, northern Europe, northern Mediterranean, temperate
       Russia, Mongolia, north-east China, Korea and Japan, and southern Australia
       and New Zealand. Information from the recent technical literature, general
       accounts in books, and some first-hand experience provided the basis for
       describing major wetland types, their status and major threats. Loss of
       biodiversity is a consequence both of a reduction in area and deterioration in
       condition. The information base for either change is highly variable
       geographically. Many countries lack accurate inventories, and for those with
       inventories, classifications differ, thus making comparisons difficult. Factors
       responsible for losses and degradation include diversions and damming of river
       flows, disconnecting floodplain wetlands from flood flows, eutrophication,
       contamination, grazing, harvests of plants and animals, global warming,
       invasions of exotics, and the practices of filling, dyking and draining. In humid
       regions, drainage of depressions and flats has eliminated large areas of
       wetlands. In arid regions, irrigated agriculture directly competes with wetlands for
       water. Eutrophication is widespread, which, together with effects of invasive
       species, reduces biotic complexity. In northern Europe and the northern
       Mediterranean, losses have been ongoing for hundreds of years, while losses in
       North America accelerated during the 1950s through to the 1970s. In contrast,
       areas such as China appear to be on the cusp of expanding drainage projects
       and building impoundments that will eliminate and degrade freshwater wetlands.
       Generalizations and trends gleaned from this paper should be considered only as
       a starting point for developing world-scale data sets. One trend is that the more
       industrialized countries are likely to conserve their already impacted, remaining
       wetlands, while nations with less industrialization are now experiencing
       accelerated losses, and may continue to do so for the next several decades.
       Another observation is that countries with both protection and restoration
       programmes do not necessarily enjoy a net increase in area and improvement in
       condition. Consequently, both reductions in the rates of wetland loss and
       increases in the rates of restoration are needed in tandem to achieve overall
       improvements in wetland area and condition. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]

Mann, K. H. and J. Lazier (2006). Dynamics of marine ecosystems: biological-physical
interactions in the oceans, Wiley-Blackwell.

Mascarenhas, R., R. Santos, et al. (2004). "Plastic debris ingestion by sea turtle in
Paraíba, Brazil." Marine Pollution Bulletin 49(4): 354-355.

Maslin, M., J. Adams, et al. (1999). "Sudden climate transitions during the Quaternary."
Progress in Physical Geography 23(1): 1-36.
      The time span of the past few million years has been punctuated by many rapid
      climate transitions, most of them on timescales of centuries to decades. The
      most detailed information is available for the Younger Dryas-to-Holocene
      stepwise change around 11 500 years ago, which seems to have occurred over a
      few decades. The speed of this change is probably representative of similar but
      less well studied climate transitions during the last few hundred thousand years.
      These include sudden cold events (Heinrich events/stadials), warm events
      (interstadials) and the beginning and ending of long warm phases, such as the
      Eemian interglacial. Detailed analysis of terrestrial and marine records of climate
      change will, however, be necessary before we can say confidently on what
      timescale these events occurred; they almost certainly did not take longer than a
      few centuries. Various mechanisms, involving changes in ocean circulation and
      biotic productivity, changes in atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases
      and haze particles, and changes in snow and ice cover, have been invoked to
      explain sudden regional and global transitions. We do not know whether such
      changes could occur in the near future as a result of human effects on climate.
      Phenomena such as the Younger Dryas and Heinrich events might only occur in
      a 'glacial' world with much larger ice sheets and more extensive sea-ice cover. A
      major sudden cold event, however, did probably occur under global climate
      conditions similar to those of the present, during the Eemian interglacial around
      122 000 years ago. Less intensive, but significant rapid climate changes also
      occurred during the present (Holocene) interglacial, with cold and dry phases
      occurring on a 1500-year cycle, and with climate transitions on a
      decade-to-century timescale. In the past few centuries, smaller transitions (such
      as the ending of the Little Ice Age at about AD 1650) probably occurred over only
      a few decades at most. All evidence indicates that long-term climate change
      occurs in sudden jumps rather than incremental changes.

Masselink, G. (2001). "Seasonal changes in beach morphology along the sheltered
coastline of Perth, Western Australia." Marine Geology 172(3-4): 243-263.
       Seasonal change in beach morphology is traditionally ascribed to a variation in
       the incident wave energy level with calm conditions in summer resulting in wide
       beaches with pronounced subaerial berms and energetic conditions in winter
       causing narrow beaches with nearshore bar morphology. The coastline of Perth,
       Western Australia, is characterised by a large seasonal variation in the incident
       wave height and local beaches exhibit a distinct seasonal change in morphology.
       However, these morphological changes are better explained by a seasonal
       reversal in the littoral drift direction than by variations: in the incident wave
       energy conditions. In summer, when northward sediment transport prevails due
       to sea breeze activity, beaches located south of coastal structures, headlands or
       rocky outcrops become wider due to the accumulation of sediment against the
       obstacle. These beaches will subsequently erode in winter during storms when
       the longshore sediment transport is toward the south. In contrast, beaches
       located north of obstacles will become narrower during summer and wider during
       winter. The usefulness of the dimensionless fall velocity Omega = H-b/w(s)T
       (where H-b is the breaker height, w(s) is the sediment fall velocity and T is the
       wave period) as a predictor of presence/absence of bar morphology and beach
       type was investigated. It was found that Omega fluctuates around the threshold
       of bar formation (Omega approximate to 1.5-2) over a variety of time scales
       (daily, weekly, and seasonally). These temporal variations in Omega in
       conjunction with the relatively low wave energy level that characterises the coast
       negates the development of beach and nearshore morphology that is in
       equilibrium with the hydrodynamic conditions. As a result, bar occurrence and
       beach type can not be readily predicted using Omega along the Perth coast. (C)
       2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Masselink, G. and K. P. Black, Eds. (1995). Magnitude and cross-shore distribution of
bed return flow on natural beaches.

Mazda, Y., D. Kobashi, et al. (2005). "Tidal-Scale Hydrodynamics within Mangrove
Swamps." Wetlands Ecology and Management 13: 647-655.

Mazda, Y., M. Magi, et al. (2006). "Wave reduction in a mangrove forest dominated by
Sonneratia sp." Wetlands Ecology and Management 14: 365-378.

Mazda, Y., M. Magi, et al. (1997). "Mangroves as a coastal protection from waves in the
Tong King delta, Vietnam." Mangroves and Salt marshes 1: 127-135.

Mazda, Y., M. Magi, et al. (2002). "Coastal erosion due to long-term human impact on
mangrove forests." Wetlands Ecology and Management 10: 1-9.

Mazda, Y., E. Wolanski, et al. (1997). "Drag force due to vegetation in mangrove
swamps." Mangroves and Salt Marshes 1: 193-199.

Mazda, Y., E. Wolanski, et al. (2007). "The Role of Physical Processes in Mangrove
Environments." Terrapub, Tokyo.

McAlpine, C. A., M. E. Bowen, et al. (2006). "Testing alternative models for the
conservation of koalas in fragmented rural–urban landscapes." Austral Ecology 31(4):
529-544.
      Predicting the various responses of different species to changes in landscape
      structure is a formidable challenge to landscape ecology. Based on expert
      knowledge and landscape ecological theory, we develop five competing a priori
      models for predicting the presence/absence of the Koala (Phascolarctos
      cinereus) in Noosa Shire, south-east Queensland (Australia). A priori predictions
      were nested within three levels of ecological organization: in situ (site level)
      habitat (<1 ha), patch level (100 ha) and landscape level (100–1000 ha). To test
      the models, Koala surveys and habitat surveys (n = 245) were conducted across
      the habitat mosaic. After taking into account tree species preferences, the patch
      and landscape context, and the neighbourhood effect of adjacent present sites,
      we applied logistic regression and hierarchical partitioning analyses to rank the
      alternative models and the explanatory variables. The strongest support was for
      a multilevel model, with Koala presence best predicted by the proportion of the
      landscape occupied by high quality habitat, the neighbourhood effect, the mean
      nearest neighbour distance between forest patches, the density of forest patches
      and the density of sealed roads. When tested against independent data (n = 105)
      using a receiver operator characteristic curve, the multilevel model performed
      moderately well. The study is consistent with recent assertions that habitat loss is
      the major driver of population decline, however, landscape configuration and
      roads have an important effect that needs to be incorporated into Koala
      conservation strategies.

McAlpine, C. A., W. F. Laurance, et al. (2010). "More Than CO2: A Broader Picture For
Managing Climate Change And Variability To Avoid Ecosystem Collapse
." Currrent opinion and environmental sustainability.
       ―Climate change policies currently focus on reducing the concentration of
       atmospheric greenhouse gases, but pay limited attention to feedbacks between
       the land surface and the climate system. Forests and woodlands play an
       important role in the climate system by buffering climate extremes, maintaining
      the hydrological cycle and sequestering carbon. To reduce the potential impact of
      climate variability and change on society and the environment, therefore,
      requires a broader focus of environmental sustainability and resilience that is
      underpinned by the restoration of feedbacks between vegetation and climate. We
      urge a stronger integration of land use and climate change policies, a virtual halt
      to all deforestation, and an acceleration of investment in strategic reforestation,
      especially in tropical and sub-tropical regions, supported by a comprehensive
      global forest monitoring program. Without these actions, the degradation of the
      Earth‘s ecosystems will continue exacerbated by, and exacerbating, variability
      and changes in temperature, precipitation and extreme weather events.‖


McGrath, B. E. and D. A. Robinson (May 1971). Erosion and Accretion of the Gold
Coast, Queensland, Beaches. 43rd ANZAAS Conference. Brisbane.

McLachlan, A. (1996). "Physical factors in benthic ecology: effects of changing sand
particle size on beach fauna." Marine Ecology Progress Series 131: 205-217.

McLachlan, A. and A. C. Brown (2006). The ecology of sandy shores. Burlington, MA,
USA.

McLachlan, A. and A. Dorvlo (2005). "Global Patterns in Sandy Beach Macrobenthic
Communities." Journal of Coastal Research 21(4): 674-687.

McLachlan, A., G. Kerley, et al. (1996). "Ecology and energetics of slacks in the
Alexandria coastal dunefield." Landscape Urban Plan 34: 267-276.

McLachlan, A. and J. Lewin (1981). "Observations of surf diatoms blooms along the
coast of South Africa." Botanica Marina 24: 553-557.

McLean, I. G. (2006). Do Assemblages of Infauna on Sandy Shores Change in
Response to Beach Traffic?, University of the Sunshine Coast.

McVicar, T. R., T. G. {Van Niel}, et al. (2008). "Wind speed climatology and trends for
Australia, 1975–2006: Capturing the stilling phenomenon and comparison with
near-surface reanalysis output." Geophysical Research Letters 35.

Mead, S. and K. Black (1999). "A multipurpose, artificial reef at Mount Mounganui
Beach, New Zealand." Coastal Management 27(4): 355-365.

Melville A.J. and Connolly R.M. (2003). "Spatial analysis of stable isotope data to
determine primary sources of nutrition for fish." Oecologia 139: 499-507.

Meynecke J.-O., S. Y. Lee, et al. (2006). "Effect of rainfall as a component of climate
change on estuarine fish production in Queensland, Australia. ." Estuarine, Coastal and
Shelf Science 69: 491-504.
Meynecke, J. O. (2009). "Coastal habitat connectivity - implications for declared fish
habitat networks in Queensland, Australia." Pacific Conservation Biology 15(2): 96.
       Estuaries are widely recognized as key habitats supporting nearshore secondary
       production and catch of commercial fisheries. In Queensland, some of these
       coastal marine habitats are protected by the declared fish habitat programme run
       by the Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries. Expected environmental
       changes for Australian estuarine systems include reduced freshwater flow,
       increased sedimentation and with them, a loss of connectivity. At present, the
       relationship between the protected declared fish habitat and habitat connectivity
       remains unknown. By comparing long term coastal fish catch data with
       geomorphic characteristics of coastal habitats structural connectivity was
       previously identified as a potential driver of commercial fish catch in Queensland.
       An ecology landscape approach was used for this study to identify potential fish
       habitat hotspots along the coastline of Queensland thus allowing better defined
       networks of declared fish habitats. A comparison between this approach and the
       current declared fish habitats demonstrated potential deficits and provided
       important insights for fisheries management. Declared fish habitats should be
       placed in coastal habitats with high structural connectivity to ensure sustainability
       of fisheries in light of environmental changes. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]

Miller. G. (1997). Wader Site Data Collation and Survey Project for south-east
Queensland, Queensland Department of Environment, Southeast Regional Office,
Coastal Management Branch.

Moffet, M. D., A. McLachlan, et al. (1998). "Impacts of Trampling on sandy beach
fauna." Journal of Coastal Conservation 4(87-90).

Morris, J. T., P. V. Sundareshwar, et al. (2002). "Responses of Coastal Wetlands To
Rising Sea Level." Ecology 83: 2869-2877.

Morris, K. D. (1997). "Turtle egg predation by the golden bandicoot (Isoodon auratus) on
Barrow Island." Western Australian Naturalist 17: 18-19.

Morton, S. R., O. Hoegh-Guldberg, et al. (2009). "The big ecological questions inhibiting
effective environmental management in Australia." Austral Ecology 34(1): 1-9.

Mulder, T. and J. P. M. Syvitski (1995). "Turbidity currents generated at river mouths
during exceptional discharges to the world oceans." The Journal of Geology 103:
285-299.

Murray, A., R. E. Marsh, et al. (2008). "The effects of beach nourishment on the
sandy-beach amphipod Exoediceros fossor: impact and recovery in Botany Bay, New
South Wales, Australia." MARINE ECOLOGY-AN EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE 29:
28-36.
       Beach nourishment is increasingly being implemented to address problems of
      erosion. However, the ecological consequences of nourishment are poorly
      understood, especially in Australia. In Botany Bay, sand was piped from an
      intertidal borrow area at Elephant's Trunk to nourish the nearby eroding beach at
      Towra Point. The effects on an intertidal exoedicerotid amphipod, Exoediceros
      fossor (Stimpson, 1856), were examined using a beyond-BACI (Before-After,
      Control-Impact) sampling design. Sampling was conducted before and after
      engineering operations at sites within the borrow and nourishment locations and
      multiple control locations. Hypotheses concerning impact and recovery were
      tested using asymmetrical ANOVAs and two-tailed F-tests. These examined the
      effects on abundance and spatial variability, respectively. The impact of the
      engineering operations on abundance was very large at both borrow and
      nourishment locations. However, recovery started within several weeks and,
      using space x time interactions as a criterion, appeared to be complete within a
      year. This conclusion is made cautiously because of low statistical power and
      because other criteria for recovery suggest that it was not complete at some
      sites. As beach erosion is likely to increase in severity with rising sea levels and
      greater storm surges associated with climate change, management authorities
      will need a better understanding of the ecological effects of beach nourishment.

Murray, B. B. R., M. J. B. Zeppel, et al. (2003). "Groundwater-dependent ecosystems in
Australia: It's more than just water for rivers." Ecological Management and Restoration
4: 110-113.

National Research Council (NRC). (1995). Beach Nourishment and Protection. N. A.
Press. Washington, D.C.

Natural Solutions. (2007). Baseline Marine Ecology and Water Quality Monitoring
October 2006-March 2007, GCD Alliance.

New Scientist. (2005). "Facts and Figures: Asian Tsunami Disaster." Retrieved 29
October, 2007, from http://www.newscientist.com/popuparticle.ns?id=in51.

New South Wales Government. (1990) NSW Coastal management Manual. Volume,
DOI:

Nicholls, R. J., P. P. Wong, et al. (2008). "Climate change and coastal vulnerability
assessment: scenarios for integrated assessment." Sustainability Science 3(1): 89-102.
       Coastal vulnerability assessments still focus mainly on sea-level rise, with less
       attention paid to other dimensions of climate change. The influence of
       non-climatic environmental change or socio-economic change is even less
       considered, and is often completely ignored. Given that the profound coastal
       changes of the twentieth century are likely to continue through the twenty-first
       century, this is a major omission, which may overstate the importance of climate
       change, and may also miss significant interactions of climate change with other
       non-climate drivers. To better support climate and coastal management policy
       development, more integrated assessments of climatic change in coastal areas
       are required, including the significant non-climatic changes. This paper explores
       the development of relevant climate and non-climate drivers, with an emphasis
       on the non-climate drivers. While these issues are applicable within any scenario
       framework, our ideas are illustrated using the widely used SRES scenarios, with
       both impacts and adaptation being considered. Importantly, scenario
       development is a process, and the assumptions that are made about future
       conditions concerning the coast need to be explicit, transparent and open to
       scientific debate concerning their realism and likelihood. These issues are
       generic across other sectors.

Nittrouer, C. A. and L. D. Wright (1994). "Transport of particles across continental
shelves." Reviews of Geophysics 32: 85-113.

Nordstrom, K. F. (2000). Beaches and dunes on developed coasts. Cambridge, UK.

Nordstrom, K. F., R. Lampe, et al. (2000). "Re-establishing naturally-functioning dunes
on developed coasts." Environmental Management 25: 37-51.

Noriega, R. (2008). Environmental Impacts of Beach Nourishment at Palm Beach
DRAFT REPORT. Gold Coast, Griffith Centre for Coastal Management. Research
Report No 42.

Noriega, R. (2008). Shorebird disturbance on Gold Coast beaches DRAFT REPORT.
Gold Coast, Griffith Centre for Coastal Management.

Noriega, R. and B. Smeuninx (208). Ghost Crab (Ocypode cordimans) as a potential
indicator of human impact along Gold Coast beaches. Gold Coast, Griffith Centre for
Coastal Management.

NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation. (2001). Coastal Dune Management:
A Manual of Coastal Dune Management and Rehabilitation Techniques. Newcastle,
Coastal Unit, DLWC.

O'Hare, T. J. and D. A. Huntley, Eds. (1994). Bar formation due to wave groups and
associated long waves.

Oakes JM. and Connolly RM. (2004). "Causes of sulfur isotope variability in the
seagrass, Zostera capricorni." Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 302:
153-164.

OECD (1991). Environment Committee Natural Resource Management Group: Draft
Final Report: Policies for integrated coastal resources management, OECD, Paris.

Oliver, P. (2003). Natural Resource and Environmental Management Partnerships:
Panacea, Placebo or Palliative? . Brisbane, Griffith University.
Oliver, P. and J. Whelan (2003). Literature Review: Regional Natural Resource
Governance, Collaboration and Partnerships. Brisbane, CRC for Coastal Zone, Estuary
and Waterway Management.

Oliver, P. and J. Whelan (2006). The Place, Limits and Practice of Collaboration:
Lessons from Regionalisation and Community Participation in Coastal Natural Resource
Management. Coastal Management in Australia: Key Institutional and Governance
Issues for Coastal Natural Resource Management and Planning. Lazarow N, Souter R,
Fearon R and Dovers S. Brisbane, Cooperative Research Centre for Coastal Zone,
Estuary and Waterway Management: 69-78.

Oliver, P., J. Whelan, et al. (2005). Bridges and Barriers to Collaborative Natural
Resource Management in South East Queensland. Brisbane, CRC for Coastal Zone,
Estuary and Waterway Management.

Olley, J. M., M. A. Stables, et al. (2006). "Wave climate, sand budget and shoreline
alignment evolution of the Iluka-Woody Bay sand barrier, northern New South Wales,
Australia, since 3000 yr BP." Marine Geology 226(1-2): 127-144.
       Multi-centennial fluctuations in the northern New South Wales (NSW) coastline
       alignment are interpreted from a detailed reconstruction of the morphological and
       depositional evolution of the Iluka to Woody Bay barrier during the late Holocene.
       The regional coastline is aligned obliquely to the south-east, inner-shelf, modal
       wave direction, and hence sediment is transported obliquely on the shoreface
       with a net northward movement. On centennial to millennial time scales, the
       coastline is shown to have responded to fluctuations in mean wave direction,
       longshore gradients in sand transport and headland sand bypassing processes.
       Overall, barrier progradation has been punctuated by episodes of shoreline
       recession and realignment throughout the late Holocene. A prolonged shoreline
       recessional phase occurred at similar to 1500 yr BP in response to a rotation in
       modal wave direction from more southerly, towards east-south-easterly.
       Subsequent to this realignment, renewed shoreline progradation occurred along
       the east aspect coastline after similar to 1400 yr BP whilst the north-east aspect,
       coastline remained in a receded alignment until after similar to 1000 yr BP, when
       renewed progradation occurred. Progradation rates increased throughout the
       past millennium, driven by changes to the alongshore gradient in sand transport,
       under an implied shift to a more southerly and energetic modal wave climate. In
       the past 50 yrs, the north-east aspect shoreline has experienced a rapid
       recessional trend, which is associated with a shift in modal wave climate, to a
       more east-southeasterly direction, and a reduction in headland sand bypassing,
       The average sand supply rate to the Iluka to Woody Head section of the northern
       NSW shoreline is 4.1m(3)/m/yr, since similar to 3000 yr BP. (c) 2005 Elsevier
       B.V. All rights reserved.

Packett, R., T. Pietsch, et al. (2008). "Influence of climate fluctuations and changes in
catchment land use on Late Holocene and modern beach-ridge sedimentation on a
tropical macrotidal coast: Keppel Bay, Queensland, Australia."
Page, R. R., Da Vinha S.G., et al. (2004). "The reaction of some sand-dune plant
species to experimentally imposed environmental change: a reductionist approach to
stability." Plant Ecology 61(1-3): 105-114.

Parmesan, C. and G. Yohe (2003). "A globally coherent fingerprint of climate change
impacts across natural systems." Nature 421: 37- 42.
      pageAbstractCausal attribution of recent biological trends to climate change is
      complicated because non-climatic influences dominate local, short-term
      biological changes. Any underlying signal from climate change is likely to be
      revealed by analyses that seek systematic trends across diverse species and
      geographic regions; however, debates within the Intergovernmental Panel on
      Climate Change (IPCC) reveal several definitions of a ‗systematic trend‘. Here,
      we explore these differences, apply diverse analyses to more than 1,700
      species, and show that recent biological trends match climate change
      predictions. Global meta-analyses documented significant range shifts averaging
      6.1 km per decade towards the poles (or metres per decade upward), and
      significant mean advancement of spring events by 2.3 days per decade. We
      define a diagnostic fingerprint of temporal and spatial ‗sign-switching‘ responses
      uniquely predicted by twentieth century climate trends. Among appropriate
      long-term/large-scale/multi-species data sets, this diagnostic fingerprint was
      found for 279 species. This suite of analyses generates ‗very high confidence‘
      (as laid down by the IPCC) that climate change is already affecting living
      systems.

Parnell, K. (1988). "Physical process studies in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park."
Progress in Physical Geography 12: 209-236.

Paugy, D., C. Leveque, et al. (2008). "Global diversity of fish (Pisces) in freshwater."
Hydrobiologia 595(1): 545-567.
      The precise number of extant fish species remains to be determined. About
      28,900 species were listed in FishBase in 2005, but some experts feel that the
      final total may be considerably higher. Freshwater fishes comprise until now
      almost 13,000 species (and 2,513 genera) (including only freshwater and strictly
      peripheral species), or about 15,000 if all species occurring from fresh to
      brackishwaters are included. Noteworthy is the fact that the estimated 13,000
      strictly freshwater fish species live in lakes and rivers that cover only 1% of the
      earth’s surface, while the remaining 16,000 species live in salt water
      covering a full 70%. While freshwater species belong to some 170 families (or
      207 if peripheral species are also considered), the bulk of species occur in a
      relatively few groups: the Characiformes, Cypriniformes, Siluriformes, and
      Gymnotiformes, the Perciformes (noteably the family Cichlidae), and the
      Cyprinodontiformes. Biogeographically the distribution of strictly freshwater
      species and genera are, respectively 4,035 species (705 genera) in the
      Neotropical region, 2,938 (390 genera) in the Afrotropical, 2,345 (440 genera) in
      the Oriental, 1,844 (380 genera) in the Palaearctic, 1,411 (298 genera) in the
      Nearctic, and 261 (94 genera) in the Australian. For each continent, the main
      characteristics of the ichthyofauna are briefly outlined. At this continental scale,
      ichthyologists have also attempted to identify ichthyological
      ‘‘provinces’’ that are regions with a distinctive evolutionary history
      and hence more or less characteristic biota at the species level. Ichthyoregions
      are currently identified in each continent, except for Asia. An exceptionally high
      faunal diversity occurs in ancient lakes, where one of the most noteworthy
      features is the existence of radiations of species that apparently result from
      intra-lacustrine speciation. Numerous fish-species flocks have been identified in
      various ancient lakes that are exceptional natural sites for the study of speciation.
      The major threats to fish biodiversity are intense and have been relatively well
      documented: overexploitation, flow modification, destruction of habitats, invasion
      by exotic species, pollution including the worldwide phenomena of eutrophication
      and sedimentation, all of which are interacting.

Paulson, D. R., J. van Tol, et al. (2008). "Global diversity of dragonflies (Odonata) in
freshwater." Hydrobiologia 595(1): 351-363.
      Larvae of almost all of the 5,680 species of the insect order Odonata (dragonflies
      and damselflies) are dependent on freshwater habitats. Both larvae and adults
      are predators. The order is relatively well studied, and the actual number of
      species may be close to 7,000. Many species have small distributional ranges,
      and are habitat specialists, including inhabitants of alpine mountain bogs,
      seepage areas in tropical rain forests, and waterfalls. They are often successfully
      used as indicators for environmental health and conservation management. The
      highest diversity is found in flowing waters in rain forests of the tropics, the
      Oriental and Neotropical regions being the most speciose. This paper discusses
      diversity, summarises the biogeography of dragonflies in the different
      biogeographical regions and gives the total number of species and genera per
      family per biogeographical region. Examples are given of areas of particular
      diversity, in terms of areas of endemism, presence of ancient lineages or
      remarkable recent radiations but no well-based review of areas with high
      endemism of dragonflies is available so far. The conservation status of
      dragonflies is briefly discussed. Species confined to small remnants of forest in
      the tropics are most under threat of extinction by human activities.

Pecl, G., S. Frusher, et al. (2009). The east coast Tasmanian rock lobster fishery –
vulnerability to climate change impacts and adaptation response options. Report to the
Department of Climate Change, Australia.

Penman, T. D., D. L. Binns, et al. (2010). "Hidden effects of forest management
practices: responses of a soil stored seed bank to logging and repeated prescribed fire."
Austral Ecology: no-no.
       Forest management practices have the potential to impact upon native
       vegetation. Most studies focus on the effects of management on the
       above-ground vegetation communities, with little attention given to the soil stored
       seed bank. Here we examine the soil stored seed bank of a long-term
       experimental site in south-eastern Australia, which has experienced timber
       harvesting and repeated prescribed burning over a 20-year period. At each of
       213 long-term vegetation measurement plots, 3.5 kg of soil was collected and
       germinated in a glasshouse over a period of 2 years. Comparisons were made
       between the experimental treatments considering differences in species
       richness, abundance and community composition of the understorey seed bank.
       Logged sites had a higher diversity and abundance of seedlings compared with
       unlogged sites, which is consistent with observed changes in standing vegetation
       within 10 years following logging. Prescribed burning resulted in a lower diversity
       and abundance of seedlings, which contrasts with the increase in species
       diversity observed in response to frequent fire in standing vegetation. Individual
       taxa that declined in the seed bank in response to frequent fire were all taxa for
       which germination is enhanced by exposure to smoke. Contrary to expectations,
       these did not exhibit a corresponding decline as standing plants. While
       management actions above ground are having minor impacts, greater effects
       were seen in the soil stored seed bank.


Perillo, G. M. E., E. Wolanski, et al. (2009). Coastal Wetlands - An Integrated
Ecosystem Approach, Elsevier.

Peterson C.H. and Bishop M.J. (2005). "Assessing the Environmental Impacts of Beach
Nourishment." Bioscience 55(10): 887-896.

Peterson, C. H., M. J. Bishop, et al. (2006). "Exploiting beach filling as an unaffordable
experiment: benthic intertidal impacts propagating upwards to shorebirds." Journal of
Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 338: 205-221.

Peterson, C. H., D. H. M. Hickerson, et al. (2000). "Short-term consequences of
nourishment and bulldozing on the dominant large invertebrates of a sandy beach."
Journal of Coastal Research 16: 368-378.

Phinn, S. R. and P. A. Hastings (1995). "Southern Oscillation Influences on the Gold
Coast Summer Wave Climate." Journal of Coastal Research 11(3): 946-958.
       Tropical cyclone-generated wave conditions coincident with extreme phases of
       the Southern Oscillation were examined for Gold Coast (eastern Australia)
       beaches over the period 1972-1989. The study expands upon similar previous
       research conducted on Sydney's wave climate. values of summer (Southern
       Hemisphere) mean-monthly deepwater wavepower on northern Gold Coast
       (Australia) beaches were found to be significantly lower during El Nino Southern
       Oscillation (ENSO) phases of the Southern Oscillation than during the opposing
       anti-ENSO phases. It is proposed that Southern Oscillation-related variability of
       Australian/South-west Pacific tropical cyclone activity is an important mechanism
       underlying the observed contrast. A tropical cyclone wave generation area was
       constructed for Gold Coast beaches using individual tropical cyclone and site
       data Possible coastal management implications of these findings are discussed.
Piersma, T. and Beukema. J.J. (1993). "Foodwebs in Intertidal Ecosystems: Trophic
interactions between shorebirds and their invertebrate prey." Netherlands Journal of
Sea Research 31(4): 299-300.

Pietsch, T., J. Olley, et al. (2008). "Influence of climate fluctuations and changes in
catchment land use on Late Holocene and modern beach-ridge sedimentation on a
tropical macrotidal coast: Keppel Bay, Queensland, Australia." Marine Geology
251(3-4): 195-208.
       Beach ridges at Keppel Bay, central Queensland, Australia, preserve a record of
       sediment accumulation from the historical period back to middle Holocene times.
       The ridges comprise fine, well-sorted, feldspar-rich quartz sand that was eroded
       from the Fitzroy River catchment, deposited in Keppel Bay during floods of the
       Fitzroy River, and reworked onshore into beach and foredune deposits by the
       prevailing currents, waves and wind. These floods have an average recurrence
       interval of at least 7 yr and are induced by the passage of cyclones onshore into
       the large Fitzroy catchment. The youngest series of beach ridges sit sub-parallel
       to the modern beach and comprise six accretional units, each unit formed by a
       set of ridges and delineated by prominent swales. Optically stimulated
       luminescence (OSL) ages of beach ridges in these units indicate they were
       deposited in periods of rapid progradation approximately 1500,1000,450 and 230
       yr BP, when there was an enhanced supply of sediment to the beach from the
       Fitzroy River via Keppel Bay. Estimates of the mass of sediment stored in the
       beach-ridge strandplain show that it represents a significant sediment store,
       potentially trapping the equivalent of 79% of the estimated long-term (100 yr)
       average annual bedload of the Fitzroy River that is deposited in Keppel Bay.
       There has been a reduction in the rate of sediment accumulation in the
       strandplain since around 1000 yr BP, which is consistent with other coastal
       records in eastern Australia of a relatively wetter phase of climate in the late
       Holocene compared to the present. The youngest beach ridges (OSL ages < 100
       yr BP) are tall relict foredunes that reflect a low rate of sediment accumulation.
       These ridges have a distinctive trace-element composition produced by a greater
       contribution from catchment areas with basaltic soils. The change in catchment
       provenance has likely been a consequence of erosion that followed clearing of
       native vegetation in these areas. Our findings demonstrate the important insights
       that beach-ridge deposits proximal to a river sediment source can provide into
       processes of sediment accumulation and the response to variations in climate in
       tropical coastal sedimentary systems. Crown Copyright (C) 2008 Published by
       Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Pilkey, O. H. and K. Dixon. (1996). The Corps and the Shore. Washington, D.C.

Pim, M. (1999). "How will climate change affect human health?" American Scientist
87(6): 534-541.
       The consequences of global warming for public health remain largely unexplored.
       Reduced air quality, heat stress, and the spread of infectious diseases are just
      some things that could result from climate change.

Pinet, P. R. (2006). Invitation to oceanography, Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Pitman, A. J. and S. E. Perkins (2008). "Regional projections of future seasonal and
annual changes in rainfall and temperature over Australia based on skill-selected AR4
models. ." Earth Interactions 12: 1-50.

Pointeau, R. (2008). Beach nourishment effectiveness: Toward an Integrated Coastal
Zone Management tool. Case study of the Gold Coast (Australia) and the "Côte de
Lumière" (France). Coastal Engineering, Griffith University (Australia) ; Nantes
University (France). PhD: 275.

Pointeau, R. (2008). Beach volume equilibrium for long-term beach protection and
planning. Case study of Burleigh Heads/Tallebudgera creek and Palm Beach/Currumbin
creek, Gold Coast Australia. European Geoscience Union, General Assembly. Vienna,
Austria.

Pointeau, R., R. B. Tomlinson, et al. (2008). Coastal Network Information System, Gold
Coast, Queensland, Australia. 7th PIANC-COPEDEC Conference on Coastal and Port
Engineering in Developing Countries. Dubai.

Poloczanska, E., A. Hobday, et al. (2009). Marine climate change in Australia 2009 :
impacts and adaptation responses : 2009 report card / [editors: Elvira S. Poloczanska,
Alisair J. Hobday and Anthony J. Richardson. E. S. Poloczanska, A. J. Hobday, A. J. A.
Richardson, C. A. Flagship and N. C. C. A. R. F. (Australia). [Cleveland, Qld.] :, CSIRO
Climate Adaptation National Research Flagship.

Przeslawski, R. and A. R. Davis (2007). "Does spawning behavior minimize exposure to
environmental stressors for encapsulated gastropod embryos on rocky shores?" Marine
Biology 152(4): 991-1002.
       Adults of motile intertidal invertebrates are able to seek shelter to avoid
       environmental stress associated with low tides, but embryos within egg masses
       are effectively sessile for the duration of their encapsulation. Gastropod egg
       masses from 34 taxa on two rocky shores in SE Australia (34°37′08″S,
       150°92′03″E and 34°35′45″S, 150°53′20″E) were surveyed
       over 2 years (June 2002â€―May 2004) to test the hypothesis that eggs are
       deposited in patterns that minimize exposure to environmental stress. Egg
       masses were expected to be predominantly deposited in shaded habitats not
       prone to environmental extremes. It was also anticipated that the deposition of
       egg masses in habitats exposed to UVR, desiccation, and/or extremes in
       temperature would occur when exposure to these abiotic factors was minimized.
       Among the taxa investigated, only four species spawned in full sun (Bembicium
       nanum, Nerita morio, Siphonaria zelandica and S. denticulata). Summer had the
       highest UVR index, water temperature, and air temperature as well as the lowest
       daytime tides. Univariate and multivariate analyses confirmed that egg mass
       abundance was highest during summer, with no change in egg mass size. This
       study shows that those species depositing egg masses on the surfaces of rock
       platforms do not adjust the seasonal timing or macrohabitat location of their
       spawning to avoid physiologically stressful conditions, particularly UVR. Alternate
       reasons for the evolution of egg mass deposition behavior in apparently
       sub-optimal habitats are discussed, and it is almost certainly the complex
       interplay of a variety of highly species-specific factors that is responsible for the
       patterns observed.

Ranasinghe, R. (2004). "The Southern Oscillation Index, wave climate, and beach
rotation." Marine Geology 204(3-4): 273-287.
       Short embayed beaches bounded by headlands are a common feature along the
       southern and central coastline of New South Wales, Australia. Many of these
       embayed beaches have experienced severe erosion at their southern end over
       the last decade. Previous studies have suggested that this erosion may be the
       result of an oscillatory medium-term phenomenon known as beach rotation. The
       present study was undertaken with the objectives of: (1) establishing definitive
       links between the Southern Oscillation Index (Sol), wave climate, and beach
       rotation, and (2) determining the physical processes governing beach rotation.
       Data from two similar New South Wales beaches were analysed using time
       series analysis techniques and image processing techniques (using ARGUS
       video images) in this study. The results indicate that the northern end of this type
       of beach accretes during El Nino phases, while the southern end erodes,
       resulting in a net clockwise rotation of the beach. The opposite occurs during La
       Nina phases resulting in a net anti-clockwise rotation of the beach. The beach
       response at the northern and southern ends lags Sol trend shifts by 3 and 17
       months, respectively. Waves are predominantly incident from the southeast
       during both El Nino and La Nina phases. Offshore wave height is positively
       correlated with the Sol while offshore wave direction is negatively correlated with
       the Sol. On average, the number of storms per year doubles from El Nino to La
       Nina. Based on these links between beach width fluctuations, SOI, and incident
       wave conditions, a conceptual model of beach rotation is presented. The model
       describes the combinations of cross-shore and longshore sediment transport and
       hydrodynamic processes that are expected to result in the observed clockwise
       and anti-clockwise beach rotation during El Nino and La Nina phases,
       respectively. Crown Copyright (C) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Ranasinghe, R., A. Short, et al. (2008). "Statistical simulation of wave climate and
extreme beach erosion." Coastal Engineering 55(5): 375-390.
      Recent developments in extreme values modelling have been used to develop a
      framework for determining the coastal erosion hazard on sandy coastlines. This
      framework quantitatively reproduced the extreme beach erosion volumes
      obtained from field measurements at Narrabeen Beach, Australia. This
      encouraging finding was achieved using Kriebel and Dean's [Kriebel, D.L. and
      Dean, R.G., 1993. Convolution method for time-dependent beach profile
      response. Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering, 119(2):
      204-226.] simple beach erosion and accretion model. The method includes
      allowances for joint probability between all basic erosion variates including; wave
      height, period and direction, event duration, tidal anomalies and event spacing. A
      new formulation for the dependency between wave height and period has been
      developed. It includes the physical wave steepness limitation. Event grouping,
      where significantly more erosion can occur from two closely spaced storms is
      handled by temporally simulating the synthetic wave climate and the resulting
      beach erosion and accretion. (C) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Rasiah, V., J. D. Armour, et al. (2005). "Nitrate-N dynamics in groundwater: Assessment
of selected factors controlling the variability and the potential threat to aquatic
ecosystems." Marine Pollution Bulletin 51: 60-69.

Raybould, M. (2008). Estimating Tourism Values of Gold Coast Beaches (DRAFT).
Gold Coast, Griffith University & CRC for Sustainable Tourism.

Raybould, M. and N. Lazarow (2008). Gold Coast Ocean Beaches and Foreshore
Residents Survey (DRAFT). Gold Coast, Griffith University & CRC for Sustainable
Tourism.

Raybould, M. and T. Mules (1998). Northern Gold Coast Beach Protection Strategy: A
Benefit-Cost Analysis for Gold Coast City Council, Centre for Tourism and Hotel
Management, Griffith University: 40 pages.

Rengasamy, P. (2006). "World salinization with emphasis on Australia." Journal of
Experimental Botany 57: 1017.

Restall, S. J., L. A. Jackson, et al. (2002). "Case studies showing the growth and
development of geotextile sand containers: an Australian perspective." Geotextiles and
Geomembranes 20: 321-342.

Rice, T. M. (2006). Ecological Impacts of Beach Nourishment: A Geologist‘s
Perspective. The Geological Society of America. Southeastern Section - 50th Annual
Meeting. North Carolina.

Ridgway, K. and J. Godfrey (1997). "Seasonal cycle of the East Australian Current."
Journal of Geophysical Research 102: 22921.

Rockloff, S. and S. Lockie (2006). "Democratization of Coastal Zone Decision Making
for Indigenous Australians: Insights from Stakeholder Analysis." Coastal Management
34(3): 251-266.

Rogers, D. I., T. Piersma, et al. (2006). "Roost availability may constrain shorebird
distribution: Exploring the energetic costs of roosting and disturbance around a tropical
bay." Biological Conservation 33: 225-235.
Rogers, K. and N. Saintilan "Predicting the response of coastal wetlands of
southeastern Australia to sea-level rise." Unpublished manuscript.

Rogers, K., K. Wilton, et al. (2006). "Vegetation change and surface elevation dynamics
in estuarine wetlands of southeast Australia." Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 66:
559-569.

Root, T. L., J. T. Price, et al. (2003). "Fingerprints of global warming on wild animals and
plants." Nature (421): 57-60

Ross, P., T. Minchton, et al. (2009). The ecology of molluscs in Australian saltmarshes.
Australian Saltmarsh Ecology N. Saintilan, CSIRO Publishing Collingwood Victoria
Australia.

Rowland, J. (2007).

Rozé, F. and S. Lemauviel (2004). "Response of Three Plant Communities to Trampling
in a Sand Dune System in Brittany (France)." Environmental Management 31(2):
227-235.

RPDC (2003). State of the environment report Tasmania 2003 : conditions and trends
summary report and recommendations / Resource Planning and Development
Commission. Hobart, Tas. :, State of the Environment Unit, RPDC: 1 v. (various
pagings) ;.

Ruhl, J. B. (2010). "Climate change adaptation and the structural transformation of
environmental law." Environmental Law 40(2): 363.
       The path of environmental law has come to a cliff called climate change, and
       there is no turning around As climate change pokey dialogue emerged in the
       1990s, however, the perceived urgency of attention to mitigation strategies
       designed to regulate sources of greenhouse gas emissions quickly snuffed out
       meaningful progress on the formulation of adaptation strategies designed to
       respond to the effects of climate change on humans and the environment. Only
       recently has tiffs "adaptation deficit" become a concern now actively included in
       climate change pokey debate. Previously treating talk of adaptation as taboo, the
       climate change pokey world has begrudgingly accepted it into the fold as the
       reality of failed efforts to achieve global mitigation policy has combined with the
       scientific evidence that committed warming will continue the trend of climate
       change well into the future regardless of mitigation policy success.

Rule, M. M. J. (2007). The marine environment of northern New South Wales : a review
of current knowledge and existing datasets / Michael Rule, Alan Jordan, Alistair
McIlgorm. A. {Jordan 1964-} and A. McIlgorm. Coffs Harbour, N.S.W. :, National Marine
Science Centre for the Northern Rivers Catchment Management Authority.

Rumpff, L., F. Coates, et al. (2010). "Biological indicators of climate change: evidence
from long-term flowering records of plants along the Victorian coast, Australia."
Australian Journal of Botany 58(6): 428-439.
       We investigate the utility of using historical data sources to track changes in
       flowering time of coastal species in south-eastern Australia in response to recent
       climate warming. Studies of this nature in the southern hemisphere are rare,
       mainly because of a paucity of long-term data sources. Despite this, we found
       there is considerable potential to utilise existing data sourced from herbaria
       collections and field naturalists’ notes and diaries to identify native plant
       species suitable as biological indicators of climate change. Of 101 candidate
       species investigated in the present study, eight were identified as showing a
       general trend towards earlier flowering over time, indicating a correlation with
       increasing temperatures. There was some evidence to suggest that species
       which flower in spring and summer may be more sensitive to changes in
       temperature. There was a high level of uncertainty regarding the detection of
       trends, which was a function of the accessibility, abundance and accuracy of the
       various data sources. However, this uncertainty could be resolved in future
       studies by combining the datasets from the present study with field monitoring of
       phenological cycles in climatically different locations. Data held by community
       groups could be made more accessible if there was a concerted effort to fund
       collation and digitisation of these records. This might best be achieved by
       working with community groups, and facilitated through the recent establishment
       of a community phenological observation database in Australia.

Ryan, S. and K. Clarke (2005). Ecological assessment of the Queensland Marine
Aquarium Fish Fishery, Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries.

Ryan TS., Bean AR., et al. (2003). Gold Coast City Council Nature Conservation
Mapping Review Stage 1 - Vegetation Mapping, Queensland Herbarium for Gold
Coast City Council.

SAEPA (2008). State of the environment report for South Australia 2008 [kit] /
Environment Protection Authority. Adelaide, S. Aust. :, Environment Protection
Authority: 301 p. :.

Sagarin, R. D., J. P. Barry, et al. (1995). "Climate-Related, Long-Term Faunal Changes
in a California Rocky Intertidal Community." Science 267(5198): 672-675.
       Changes in the invertebrate fauna of a California rocky intertidal community
       between the period 1931-1933 and 1993-1994 indicate that species' ranges
       shifted northward, consistent with predictions of change associated with climate
       warming.

Saintilan, N., P. Adam, et al. (2009). Australian Saltmarsh Ecology, CSIRO Publishing.

Sally, B. (2009). "Climate Change Connections." BioCycle 50(7): 59.
       One of the things with climate change that the author finds particularly unnerving
       is that the weather is supposed to change. Change means more dramatic swings
      in temperature and, very importantly, precipitation. Availability of water to drink
      and more importantly for people to grow their food is likely to be the first major
      impact of climate change. Agriculture has tools like drip irrigation systems instead
      of flood or overhead spray systems, which can make a huge difference. But
      another thing that people can do is use more compost. Steps are: 1. Get water
      into the soil. 2. Keep it there.

Salt, B. (2001). The Big Shft: Welcome to the Third Australian Culture. Sydney, Hardie
Grant.

Sandrine, G. and V. Thierry (2010). "Seed banking of endangered plants: are we
conserving the right species to address climate change?" Biodiversity & Conservation
19(11): 3049.
      The increasing awareness of the effects of climate change on plant distributions
      in situ has made the appropriate application of ex situ techniques more crucial.
      These ex situ conservation techniques need to be targeted to priority species
      identified at risk from climate change. The present paper assesses the sensitivity
      of plant species to climate change in Belgium and explores the current
      conservation status of those species potentially vulnerable to climate change. We
      then checked whether these species were included in ex situ collections. The
      whole Belgian flora has been assessed (a total of 1,396 native plant species).
      We evaluated whether each of these species occurs in a "climate
      change-vulnerable" habitat, having therefore a higher probability to be impacted
      by climate change. The assessment revealed that there are at least 415 native
      plant species (30% of the Belgian native flora) that appear to be vulnerable to
      climate change during the next decades. Results also showed that about
      one-third of the species currently included in the red list may have their situation
      made potentially worse due to climate change. In addition, depending on the
      region, between 45 and 67% of the species that are currently not threatened in
      Belgium are likely to become so due to climate change. It also appeared that only
      32% of these climate change-vulnerable species are currently held ex situ. We
      conclude that there is a need to identify gaps in existing ex situ collections as an
      urgent priority and ensure that species potentially vulnerable to climate change
      are conserved ex situ.[PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]

Sands, D. (2008). "Conserving the Richmond Birdwing Butterfly over two decades:
Where to next?" Ecological Management & Restoration 9(1): 4-16.

Sanford, W. E. (2010). "Groundwater hydrology: Coastal flow." Nature Geoscience 3:
671-672.

Sara, B., D. Mark, et al. (2009). "Horticultural experimentation in northern Australia
reconsidered." Antiquity 83(321): 634-648.
      Did the banana, yam and taro arrive in Australia at the hands of Europeans or
      come across the Torres Strait 2000 years before? Reviewing the evidence from
      herbaria histories and anthropology, the authors propose a 'hierarchy of
      hypotheses' and consider a still earlier option, that these food plants were
      potentially grown in Australia at least 8000 years ago, while it was still joined to
      New Guinea. This hypothesis, first proposed by Jones and Meehan in 1989,
      locates early horticultural experiments among peoples too often seen as
      inveterate hunter-gatherers. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]

Sattler, P. and R. Williams (1999). The Conservation Status of Queensland‘s
Bioregional Ecosystems. Brisbane, Queensland Government, Environmental Protection
Agency.

Scapini, F. (2003). "Beaches – What Future? An integrated approach to the ecology of
sandy beaches." Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 58: 1-3.

Schaffelke, B., J. Mellors, et al. (2005). Water quality in the Great Barrier Reef region:
responses of marine plants and consequences of their disturbance. Catchment to Reef:
Water Quality in the Great Barrier Reef Region Conference.

Schahinger, R. (1987). "Structure of coastal upwelling events observed off the
south-east coast of South Australia during February 1983–April 1984." Marine and
Freshwater Research 38: 439-459.

Schlacher, T. A., J. Dugan, et al. (2007) Sandy beaches at the brink. Diversity and
Distributions. Volume, DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-4642.2007.00363.x

Schlacher, T. A. and R. Noriega Human Threats to Ecological Attributes of Sandy
Beaches. Inaugural Queensland Coastal Conference 2007.

Schlacher, T. A., D. S. Schoeman, et al. (2008). "Sandy beach ecosystems: key
features, sampling issues, management challenges and climate change impacts."
Marine Ecology 29: 70-90.
       Escalating pressures caused by the combined effects of population growth,
       demographic shifts, economic development and global climate change pose
       unprecedented threats to sandy beach ecosystems worldwide. Conservation of
       beaches as functional ecosystems and protection of their unique biodiversity
       requires management interventions that not only mitigate threats to physical
       properties of sandy shores, but also include ecological dimensions. Yet, beach
       management remains overwhelmingly focused on engineering interventions.
       Here we summarise the key outcomes of several workshops, held during the
       2006 Sandy Beach Ecology Symposium in Vigo, Spain, that addressed issues of
       climate change, beach management and sampling methodology. Because
       efficient communication between managers and ecologists is critical, we
       summarise the salient features of sandy beaches as functional ecosystems in 50
       'key statements'; these provide a succinct synopsis of the main structural and
       functional characteristics of these highly dynamic systems. Key outcomes of the
       workshops include a set of recommendations on designs and methods for
       sampling the benthic infaunal communities of beaches, the identification of the
       main ecological effects caused by direct and indirect human interventions, the
       predicted consequence of climate change for beach ecosystems, and priority
       areas for future research.


Schlacher, T. A., Thompson L. M. C., et al. (2007). "Vehicles versus conservation of
invertebrates on sandy beaches: quantifying direct mortalities inflicted by off-road
vehicles (ORVs) on ghost crabs." Marine Ecology Progress Series 28: 1-14.

Schlacher, T. A. and L. M. C. Thompson "Physical impacts caused by off-road vehicles
(ORVs) to sandy beaches: spatial quantification of car tracks on an Australian barrier
island." Journal of Coastal Research.

Schoeman, D. S., A. McLachlan, et al. (2000). "Lessons from a disturbance experiment
in the intertidal zone of an exposed sandy beach." Estuarine Coastal and Shelf
Science(50): 869-884.

Schratzberger, M., J. M. Gee, et al. (2000). "The structure and taxonomic composition
of sublittoral meiofauna assemblages as an indicator of the status of marine
environments." Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 80:
969-980.

Searle J. and Maden S. Flora. South Stradbroke Island Management Area. E. P. a. S.
D. Section, Gold Coast City Council.

Sennes, G., B. Castelle, et al. (2007). "Modelling of the Gold Coast Seaway tidal inlet,
Australia." Journal of Coastal Research Vol. SI(50)(Coastal Education and Research
Foundation, Inc.): pp. 1086-1091.

Sharpe, M. (2005). "The rising tide: combating coastal pollution." Journal of
Environmental Monitoring 7(5): 41-44.
      Coastal zones are major hubs for economic and social activity and are in the
      front line of climate change. To safeguard these fragile ecosystems for our own
      and future generations we have to move towards more integrated approaches to
      the assessment and management of coastal and marine environments.
      Environmental monitoring-broadly defined-has a huge role to play.

Sheaves, M. and K. G. Abrantes (2010). "Importance of freshwater flow in
terrestrial-aquatic energetic connectivity in intermittently connected estuaries of tropical
Australia." Marine Biology 157(9): 2071 - 2086.
       δ^sup 13^C was used to identify seasonal variations in the importance of
       autochthonous and allochthonous sources of productivity for fish communities in
       intermittently connected estuarine areas of Australia's dry tropics. A total of 224
       fish from 38 species were collected from six intermittently connected estuarine
       pools, three in central Queensland (two dominated by C3 forest and one by
       C^sub 4^ pasture) and three in north Queensland (one dominated by C^sub 3^
       and two by C^sub 4^ vegetation). Samples were collected before and after the
       wet season. Fish collected in the two forested areas in central Queensland had
       the lowest δ^sup 13^C, suggesting a greater incorporation of C^sub 3^ terrestrial
       material. A seasonal variation in δ^sup 13^C was also detected for these areas,
       with mean δ^sup 13^C varying from -20 to -23% from the pre- to the post-wet
       season, indicating a greater incorporation of terrestrial carbon after the wet
       season. Negative seasonal shifts in fish δ^sup 13^C were also present at the
       pasture site, suggesting a greater dependence on carbon of riparian vegetation
       (C^sub 3^ Juncus sp.) in the post-wet season. In north Queensland, terrestrial
       carbon seemed to be incorporated by fish in the two C^sub 4^ areas, as δ^sup
       13^C of most species shifted towards slightly heavier values in the post-wet
       season. A two-source, one-isotope mixing model also indicated a greater
       incorporation of carbon of terrestrial origin in the post-wet season. However, no
       seasonal differences in δ^sup 13^C were detected for fish from the forested area
       of north Queensland. Overall, hydrologic connectivity seemed to be a key factor
       in regulating the ultimate sources of carbon in these areas. It is therefore
       important to preserve the surrounding habitats and to maintain the hydrologic
       regimes as close to natural conditions as possible, for the conservation of the
       ecological functioning of these areas. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]

Shi, G., J. Ribbe, et al. (2008). "An interpretation of Australian rainfall projections."
Geophysical Research Letters 35: L02702.

Shoo, L. P., S. E. Williams, et al. (2006). "Detecting climate change induced range
shifts: Where and how should we be looking?" Austral Ecology 31(1): 22-29.
        Global climate warming is expected to cause systematic shifts in the distribution
        of species and consequently increase extinction risk. Conservation managers
        must be able to detect, measure and accurately predict range shifts in order to
        mitigate impacts on biodiversity. However, important responses to climate
        change may go unnoticed or be dismissed if we fail to collect sufficient baseline
        data and apply the most sensitive analytical tests. Here we use randomizations
        of a contemporary data set on rainforest birds of north-eastern Australia to
        quantify the sensitivity of three measures for assessing range shifts along
        altitudinal gradients. We find that smaller range shifts are detectable by analysing
        change in the mean altitude of presence records rather than upper or lower
        range boundaries. For a moderate survey effort of 96 surveys, measurements of
        change in the mean altitude of 34 species have the capacity to provide strong
        inference for a mean altitudinal range shift as small as 40 m across the species
        assemblage. We also show that range shifts measured at range boundaries can
        be potentially misleading when differences in sampling effort between
        contemporary and historical data sets are not taken into account.

Short, A. D. (2000). Beaches of the Queensland Coast: Cooktown to Coolangatta. A. B.
S. a. M. Project. Sydney.

Short, A. D. (2006). "Australian Beach Systems—Nature and Distribution." Journal of
Coastal Research 22: 11-27.

Short, A. D. (2010). "Sediment Transport around Australia—Sources, Mechanisms,
Rates, and Barrier Forms." Journal of Coastal Research 26: 395-402.

Short, A. D. and P. A. Hesp (1982). "Wave, beach and dune interactions in
southeastern Australia." Marine Geology 48: 259-284.

Short, A. D. and C. Woodroffe (2009). The coast of Australia / Andrew D. Short and
Colin D. Woodroffe, Cambridge University Press.

Simmons, R. E. (2005). "Declining coastal avifauna at a diamondmining site in Namibia:
comparisons and causes." Ostrich(76): 97-103.

Sindel, B. M. and P. W. Michael (1992). "Spread and potential distribution of Senecio
madagascariensis Poir. (fireweed) in Australia." Australian Journal of Ecology 17(1):
21-26.

Slatter, R. J. (1978). "Ecological Effects of Trampling on Sand Dune Vegetation."
Journal of Biological Education 12(2): 89-96.

Smallwood, J. and C. Soward (1998). Monitoring of the Southern Gold Coast Beach
Nourishment Project: Hydrographic Investigations of the Borrow Area, Beach Protection
Authority. BPA 23.2.

Smart, J. and J. A. Gill (2003). "Non-intertidal habitat use by shorebirds: a reflection of
inadequate intertidal resources?" Biological Conservation 111: 359-369.

Smith, A. W. (1973). Sand resources - Currumbin Creek. GCCC Beaches and
Waterways, Gold Coast City Council.

Smith, A. W. (1989). Gold Coast City Procedure for construction of boulder sea wall,
Gold Coast City Council.

Smith, A. W. (1990). A Positional Statement GCCC Beaches and Waterways.

Smith, A. W. (1992). Some factors affecting the development and mobility of offshore
bars. Gold Coast Beach Replenishment Report No. 173.

Smith, A. W. and L. A. Jackson (1990). The variability in width of the visible beach.
Report N°135. G. B. a. Waterways.

Smith, A. W. and L. A. Jackson (1993). A review of Gold Coast Beach Nourishment
1972-1992, GCCC Beaches and Waterways.

Smith, C., R. , C. Heip, et al. (2000). "Global change and biodiversity linkages across
the sediment-water interface." Bioscience 50(12): 1108-1120.
      At least five anthropogenic processes--global climate change, coastal-zone
      eutrophication, species introductions, mariculture, and bottom fishing--are
      expected to substantially influence biodiversity linkages across the
      sediment-water interface.

Smith, S. D. A., R. A. Edwards, et al. (2005). Biological assessment of fish and benthic
communities at Palm Beach Bait Reef, Gold Coast, Queensland. G. C. f. C.
Management.

Smith, S. D. A., H. Malcolm, et al. (2006). Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of Inshore
Reefs. Sustainable Marine Resource Management Project, Part A: Research, Mapping,
Assessment and Planning. N. R. C. M. Authority.

Smith, T. F. (2002). Australian Estuary Management: Drivers and Perspectives. Sydney,
University of New South Wales: 386.

Solomon, S., D. Qin, et al. (2007). Climate Change 2007 – The Physical Science Basis.
Synthesis, Cambridge University Press: 996.

Sommer, B. and P. Horwitz (2009). "Macroinvertebrate cycles of decline and recovery in
Swan Coastal Plain (Western Australia) wetlands affected by drought-induced
acidification." Hydrobiologia 624(1): 191-203.
        Management of wetlands influenced by the Gnangara groundwater mound,
        Western Australia, is becoming increasingly challenging due to an ongoing
        decline in the regional groundwater table. A number of these
        groundwater-dependent wetlands have acidified (with adverse effects on the
        extant macroinvertebrate fauna) due to the oxidation of pyritic sediments. One
        management option in such cases is artificial augmentation of surface water in
        order to maintain or reinstate anaerobia in the sediments. This paper documents
        cycles of macroinvertebrate decline and recovery over 12 years of monitoring in
        three Gnangara mound wetlands affected by drought-induced acidification, one
        of which is being artificially augmented. Acidification did not result in a reduction
        of the total number of macroinvertebrate families present, however, there were
        clearly identifiable groups of acid-sensitive taxa (amphipods and isopods,
        ostracods, chydorid and daphnid cladocerans, mayflies, oligochaetes, clams and
        snails) and acid-tolerant taxa (sandfly larvae, macrothricid cladocerans and water
        boatmen). In the artificially augmented wetland, the effects of acidification were
        reversed: acid-sensitive taxa reappeared and acid-tolerant taxa decreased in
        numbers. Moreover, there were a number of taxa that appeared for the first time
        since augmentation, and summer family richness increased markedly. This study
        has shown that artificial augmentation of wetland water levels can be a
        successful recovery strategy for recently acidified systems, but this will depend
        on a number of factors, and the ‘recovered’ state will be at least slightly
        different from the original state.
Spencer, R.-J. and G. S. Baxter (2006). "Effects of fire on the structure and composition
of open eucalypt forests." Austral Ecology 31(5): 638-646.
      Fires are integral to the healthy functioning of most ecosystems and are often
      poorly understood in policy and management, however, the relationship between
      floristic composition and habitat structure is intrinsically linked, particularly after
      fire. The aim of this study was to test whether the variability of habitat structure or
      floristic composition and abundance in forests at a regional scale can be
      explained in terms of fire frequency using historical data and experimental
      prescribed burns. We tested this hypothesis in open eucalypt forests of Fraser
      Island off the east coast of Australia. Fraser Island dunes show progressive
      stages in plant succession as access to nutrients decreases across the Island.
      We found that fire frequency was not a good predictor of floristic composition or
      abundance across dune systems; rather, its affects were dune specific. In
      contrast, habitat structure was strongly influenced by fire frequency, independent
      of dune system. A dense understorey occurred in frequently burnt areas,
      whereas infrequently burnt areas had a more even distribution of plant heights.
      Plant communities returned to pre-burn levels of composition and abundances
      within 6 months of a fire and frequently burnt areas were dominated by early
      successional species of plant. These ecosystems were characterized by low
      diversity and frequently burnt areas on the east coast were dominated by
      Pteridium. Greater midstorey canopy cover in low frequency areas reduces light
      penetration and allows other species to compete more effectively with Pteridium.
      Our results strongly indicate that frequent fires on the Island have resulted in a
      decrease in relative diversity through dominance of several species. Prescribed
      fire represents a powerful management tool to shape habitat structure and
      complexity of Fraser Island forests.

Speybroeck J., Bonte D., et al. (2006). "Beach nourishment: an ecological sound
coastal defence alternative?" Aquatic Conservation: Marine and freshwater Ecosystems
16: 419-435.

Stachowitsch, M. (2003). "Research on intact marine ecosystems: a lost era." Marine
Pollution Bulletin 46: 801-805.

Stanton, J. P. and M. G. Morgan (1977). The rapid selection and appraisal of Key and
Endangered Sites. U. o. N. England. Armidale.

Steffen, W., A. A. Burbridge, et al. (2009). Australia‘s biodiversity and climate change,
CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood.

Steffen, W. L. (2009). Climate change 2009: Faster change &amp; more serious risks,
Dept. of Climate Change: 52.

Stephenson, W. J. (2000). "Shore platforms: a neglected coastal feature?" Progress in
Physical Geography 24(3): 311-327.
      This review identifies four themes in shore platform research: 1) the role of
       marine and subaerial processes in platform development; 2) morphology of shore
       platforms; 3) modelling platform development; and 4) measuring rates of erosion.
       The view that shore platforms have a wave-cut origin has dominated the
       literature in the last 20 years. It is argued that this wave-cut origin remains to be
       convincingly demonstrated. Attempts to link platform morphology with the
       process environment have proven difficult but a recent demarcation between
       platform morphologies based on wave erosion and rock resistance offers an
       interesting and new way to consider platform morphology. Attempts to model
       platform development have been handicapped by a lack of data and a clear
       understanding of development processes. All models are based on the premise
       that platforms have a wave-cut origin, yet this has not been adequately
       demonstrated. There are a number of contradictions between models that require
       resolution. Erosion rates have been measured using the micro-erosion meter, but
       these studies are restricted both temporally and spatially. The contribution of
       microscale erosion relative to other forms and scales remains unknown. A
       number of issues are raised and suggested as being suitable questions for future
       research. It is proposed that real advances in understanding shore platforms will
       be aided by collaborative work between researchers from a number of
       morphogenetic environments.

Stephenson, W. J. and R. W. Brander (2003). "Coastal geomorphology into the
twenty-first century." Progress in Physical Geography 27(4): 607-623.

Stevens, T. and R. M. Connolly (2005). "Local scale mapping of benthic habitats to
assess representation in a marine protected area." Marine and Freshwater Research
56: 111-123.

Stieglitz, T. and P. V. Ridd (2002). "Dry season salinity changes in arid estuaries fringed
by mangroves and saltflats." Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science 54(6): 1039-1049.
        Mangrove swamps and hypersaline saltflats fringe many estuaries in dry tropical
        climates, especially in Northern Australia. For most of the year these estuaries
        receive zero riverine freshwater input and thus, after the wet season, a steady
        increase in salinity occurs. In some locations the estuary becomes fully inverse,
        i.e. the salinity increases monotonically from the mouth to the head. In other
        locations, a salinity maximum zone separates the sea from low salinity water that
        persists at the head of the estuary throughout the dry season. Field data from
        five estuaries indicate that in short estuaries where a large area of saltflats and
        mangroves extends over the whole length of the estuary, the estuary becomes
        completely inverse with salinity rising to 55 within a couple of months. The
        evaporation and evapotranspiration over the saltflats and mangroves cause this
        rapid increase in salinity. Longer estuaries where a large area of salt flat exists
        only close to the mouth do not become completely hypersaline for the whole
        length of the estuary by the end of the dry season. A salinity-maximum is
        generated close to the river mouth but salinities of less than 10 persist in the
        upper reaches of the estuary until the end of the dry season, even though the
        estuary does not receive any further freshwater input. A simple analytical
       expression is presented that reproduces the changes in salinities in the estuaries
       studied. This model can be used to predict the formation of hypersaline
       conditions in other mangrove and saltflat fringed estuaries where freshwater flow
       is negligible. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Stork, N. E., J. Balston, et al. (2007). "Tropical rainforest canopies and climate change."
Austral Ecology 32(1): 105-112.
       Abstract There is less certainty about the impact of climate change on tropical
       rainforests than on temperate forests because of the comparative lack of
       background data and because few large scale experiments have been, and are
       being, carried out in tropical rainforests. Many of the factors critical to the future
       of tropical rainforests concern canopies, the key processes that take place there,
       and the roles and interactions of canopy biodiversity. In particular there are
       almost no data on how forest canopies and processes are changing with
       increased carbon dioxide levels. The implications of elevated carbon dioxide,
       climatic stress and related changes in water-use efficiency, nutrient availability
       and other such changes are discussed particularly with references to Australia's
       tropical rainforests.


Struve, J. (2003). "Influence of model mangrove trees on the hydrodynamics in a
flume." Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 58: 163-171.

Stuart, G. (2004). A way forward in managing the Gold Coast littoral environment.
Research Report. G. C. f. C. Management, Gold Coast City Council.

Stuart, G. (2007).

Stuart, G. and R. Tomlinson (2004). A Way Forward in Managing the Gold Coast Littoral
Environment. Gold Coast, Gold Coast City Council and Griffith University.

Stuart, G., G. Withycombe, et al. (2006). Barriers and Opportunities for Local
Government in Coastal Management and Planning. Coastal Management in Australia:
Key Institutional and Governance Issues for Coastal Natural Resource Management
and Planning. Lazarow N, Souter R, Fearon R and Dovers S. Brisbane, Cooperative
Research Centre for Coastal Zone, Estuary and Waterway Management: 35-46.

Sturman, A. P. and N. J. Tapper (2006). The weather and climate of Australia and New
Zealand, Oxford University Press, USA.

Taffs, K. H. (2001). "Diatoms as indicators of wetland salinity in the Upper South East of
South Australia." The Holocene 11(3): 281-290.
       Wetland degradation in the Upper South East of South Australia is an urgent
       management concern. Scant recent environmental data is available for the
       region and long-term monitoring data is lacking. Usually a palaeoecological
       analysis is able to reveal environmental change in the medium- to long-term past.
       However, the region is not conducive to palaeoecological investigation due to a
       fluctuating upper groundwater aquifer and alkaline soils which have destroyed
       most microfossils. It was found that the diatom assemblage was preserved in the
       wetlands of the region for the period of European settlement. Analysis of the
       diatom assemblage enabled production of an inferred salinity curve. In
       combination with a small amount of historical information that was available, the
       salinity trend for the wetlands, for the period of European agricultural activities,
       was identified. It was found that, while groundwater salinity has been increasing,
       the wetland areas have experienced a freshening of surface water. This is due to
       an increase of throughflow of surface water, a result of constructed drainage
       systems flushing salts from the wetlands. Despite the freshening of wetlands they
       continue to degrade due to the changed hydrology, an impact of the drainage
       structures.

Taffs, K. H., L. J. Farago, et al. (2008). "A diatom-based Holocene record of human
impact from a coastal environment: Tuckean Swamp, eastern Australia." Journal of
Paleolimnology 39(1): 71-82.
       Diatom-based paleolimnological studies are being increasingly used to track
       anthropogenic change in estuaries. Little is known, however, about the direction
       and nature of long-term environmental changes in Australian estuaries. In this
       study, shifts in diatom assemblages preserved in a 210Pb and C14 AMS dated
       sediment core from Tuckean Swamp were analysed to determine environmental
       changes that had taken place as a result of changing land-use practices. Prior to
       European impact, the diatom assemblage remained relatively stable and was
       dominated by Actinocyclus normanii and Diploneis smithii. An increasing
       dominance of Cyclotella meneghiniana correlates well with changed land use
       activities in the catchment area and indicates an increase of freshwater influence
       in the swamp’s environment. A major shift in species composition began
       ∼1970, Eunotia flexuosa becoming dominant. The assemblage shifts recorded
       at this site appear to be consistent with environmental changes triggered by
       human activities such as vegetation clearance, drainage and the construction of
       a barrage. This study demonstrates the use of paleolimnoology in an estuarine
       environment to provide pre-impact data necessary for management of the
       aquatic environment.

Tanaka, N., Y. Sasaki, et al. (2006). "Coastal vegetation structures and their functions in
tsunami protection: experience of the recent Indian Ocean tsunami." Landscape and
Ecological Engineering 3: 33-45.

Taylor, I., F. A. Milligan, et al. (2007). "Governance for Sustainable Coastal Futures."
Journal of Coastal Management 35(4): 499 - 509.
       The mobile nature of soft coasts means that coastal communities face
       uncertainty in their property values and peace of mind when the existing coastal
       defense is lowered or removed. The acceptance by the U.K. government that
       coastal realignment in areas of low population density and limited ecological
       value is unavoidable means that the current state of affairs, where coastal
      residents have broadly come to assume that they will be defended if they make
      enough fuss, cannot continue. The government is currently unwilling to confront
      this consternation and continues to refuse to pay compensation for lost property
      value. This is creating an outcry over loss of fairness of treatment. This dispute
      raises important questions of governance for coastal change. This participatory
      research project worked closely with English Nature, North Norfolk District
      Council, local residents associations, the Environment Agency, and the
      Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. What emerged in the
      analysis were unresolved tensions between national strategic frameworks,
      emerging planning arrangements, changing economic assessments, and the
      desirability of delivering, through a number of public and voluntary agencies,
      local flexibility in participation and in coastal design. This article reports on the
      research process, the challenges for coastal governance, and the scope for
      creative partnerships between science, planning, policy delivery, and public
      acceptance.

Thatcher, A. C. and W. E. Westman (1975). "Succession following mining on high
dunes of coastal south-east Queensland." Proc. Ecol. Soc. Aust. 9: 17-33.

Thom, B. and T. McDonald (2009). "Reflections on managing Australia's coastal
environments: Interview with Bruce Thom." Ecological Management & Restoration 10:
4-9.

Thom, B. G. and A. D. Short (2006). "Introduction: Australian Coastal Geomorphology,
1984 - 2004." Journal of Coastal Research
 22(1): 1-10.

Thomas, K., R. G. Kvitek, et al. (2003). "Effects of human activity on the foraging
behavior of sanderlings Calidris alba." Biological Conservation 109: 67-71.

Thompson, L. M. C. and T. A. Schlacher (2008). "Physical damage to coastal dunes
and ecological impacts caused by vehicle tracks associated with beach camping on
sandy shores: a case study from Fraser Island, Australia." Journal of Coastal
Conservation 12(2): 67-82.
      As coastal populations expand, demands for recreational opportunities on
      beaches and coastal dunes grow correspondingly. Although dunes are known to
      be sensitive to direct human disturbance and provide irreplaceable ecosystem
      services (e.g. erosion control, critical habitat and nesting sites), dunes serve as
      campsites for large numbers of people (∼90,000 p.a.) on the ocean-exposed
      shores of Fraser Island, Australia. Campsites are located in the established
      dunes and can only be accessed with 4WD vehicles along tracks cut directly
      from the beach through the foredunes. Here we quantified the extent of physical
      damage to foredunes caused by this practice, and tested whether
      human-induced physical changes to foredunes translate into biological effects. Of
      the 124 km of ocean-exposed beaches, 122 km (98%) are open to vehicles
      driven on the beaches, and camping zones cover 28.7 km or 23% of the dunes.
      A total of 235 vehicle tracks are cut across the foredunes at an average density
      of eight tracks per km of beach. These tracks have effectively destroyed one-fifth
      (20.2%) of the dune front in camping zones, deeply incising the dune-beach
      interface. There is evidence of accelerated erosion and shoreline retreat centred
      around vehicle tracks, resulting in a “scalloping― of the shoreline. No dune
      vegetation remains in the tracks and the abundance of ghost crabs (Ocypode
      spp.) is significantly reduced compared with the abutting dunes. Because current
      levels of environmental change caused by dune camping may not be compatible
      with the sustainable use of coastal resources and conservation obligations for the
      island (listed as a World Heritage Area and gazetted as a National Park),
      restoration and mitigation interventions are critical. These will require spatial
      prioritisation of effort, and we present a multi-criteria ranking method, based on
      quantitative measures of environmental damage and ecological attributes, to
      objectively target rehabilitation and conservation measures. Ultimately, coastal
      management needs to develop and implement strategies that reconcile demands
      for human recreation, including beach camping, with conservation of coastal
      dune ecosystems.

Thompson, R. C., S. J. Hawkins, et al. (2009). "Consequences of climate-driven
biodiversity changes for ecosystem functioning of North European rocky shores."
Marine Ecology Progress-Series
 396: 245-259.
       We review how intertidal biodiversity is responding to globally driven climate
       change, focusing on long-term data from rocky shores in the British Isles.
       Physical evidence of warming around the British Isles is presented and, whilst
       there has been considerable fluctuation, sea surface temperatures are at the
       highest levels recorded, surpassing previous warm periods (i.e. late 1950s).
       Examples are given of species that have been advancing or retreating polewards
       over the last 50 to 100 yr. On rocky shores, the extent of poleward movement is
       idiosyncratic and dependent upon life history characteristics, dispersal
       capabilities and habitat requirements. More Southern, warm water species have
       been recorded advancing than northern, cold water species retreating. Models
       have been developed to predict likely assemblage composition based on future
       environmental scenarios. We present qualitative and quantitative forecasts to
       explore the functional consequences of changes in the identity, abundance and
       species richness of gastropod grazers and foundation species such as barnacles
       and canopy-forming algae. We forecast. that the balance of primary producers
       and secondary consumers is likely to change along wave exposure gradients
       matching changes Occurring with latitude, thereby shifting the balance between
       export and import of primary production. Increases in grazer and sessile
       invertebrate diversity are likely to be accompanied by decreasing primary
       production by large canopy-forming fucoids. The reasons for Such changes are
       discussed in the context of emerging theory on the relationship between
       biodiversity and ecosystem functioning.

Thomsen, D. (2003). Community-Based Research: An Opportunity for Collaboration
and Social Change. Australian School of Environmental Studies, Faculty of
Environmental Sciences. Brisbane, Griffith University: 381.

Tomás, J., R. Guitart, et al. (2002). "Marine debris ingestion in loggerhead sea turtles,
Caretta caretta, from the Western Mediterranean." Marine Pollution Bulletin 44(3):
211-216.

Tomlinson, R. B. and D. R. Cox (1993). Gold Coast Nearshore Current Characteristics
and Impacts on Coastal Sediment Processes. 11th Australasian Conference on Coastal
and Ocean Engineering: Coastal Engineering a Partnership with Nature; Preprints of
Papers, Institution of Engineers, Australia.

Tomlinson, R. B. a. F., D.N (1986). Sand Bypassing at the Tweed River Entrance: Data
Collection and Assessment Research Report No. 167, Water research Laboratory,
University of New South Wales.

Travers, A. (2007). "Low-energy beach morphology with respect to physical setting: A
case study from Cockburn Sound, southwestern Australia." Journal of Coastal
Research 23(2): 429-444.
      Low-energy beaches are omnipresent coastal features. In total, their overall
      length greatly exceeds that of ocean shorelines throughout the world. However, a
      comprehensive understanding of low-energy beaches is lacking, with their
      dynamics generally considered under existing principles governing open ocean
      beaches. This study investigates the morphodynamic characteristics of very low
      energy beaches on which wave heights can be less than 0.15 m under nonstorm
      conditions, as distinguished from the characteristic of high-energy environments
      in which low energy states commonly have modal wave heights of 0.5-1 m. This
      investigation is achieved through an analysis of a 30-year profile data set for
      Cockburn Sound, a fetch-limited, low-energy basin in southwestern Australia.
      The Sound experiences the full ranging of microtides and surges of the region,
      together with locally generated wind waves. Recurring patterns in cross-shore
      geometries and their distribution were identified through regression analysis of
      mean profile shapes. The spatial variability in the wind-wave regime was
      established by hindcasting conditions for key fetch directions. Cluster analysis of
      profile and environmental variables identified four morphotypes. Each
      morphotype can be explained in terms of a simple exposure factor, Ef =
      log(Fl/Ms), which is the proportion of fetch length (Fl) to marginal shoal width
      (Ms), such that Ef < 1 was characteristic of exponential profiles, Ef = 1-1.5 of
      segmented profiles, Ef = 1.5-2 of concave-curvilinear profiles, and Ef > 2 of
      convex-curvilinear profiles. Thus, the exposure factor is identified as a useful
      nondimensional parameter for the delineation of low-energy profile morphotypes
      within the study area. The utility of this approach in widespread classifications of
      low-energy beach morphology requires further research. This should take place
      in a variety of environments with varying degrees of protection and shelter from
      swell and subject to different tidal ranges and fluctuations in sea level.
Trenhaile, A. (2002). "Rock coasts, with particular emphasis on shore platforms."
Geomorphology 48(1-3): 7-22.
      Rock coasts are one of the most common elements of the world's littoral zone,
      and they are often important sources of sediment for estuaries and beaches.
      Economic development, growing populations, and the potential effects of rising
      sea level provide a practical need to understand the dynamics of these coasts.
      Although there have been significant advances in our understanding of rocky
      coastal systems, further progress has been hindered by a lack of researchers
      and by the often imperceptible changes that generally occur within human time
      scales. This paper reviews rock coast processes and landforms in a variety of
      morphogenic environments. One of our most fundamental challenges is to
      determine the degree to which rock coasts are contemporary rather than
      inherited features from the Quaternary, when changes in sea level and climate
      were responsible for marked variations in the nature, intensity, and elevational
      distribution of the marine and subaerial processes that sculpture rock coasts. (C)
      2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Turner, I. and A. McLachlan (1994). "The Interstitial environment of sandy beaches."
Marine Ecology - Pubblicazioni Della Stazione Zoologica Di Napoli 15(3-4): 177-211.
      The interstitial system of sandy beaches is lacunar and has its dimensions
      defined by the sand granulometry. It can be described by features such as pore
      size, porosity, permeability, and water content. The most important process
      occurring in this system, water filtration, is driven by inputs of freshwater from
      groundwater discharge, and inputs of seawater by tides, wave run-up, and
      subtidal wave pumping. Reflective beaches have seawater input effected mainly
      by waves; they filter large water volumes with short residence times. Dissipative
      beaches display the opposite patterns, slowly filtering small volumes input by
      tides. Flow patterns and their effects on interstitial climate are described. The
      water table of the beach moves in response to groundwater discharge, tides, and
      waves and influences erosion/accretion processes on the beach face: a high
      water table promotes erosion. A series of moisture zones can be recognised from
      the dry surface sand at upper tide levels, to permanently saturated sand below
      the low tide water table, namely: a stratum of dry sand, a stratum of retention, a
      stratum of resurgence, and stratum of saturation. Interstitial chemistry is briefly
      described in terms of salinity changes, organic loads, oxygen content, and
      nutrient cycling. It is concluded that the interstitial environment of sandy beaches
      spans a continuum between physically and chemically controlled extremes: the
      former condition occurs on coarse sand reflective beaches, which experience low
      organic inputs and high filtration rates of large water volumes - resulting in
      powerful hydrodynamic forces; the latter occurs on dissipative beaches of fine
      sand, which are subject to high organic inputs and low filtration volumes -
      resulting in stagnation and steep vertical chemical gradients. Many intermediate
      situations occur and these are more favourable to interstitial life than either of the
      extremes.

Turner, I. L. (1998). "Monitoring groundwater dynamics in the littoral zone at seasonal,
storm, tide and swash frequencies." Coastal Engineering 35: 1-16.

Turner, I. L. (2006). Analysis of Shoreline Variability, Seasonality and Erosion /
Accretion Trends: August 2005 - January 2006: Report 13: Northern Gold Coast
Coastal Imaging System, Water Research Laboratory, University of New South Wales.

Turner, R. and R. Lewis (1996). "Hydrologic restoration of coastal wetlands." Wetlands
Ecology and Management 4: 65-72.

Udy, J. (2007). E. Senior Conservation Officer.

Underwood, A. J. and M. G. Chapman, Eds. (1995). Coastal Marine Ecology of
Temperate Australia Sydney, NSW, University of New South Wales Press Ltd.

unknown (2009). "Climate catch 22.(OCEANIA)(climate change laws in New South
Wales and Queensland, Australia)." Earth Island Journal 24(4): 11.
      Australians are known for their fierce independence, and now they're increasingly
      moving to take climate change matters into their own hands. It's not a moment
      too soon, given that the country is experiencing what scientists call "accelerated
      climate change" thanks to its dry climate. Two new proposed pieces of legislation
      would allow many Aussies to help defend themselves from the effects of climate
      change, but critics are worried that they may also adversely affect the
      environment.

In New South Wales, state legislators are moving to override local planning policies that
      prohibit coastal fortification to let beachside residents protect their homes against
      rising tides believed to be caused by climate change. The NSW government said
      it would list 19 "hot spot" beaches where waterfront homes were at risk from
      rising sea levels. Property owners in those areas would be given more rights to
      construct sea walls and barriers, with the state government appointing itself as
      final judge over any barrier plans rejected by local councils. Homeowners are
      pleased with the plan, but environmentalists fear widespread coastal defenses
      could block the movement of sand, causing massive erosion.

Meanwhile, a new program launched in the state of Queensland will help motorists
     offset their carbon emissions. Through the "Reverse the Effect" program,
     Queensland residents will receive a flyer with their car registration renewal
     notices announcing that they can pay an additional fee with the registration to
     help offset the emissions created by their automobiles. The state government
     has allocated $4.5 million over the next five years to match motorists'
     contributions dollar for dollar.

The goal of the program is to offset 290,000 tons of C[O.sub.2]. But carbon offset
      programs have come under fire for encouraging a sort of pay-to-pollute mentality
      and for not translating directly to emissions reductions.
--REUTERS 10/19, BRISBANE TIMES 11/4


Van De Merwe, J. and A. Cuttriss (2006). South Stradbroke Island 2005/2006 Marine
Turtle Monitoring Program. E. P. a. C. Unit. Gold Coast City Council.

Vanderzee, M. P. (1990). Changes in saltmarsh vegetation as an early indicator of
sea-level rise. Greenhouse. Planning for climate change. P. GI., CSIRO Publishing,
Melbourne: 147-160.

Vila-Concejo, A., M. G. Hughes, et al. (2009). "Formation and Evolution of a Sandwave
on an Estuarine Beach." Journal of Coastal Research
 1: 153-157.
       Sandwave formation at the shoreline has been related to waves with a high
       incidence angle. This paper presents the evolution and longshore movement of a
       shoreline-attached sandwave on the northern shoreline of Port Stephens estuary
       (NSW, Australia) from 1968 to present. Results presented include historic
       evolution using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and periodic topographic
       measurements to evaluate shorter term evolution and wave climate. Port
       Stephens is a tide-dominated estuary located on a wave-dominated coast; it is a
       drowned river valley estuary with a large shallow flood tide delta that provides
       some protection to the estuarine beaches. The orientation of the estuary mouth
       (SE) coincides with the dominant wave energy permitting propagation of
       southerly waves inside the estuary. The north shore of the lower estuary
       comprises a shoreline that alternates areas characterised by overall erosion and
       accretion, terminating at a sand spit that is extending westwards; the sandwave
       forms and develops near the estuary mouth. Decadal studies of the sandwave
       show that the first observed sandwave occurred in the 1980s, that was followed
       by a period of intense accretion until 2001 and since then sandwave migration
       has slowed down. Short term evolution indicates that the sandwave is a highly
       dynamic area with a net gain of sediments between March 2007 and April 2008
       of +10 x 10(3) m(3). During the study period some high energy storms occurred
       during which it was observed that while the sandwave was accumulating
       sediment, erosion was occurring on other parts of the beach. The sandwave has
       recently been dredged for nourishment purposes and ongoing work is measuring
       sandwave recovering after the dredging.

Viles, H. (1991). "Coastal geomorphology." Progress in Physical Geography 15(2):
182-192.
       Coastal geomorphologists are becoming increasingly concerned with applied
       studies for a variety of reasons, including economic considerations. However,
       there are other remaining challenges for coastal geomorphologists including
       relating processes and forms, observa tions and theories to produce convincing
       and useful explanatory frameworks. Without these developments, applied studies
       will always lack rigour and predictive power. In the following sections I review
       some recent observational, theoretical and applied work in coastal
      geomorphology in general and then focus on coastal sand dune studies.

WADEC (2007). State of the environment report : Western Australia : 2007 /
Environmental Protection Authority. Perth, W.A. :, Dept. of Environment and
Conservation: 312 p. ;.

Walkden, M. J. A., M. E. Dickson, et al. (2007). "Systemic impacts of climate change on
an eroding coastal region over the twenty-first century." Climatic Change 84(2):
141-166.
      A numerical model detailing the functioning and emergent behaviour of an
      eroding coastal system is described. Model output from a 50-km study region
      centred on the soft-rock shore of northeast Norfolk was verified through
      comparison with cliff recession rates that were extracted from historical maps
      spanning more than a century. Predictions were then made for the period 2000 to
      2100 under combined climatic change and management scenarios. For the
      scenarios evaluated, the model was relatively insensitive to increases in offshore
      wave height and moderately sensitive to changes in wave direction, but the most
      important effects were associated with accelerated sea-level rise (SLR). In
      contrast to predictions made using a modified version of the Bruun rule, the
      systems model predicted rather complex responses to SLR. For instance, on
      some sectors of coast, whereas the Bruun rule predicted increased recession
      under accelerated SLR, the systems model actually predicted progradation owing
      to the delivery of sediment from eroding coasts up-drift. By contrast, on coasts
      where beaches are underlain by shore platforms, both the Bruun rule and the
      systems model predicted accelerated recession rates. However, explicit
      consideration of the interaction between beach and shore platform within the
      systems model indicates that these coasts have a broader range of responses
      and lower overall vulnerability to SLR than predicted by the Bruun rule.

Walshe, T. and T. Massenbauer (2008). "Decision-making under climatic uncertainty: A
case study involving an Australian Ramsar-listed wetland." Ecological Management &
Restoration 9(3): 202-208.

Waltham, N. (2007).

Walthe, G. R., E. Post, et al. (2002). "Ecological responses to recent climate change."
Nature 416.

Ward, T. J. and A. Butler (2006). Coasts and Oceans. Theme Commentary Prepared for
the 2006 Australia State of the Environment Committee. Canberra, Department of
Environment and Heritage.

Water, D. o. N. R. a. (2007) Weeds Fact Sheets. Volume, DOI:

Waterman, P., C. M. Finlayson, et al. (1999). "Predicted climate change, sea-level rise
and wetland management in the Australian wet-dry tropics." Wetlands Ecology and
Management 7(1): 63-81.
     The vulnerability of coastal areas in the Alligator Rivers Region (northern
     Australia) to predicted climate change and potential sea level rise was assessed
     as part of a national study. The coastal area is composed of a number of
     estuarine and freshwater habitats that are intricately interlinked and can not be
     effectively managed in isolation of each other. The outcomes of the assessment
     focused on the floodplain environments of the region, but are also applicable to
     the broader wetland environments that occur across the northern Australian
     wet-dry tropics. The management regime in the region is based on traditional
     Aboriginal ownership of much of the land, which is leased to the federal
     government as a national park. Scientific research has been intensive; however,
     important questions have been raised about the collation and effective use of this
     information. The vulnerability assessment framework required effective use of
     this information and cooperation with the management authority to identify
     change scenarios and management and research responses. A climate change
     scenario was established as the basis for predicting biophysical change in the
     coastal and wetland environments. The predictions suggest that large-scale
     change will occur and many of the existing values derived from these areas (i.e.,
     usage by traditional Aboriginal occupants, and nature conservation) could be
     degraded or even lost. Recommended management responses include the
     initiation of specific monitoring, empowerment of local bodies to take active
     management steps, and to increase awareness of the likely consequences of
     change. Further data coordination and review are needed to ascertain the validity
     of the predictions and the concomitant management responses.

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Werry, J. (2007). R. C. Officer.

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Weston, M. A. and M. A. Elgar (2007). "Response of incubating Hooded Plovers
(Thinornis rubricollis) to disturbance." Journal of Coastal Research 23(3): 569-576.

Whelan, J. and P. Oliver (2004). Regional Community-Based Planning: The Challenge
of Participatory Environmental Governance. Brisbane, CRC for Coastal Zone, Estuary
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interconnected coastal lakes: Myall Lakes Australia." Hydrobiologia 608(1): 21-34.
       Myall Lakes is a large brackish coastal lake on the east coast of Australia that
       was considered pristine until the occurrence of blue-green algal blooms in 1999.
       The temporal and spatial extent of chemical and biological changes to the water
       column of Myall Lakes was studied intensively after a rain event in 2002. Water
       quality profiles (T, EC, pH, DO), turbidity (secchi), nutrients (TN, NO x , NH4 +,
       DON, TP, FRP, DOP, Si), and phytoplankton (chl a and cell counts) were
       measured at nine sites on eight occasions immediately after the rain event.
       Freshwater inflows affected a large area of the lake. Greatest changes were
       seen in areas close to the mouth of the upper Myall River which is the largest
       freshwater input to the lakes. Here, greatly elevated concentrations of NO x , TP,
       and FRP (up to two orders of magnitude higher than background) were recorded
       immediately after the rain event but persisted for only 2 to 8Â days. Slightly
       elevated concentrations of TP and NO x were seen in inflows from the smaller
       Boolambayte Creek. Stratification was associated with bottom water anoxia and
       release of ammonia from the sediments. Identification of the sources of nutrient
       species delivered from different parts of the catchment, combined with studies of
       nutrient loads can assist managers to develop effective nutrient reduction
       strategies to reduce the incidence of blue-green algal blooms in Myall Lakes.

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Wolanski, E. (2007). Estuarine ecohydrology, Elsevier Science Ltd.
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management of estuaries and coastal waters." Wetlands Ecology and Management 12:
235-276.

Wolfgang, J. J. (2002). "Long-term environmental trends and the future of tropical
wetlands; W.J. Junk; Future of tropical wetlands." Environmental Conservation 29(4):
414.
      Tropical wetlands assume important functions in the landscape and contribute
      considerably to the welfare of large parts of the human population, but they are
      seriously threatened because they are considered free resources of land and
      water. This review summarizes long-term environmental trends for tropical
      wetlands and predicts their future to the time horizon 2025. Many tropical
      countries do not have the economic strength, scientific and technological
      capacity, and/or administrative infrastructure to adequately react to the
      challenges of increasing population pressure and globalization of the economy
      with respect to the sustainable use of the resources. Furthermore, political
      instability and armed conflicts affect large areas in several tropical countries,
      hindering wetland research and management. Detailed wetland inventories are
      missing in most countries, as are plans for a sustainable management of
      wetlands in the context of a long-term integrated watershed management.
      Despite large regional variability, a continental ranking shows, in decreasing
      order of wetland integrity, South America, Africa, Australia and Asia, while efforts
      to mitigate human impacts on wetlands are largest and most advanced in
      Australia. Analysis of demographic, political, economic and ecological trends
      indicates fairly stable conditions for wetlands in tropical Australia, slight
      deterioration of the large wetland areas in tropical South America excepting the
      Magdalena and Cauca River flood plains where human population is larger,
      rapidly increasing pressure and destruction on many African and Central
      American wetlands and serious threats for the remaining wetlands in tropical
      Asia, by the year of 2025. Policy deficiencies, deficient planning concepts, limited
      information and awareness and institutional weakness are the main
      administrative reasons for wetland degradation and must be overcome to
      improve wetland management and protection in future. Intensification of
      international cooperation and assistance is considered of fundamental
      importance for most tropical countries to solve problems related to wetland
      research, protection and sustainable management. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]

Wollast, R., J. P. Gattuso, et al. (1998). "Carbon and carbonate metabolism in coastal
aquatic ecosystems." Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 29: 405-434.
       The coastal zone is where land, ocean, and atmosphere interact. It exhibits a
       wide diversity of geomorphological types and ecosystems, each one displaying
       great variability in terms of physical and biogeochemical forcings. Despite its
       relatively modest surface area, the coastal zone plays a considerable role in the
       biogeochemical cycles because it receives massive inputs of terrestrial organic
       matter and nutrients, is among the most geochemically and biologically active
       areas of the biosphere, and exchanges large amounts of matter and energy with
       the open ocean. Coastal ecosystems have therefore attracted much attention
       recently and are the focus of several current national and international research
       programs (e.g. LOICZ, ELOISE). The primary production, respiration,
       calcification, carbon burial and exchange with adjacent systems, including the
       atmosphere, are reviewed for the major coastal ecosystems (estuaries,
       macrophyte communities, mangroves, coral reefs, and the remaining continental
       shelf). All ecosystems examined, except estuaries, are net autotrophic. The
       contribution of the coastal zone to the global carbon cycle both during pristine
       times and at present is difficult to assess due to the limited metabolic data
       available as well as because of major uncertainties concerning the magnitude of
       processes such as respiration, exchanges at the open ocean boundary, and
       air-sea fluxes of biogases.

Wondolleck JN and Y. SL (2000). Making Collaboration Work: Lessons From Innovation
In Natural Resource Management. Washington DC, Island Press.

Wong, P. P. (2003). "Where have all the beaches gone? Coastal erosion in the tropics."
Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 24(1): 111-132.
      From a physical geography perspective, tropical coasts are characterised by
      coral reefs, mangroves and carbonate beaches on atolls and low reef islands.
      They face threats not only from sea level rise, but also from human activities that
      destroy mangroves, degrade coral reefs and accelerate beach erosion. Physical
      conditions in the tropics are suitable for the ideal tourist beach. Conceptually, the
      tourist coast can be considered as the integration of a physical system (the
      coast) and a human system (tourism). Studies have been carried out on various
      types of tourist coasts in Southeast Asia. For many atoll island states, sea level
      rise is more than just a threat to their tourism; it also determines their survival. In
      recent years, assessments of their vulnerability and adaptation have favoured a
      more integrative approach of physical and human sciences. Hopefully, this
      should result in a better analytical tropical geography that could play an important
      role in reducing coastal erosion and assist the small island states.

Wong, V. N. L., S. G. Johnston, et al. (2010). "Seawater causes rapid trace metal
mobilisation in coastal lowland acid sulfate soils: Implications of sea level rise for water
quality." Geoderma 160(2): 252-263.
       Coastal floodplains are highly vulnerable to inundation with saline water and the
       likelihood of inundation will
increase with sea level rise. Sediment samples from floodplains containing coastal
       lowland acid sulfate soils
(CLASS) in eastern Australia were subjected to increasing seawater concentration to
       examine the probable
effects of sea level rise on acidity and metal desorption. Ten soils were mixed with
       synthetic seawater
concentrations varying from 0% to 100% at a solid:solution ratio of 1:10 for 4 h. There
       was a slight decrease in
pH (≈0.5 units) with increasing seawater concentration following treatment, yet,
        calculated acidity increased
significantly. In most soil treatments, Al was the dominant component of the calculated
        acidity pool. Al
dominated the exchange complex in the CLASS and, correspondingly, was the major
        metal ion desorbed. In
general, concentrations of soluble and exchangeable Al, Fe2+, Ni, Mn and Zn in all soil
        extracts increased with
increasing salinity. Increasing trace metal concentrations with increasing seawater
        concentration is attributed
to the combined effects of exchange processes and acidity. The increasing ionic
        strength of the seawater
treatments displaces trace metals and protons adsorbed on sediments, causing an
        initial decrease in pH.
Hydrolysis of desorbed acidic metal cations can further contribute to acidity and
        increase mobilisation of trace
metals. These findings imply that saline inundation of CLASS environments, even by
        relatively brackish water
may cause rapid, shorter-term water quality changes and a pulse release of acidity due
        to desorption of acidic
metal cations.


Woodroffe, C. D. (1990). "The impact of sealevel rise on mangrove shorelines."
Progress in Physical Geography 14: 483-520.

Woodroffe, C. D. (1990). "The impact of sea-level rise on mangrove shorelines."
Progress in Physical Geography 14: 483-520.

Woodroffe, C. D. (2003). Coasts : form, process, and evolution / Colin D. Woodroffe.
New York :, Cambridge University Press.

Wright, L. and A. Short, Eds. (1984). Morphodynamic variability of surf zones and
beaches: a synthesis.

Wright, L. D. and C. a. Nittrouer (1995). "Dispersal of River Sediments in Coastal Seas:
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Yasue, M. (2006). "Environmental factors and special scale influence shorebirds‘
response to human disturbance." Biological Conservation 28: 47-54.

Yates, C. J., J. Elith, et al. (2010). "Projecting climate change impacts on species
distributions in megadiverse South African Cape and Southwest Australian Floristic
Regions: Opportunities and challenges." Austral Ecology 35(4): 374-391.

York, A. (2000). "Long-term effects of frequent low-intensity burning on ant communities
in coastal blackbutt forests of southeastern Australia." Austral Ecology 25(1): 83-98.
Periodic low-intensity fire (hazard-reduction burning) is a conspicuous
management strategy in virtually all of Australia‘s dry forest communities where it
is primarily used to reduce fuel levels with the intention of minimising the extent
and severity of wildfires. Little is known, however, about the effects of its
repeated use on natural ecosystems over long periods of time. This study
investigated the long-term effects of frequent low-intensity fire on forest ant
communities by comparing frequently burnt sites with long-unburnt control sites.
While the richness of ant communities remained largely unchanged, the
composition of assemblages differed substantially between treatments. Although
frequent burning apparently resulted in the loss of a substantial number of
species, the overall richness of frequently burnt areas was maintained by the
addition of species not present on unburnt sites. These changes in species
composition were accompanied by major changes in community organisation
(structure) and were considered to be a response to altered habitat conditions,
particularly litter biomass, vegetation structure and patterns of insolation at
ground level. Appropriate fire prescriptions could therefore be applied to
manipulate these habitat elements at a landscape scale to meet both
management and conservation goals. A comparison of pitfall trapping and litter
extraction techniques revealed the importance of a composite sampling strategy,
with 22% of ant species detected only by litter extraction.