Tidslinje 20Excel

tids-

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11 000

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jul 8

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1634

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1754

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jul 13

1786



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maj 11

maj 17





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1860 apr 3

apr 29



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feb 13





feb 18



feb 28

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okt 24









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1862 aug 18









sep 23

okt 26

dec 26









feb 20







feb 24

mar 4

maj 26





jul 2

jul 3









jul 7



1863









jul 26

jul 28

sep 3



sep 5









maj 26

jun 11

jul 9









jul 12









jul 28

aug 1

1864

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nov 26

1864









nov 29









maj 20

jun 3









jun 8









jul 25

jul 26









1865

jul 26









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aug 11

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jul 17









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1866

jul 24









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1869





dec 1

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mar 3









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1874









jun 27









mar 1

mar 17







maj 17

maj 29

jun 17









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1876



jul 17









aug 1

aug 2

aug 28







aug 29

sep 9









nov 25









dec 7



dec 18



jan 15

feb 28







mar 23







maj

maj 6







maj 7



1877 jun





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1877









okt 5









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nov 8

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1879









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jan 14









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jan 18

jul 19

1881

aug 5









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okt 24









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maj







sep 8









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1885







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1887

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jan 1



mar 2





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jan 1









maj 2





feb 10

maj 29





okt 16







1890

dec 15

1890







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sep 18









okt 15



1892

1893

feb 10





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aug 16



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mar 2



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1972 sep 7







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feb 27







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mar 2









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1981

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sep 13









1994

1994









sep 6





1995







jun 11





jul 23



jul 28





okt 21









1996

1996









apr 15



1997





jan 20





mar 6





aug 11



1998 sep 2









mar 24

maj 17

jun 2





jun





jun 16



1999 jun 18





sep 28

nov 24









jan 14





apr 29



sep 8









2000

2000









jan 1

feb 23

2001 mar 10

jun 10





feb 7





2002 feb 8









2003 jun 25





jun 21



2004

dec



jan









2005

apr 29



2005





apr







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2006

dec 7









jul 16



2007 nov 26







jun 11





aug 7

2008

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2009

dec 3

2009

dec 8







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2010 aug 30





nov 24





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jul 5

2011

TIDSLINJE FÖR WESTERNS UTVECKLING tidpunkt för senaste

uppdatering 2011-10-26

händelse

De allra tidigaste invandrarna korsar landbryggan där Berings Sund nu ligger och vandrar in på den Nordamerikanska kontinenten troligen

redan under tidigare perioder då inlandsisen drog sig tillbaka. Kanske redan så tidigt som för 50’000 år sedan. Men det här finns inga bevis

för.Under den senaste nedisningen, som pågick under tiden mellan 26’000 år sedan och fram till för 13’300 år sedan, var så stora delar av den

Nordamerikanska kontinenten täckt av is, att någon mera omfattande människoinvandring knappast har kunnat ske. Den allra senaste

invandringen beräknas ha skett så sent som ett par tusen år före Kristi Födelse. De sista människogrupper som då invandrade utgör de vi

numera kallar Inuiter (Eskimåer). Eftersom havet då hade stigit över den tidigare landbryggan, måste denna sena invandring antingen ha

skett med någon form av båt/kanot, eller så har det vintertid funnits tillräckligt med is för att människorna har kunnat ta sig över.



Nyligen har forskare dock antytt att människor, tillhörande en kultur som kallats Sandia, kan ha levt i Sydvästern redan för mera än 30’000 år

sedan. Man har hittat spår som tyder på det i en grotta i Sandiabergen, strax öster om staden Albuquerque, i New Mexico. En grotta som

upptäcktes redan 1935, men där man först nu har kommit så långt ner i marklagren att man har hittat rester av vad man menar är mänskligt

liv. Det är rester i form av stenföremål, kol från lägereldar och benrester av djur. Om det här är sannt, så måste alltså dessa människor ha

kommit till kontinenten före den senaste nedisningen och funnit tillräckliga överlevnadsmöjligheter nere i Sydvästern.



Geologiska fynd har tolkats som bevis för att en mänsklig lägerplats har funnits vid den här tiden på en plats i Colorado.



Den så kallade Cloviskulturen anses ha uppkommit vid den här tiden i nuvarande New Mexico.



Utmejslade vapenspetsar av sten som upphittats vid Clovis, New Mexico, har varit använda i jakten på istidsdjur. Deras ålder har uppskattats

till denna tid.

Plano-kulturen utvecklas på de centrala prärierna. Den pågår till 6 000 f.Kr.

Äldre Cordillera-kultur uppstår på Columbiaplatån (nuvarande staterna Washington, Oregon och Idaho). Samtidigt finner vi spår efter tidiga

ökenkulturer i Sydvästern och Mexiko.



Den så kallade Folsom-kulturen är etablerad på de centrala slätterna.



Landbryggan mellan Asien och Amerika översvämmas, när havsnivån höjs i takt med att inlandsisarna smälter.



I takt med att de stora istidsdjuren dör ut skapas en ny, kombinerad jakt/samlarkultur på slätterna.



Kulturer som anses vara de moderna pueblofolkens föregångar etablerade sig i Sydvästern

Högbyggarna / Moundbuilders; Adena-kulturen uppkommer i Ohiodalen och andra östliga delar av USA. Pågick till omkring år 200



Anasazi -kulturen uppkommer i Sydvästern. Den utmärks av avacerad korgflätningsteknik, enkelt jordbruk och konstruktion av de första

bostäderna av adobe-lera helt ovan mark. Kulturen fortlevde ända till slutet av 1200-talet, då bosättningarna övergavs och människorna

flyttade. Forskarna är fortfarande oense om till vilken tid man ska datera den här kulturens uppkomst.

Högbyggarna / Moundbuilders; Hopewell-traditionen (ibland felaktigt kallad ”kulturen”) uppkommer längs de stora flodstråken i de nordöstra

delarna av USA och i Mellanvästern. Pågick till omkring år 500



Hohokam-kulturen uppkommer i Sydvästern. Pågick till omkring år 1500. (Forskarna är inte överens om dessa tidsramar).



Pataya-kulturen uppkommer i Sydvästern. Pågick till omkring år 1500. (Forskarna är inte överens om dessa tidsramar).



Mogollon-kulturen uppstår i Sydvästern. Pågick till omkring år 1450. (Forskarna är inte överens om dessa tidsramar).



Jordbruk utvecklas bland Mogollon-folk i Sydvästern. Tillgången till stabilare födotillgång leder också till utvecklingen av permanent boende i

form av så kallade ”pit-houses” - grophus. Här levde ett flertal familjer tillsammans i små byar. (Forskarna är inte överens om dessa

tidsramar).

Fremont-kulturen uppstår i områden som idag är Utah, Nevada, Idaho och Colorado. På grottväggar i området har de efterlämnat etsningar av

djur och människor. Kulturen varade till omkring år 1350.

Anazasifolk befolkade Canyon de Chelly och Canyon del Muerto i nordöstra Arizona under den här tiden. Kulturen fortlevde i de här områdena

fram till omkring år 1300.

Den nordliga kaliforniska Emeryville Shellmound, CA-Ala 309, dateras till den här tiden.



Obsidian, koppar, pärlor och andra material funna i begravningshögar från Hopewell-kulturen, i Ohio-dalen, utgör bevis att på en omfattande

transkontinental handel redan etablerats.

Upptäckter, som framlagts år 2005, antyder att folk från Polynesien kan ha besökt Kalifornien under den här perioden och då överfört sin

kanotbyggarteknik till lokala Chumash och Gabrielino indianer. Man menar att perioden kan ha sträckt sig fram till omkring år 700.

Sinagua-kulturen uppstår. Pågår till omkring år 1225.



Pueblofolk bygger och bebor det välkända Cliff Palace i Mesa Verde, Colorado. Bebyggelsen övergavs under tiden mellan åren 1275 till 1300.

The Mississippian people, the largest pre-Columbian culture north of Mexico, built the earthen city of Cahokia about this time. The site,

discovered in southwestern Illinois, probably served as a religious center and may have had a population of up to 80,000. The Mississippians

arose around 600 - 800 AD and remained a powerful influence until about the time of the first European explorers. The loose-knit theocracy

held sway over much of present-day Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Missouri, Ohio and, not surprisingly, Mississippi.

They also had settlements extending sporadically into the upper Midwest and across the western plains. The largest of the earthen mounds at

Cahokia, called Monks Mound, is 700 feet wide, 100 feet tall and 1000 feet long--representing a colossal public works program and a

government stable enough to order the construction.

Högbyggarna / Temple-Moundbuilders; Mississippi-kulturen uppkommer i Mississippidalen. Kulturen fortlevde under en tusenårsperiod fram till

omkring år 1700.

Native peoples in southwest Colorado started building stone houses above ground, first one-story, then two. Ruins of these are scattered over

the landscape and have the look of ones the Pueblo Indians-Hopi, Zuni and others of the Southwest live in today. They added beans, an

important source of protein, to their diets, and began making simple grayware pots. They had bows and arrows.



Pueblo Bonito, Chaco-kulturens största fasta bosättning byggs och befolkas. Bebyggelsen övergavs sedan omkring år 1126.



Vikingar landstiger på Labradorhalvön och träffar på folk som de kallar för ”Skrälingar”. Ett gammalnordiskt, isländskt uttryck för ”barbarer”.

Platsen är Newfoundland och indianerna tillhör stammen Beotuk. En stam som numera är borta.



Anasazi-folken bygger klipphusboningar och stora flerfamiljskomplex på upp till 1,000 rum.

Indianer befolkade ett landområde kring sammanflödet ab två vattendrag mellan Walnut Creek och Lafayette, Ca. En begravningsplats

hittades här 1904. År 2004 gjordes ett 80-tal fynd av mänskliga kvarlevor på platsen i samband med ett husbyggnadsprojekt kallat "the

Hidden Oaks housing development".

Hopi och Acoma Pueblos anläggs i Sydvästern.



Det som skulle komma att bli den stora Cahokia-bosättningen i södra Illinois kan nu ha omfattat så många som 30,000 innevånare.

I Montana skapades klippmålningar i Weatherman Draw, också kallat "the Valley of the Chiefs".

An Anasazi trade center in New Mexico offered pottery, turquoise and buffalo meat.

A group of Anasazi villages in southwest Colorado were suddenly abandoned during a period of severe drought. In 2000 evidence showed that

a raiding party had swept through the area, killed the inhabitants and ate their flesh.

Salado-kulturen uppstår och varar till 1400-talets slut.



The Anasazi in southwest Colorado building technic for their cliff dwellings was at its peak. Population was thriving. They were making

corrugated pottery and handsomely decorated black and white pottery.

The Anasazi in southwest Colorado fought a battle against unknown enemies. Number of kivas built greatly increased. Quality of workmanship

in building decreased. People began to leave.

Anasazi-folken överger sina stora klippboniongar. Trycket från inträngande nyanlända apache- och navajofolk i kombination med en

omfattande och långvarig torka under det sista 25 åren av 1200-talet anses vara orsaken till att de lämnat området. Troligen vandrade de

österut mot den säkrare vattentillgången vid Rio Grandefloden, där de kom att bli förfäder till dagens pueblofolk.

Indianska folk byggde en stad, som de kallade Atsina, på toppen av klippan El Morro (New Mexico). Bebyggelsen var befolkad fram till

omkring år 1350.

The Fremont Indians, who had lived in Utah’s Range Creek Canyon since about 200, disappeared from the archeological record.



Vid den förhistoriska periodens slut kan folken i Västern ha omfattat så många som upp mot 240 unika stamgrupper med så många som upp

till 300 olika språk.

Christoffer Columbus landstiger första gången på amerikansk mark och får kontakt med infödingar. Det var på en av öarna i ögruppen

Bahamas och infödingarna var arawaker. På grund av deras nakenhet utgick han ifrån att de var en underlägsen ras. Han skrev om de

infödingar han stötte på: ”De går alla omkring precis så nakna som deras mödrar födde fram dem, såväl män som kvinnor”. Men samtidigt

noterade han: ”de kan lätt påverkas och det är lätt att få dem att arbeta, att odla eller annat nödvändigt, att bygga städer och att lära sig att

bära kläder och att göra annat på vårt sätt”. Även om Columbus också skrev: ”de är de bästa människorna i världen och framför allt de

vänligaste”, så var hans noteringar om det första sammanträffandet mellan européer och den nya världens indianer ändå fyllda av uppgifter

om förslavande, mord och våldtäkt.

I maj stöter Ponce de Leon på Calusaindianer under sin utforskningsfärd längs Floridas Gulfkust i närheten av hamnen i Charlotte. I en strid

med Calusa, tillfångatar de Leon fyra krigare.

Hernan Cortes invaderar Mexico och slutför sitt besegrande av det Aztekiska Imperiet 1521, samt grundar en spansk koloni kallad Nya

Spanien (New Spain)

Den 8 juli, ägde den första kidnappningen rum i Amerika, då Florentinska upptäckare rövade bort ett indianskt barn och förde det till

Frankrike.

Spanjorerna gjorde ett försök att besätta Florida, genom en expedition kallade The Narvaes Expedition. Expeditionen misslyckades och endast

ett fåtal personer överlevde sammandrabbningar med indianer, sjukdomar och brist på mat och förnödenheter. Av en ursprunglig styrka på

600 man var det endast fyra som överlevde under det år som expeditionen varade.



Den 16 april, 1528, nådde Narvaes expedition området kring Tamp Bay. Här noterade de spanska soldaterna och upptäckarna, under

indianjägaren Panfilo de Narvaez, indianska bosättningar. Narvaez gjorde då anspråk på landet för den spanska kungens räkning.



Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca, en av de fyra överlevande från det olycksdrabbade försöket att besätta Florida och Sydöstern, befinner sig

tillsammans med de övriga fyra landsmännen, på ett fartyg som lider skeppsbrott utanför Galveston Island, längs Texaskusten. Här påbörjas

hans åtta år långa odysé, som en av de allra första européer att sätta sin fot i Västern.

Efter att ha levt sex år bland indianerna längs Texaskusten börjar Cabeza de Vaca och hans tre landsmän - varav en är en afrikansk slav vid

namn Esteban - - sina egna färder genom Texas och Sydvästern och ner i Mexico. De skyddas mot indianerna på grund av Cabeza's rykte om

att vara en healer och en fredens man.



Cabeza de Vaca och hans kompanjoner träffar på en grupp av spanska slavhandlare nära nära Culiacan på Mexicanska västkusten, varefter de

tar sig in till Mexico City, där deras äventyr väcker intresse för de mysteriska landen i norr.



Fray Marcos de Niza, en Franciscanermunk, skickas för att utforska landen norr om Mexico. Som guide och vägvisare får han med sig den

afrikanske slaven Esteban, som tidigare hade varit en av gruppen kring Cabeza de Vaca . Inom ett år var Marcos tillbaka med nyheten om en

stor stad kallad Cibola, där Esteban hade dödats. Marcos berättade att han bara hade sett staden på avstånd, men att den föreföll vara ”större

än Mexico City och att den föreföll vara byggd av guld”.



Hernando de Soto landstiger vid Tampa Bay, i Florida, där han påbörjar ett blodigt härnadståg genom Sydöstern.



Francisco Vasquez de Coronado ledde Mexico's invasion av de norra landen med en expeditionskår bestående av 300 conquistadorer och mera

än 1000 indianska allierade. När de nådde fram till drömstaden, de kallade Cibola, fann de, att det inte alls var den utlovade staden av guld,

utan snarare bara en liten, ”hopträngd by som såg närmast fallfärdig ut”. Det här var Zuni Pueblon, Hawikuh, vars krigare svarade med ett

pilregn på Coronados krav på att de skulle svära den spanske kungen trohet. På mindre än en timme hade spanjorerna övermannat pueblon

och under de närmast följande veckorna betvingat de även andra pueblobyar i området. Coronado flyttade nu sitt läger till övre Rio Grande,

där hans soldater konfiskerade en pueblo för att ha som sitt vinterläger, samtidigt som de plundrade kringliggande pueblobyar i sin jakt på

mat och förnödenheter. Under dessa operationer våldtog en spanjor en indiansk kvinna och när Coronado vägrade att straffa den skyldige,

hämnades indianerna genom att stjäla hästar av spanjorerna. Lopez de Cardenas attackerade därefter tjuvarnas pueblo och tog 200 män till

fånga, vilka alla metodiskt brändes till döds i byinnevånarnas åsyn. Coronados belägring av pueblobyarna varade i två år.



Lopez de Cardenas, en officer i Coronado's arme, skickas för att undersöka vad Hopiindianerna hade beskrivit som en stor flod väster om

deras land. Efter en tjugo dagars vandring blev Cardenas den första vita att se Colorado River, från den södra kanten av Grand Canyon.



Hernando de Alvarado, en annan Coronado officer, färdas med en grupp Cicuyeindianer tillbaka till deras hemland. Längs vägen blir Alvarado

den förste att se den urgamla pueblon Acoma och väl framme i Cicuye, vid Pecos River, får han höra talas om ”vild boskap” på en

näraliggande slätt, liknande sådana som Cabeza de Vaca tidigare hade beskrivit. Vägledd av en tillfångatagen Pawneeindian, som Alvarado

kallade El Turco (Turken), tog han sig in i västra Texas, där han fick se en enorm hjord av bufflar. Samtidigt får han av El Turco höra, att

längre norrut skulle det finnas en stad som kallades Quivira. En stad som var helt uppbyggd av guld!

Ställd inför ett begynnande uppror beordrade Francisco Vasquez de Coronado en attack mot pueblon ”Moho”, som ansågs utgöra motståndets

centrum. (En pueblo som man inte med säkerhet vet var den låg, men som vissa har menat låg alldeles i utkanten av nuvarande staden

Albuquerque, New Mexico). Hans soldater slogs dock tillbaka, när de försökte klättra över de skyddsmurar och pallisader indianerna hade

uppfört, så de beslutade sig då för att inleda en belägring. En belägring som kom att vara under tre månader, från januari till mars, Till slut,

när pueblons innevånare försökte smita iväg, dödade spanjorerna mera än 200 personer, män, kvinnor och barn. En massaker som fick slut

på upproret för en tid.

Efter att ha slagit ned upproret med hjälp av massakern i Moho, beslutar sig Coronado för att undersöka El Turcos tal om sraden Quivira. I

april startar han i Alvarados fotspår och når snart västra Texas, där han noterar ”så mycket boskap att det skulle vara helt ogörligt att beräkna

deras antal, då det inte gick en dag utan att vi förlorade dem ur sikte”, som han uttryckte det. Han fortsätter sedan sin vandring under en hel

månad, omedveten om att El Turco egentligen lurar honom i sydöstlig riktning i hopp om att kunna trötta ut spanjorerna och därefter kunna

rymma. När Coronado äntligen upptäcker att ”Turken” håller på att lura honom, vänder han norrut med trettio män, medan han skickar alla

de andra tillbaka till sitt läger vid Rio Grande.



Förlitande sig på kompasser tågar gruppen nu norrut genom Texas och Oklahoma Panhandles och kommer tidigt i juli fram till de första

bosättningarna längs Arkansas River. Här upptäcker de att det bara är små gräshyddebyar och inte alls de gyllene städer El Turco hade

beskrivit. De letar vidare i regionen under ännu en månad, så långt norrut som till Smoky Hill River i centrala Kansas, utan att finna något.

Här Coronados tålamod slut och han låter tortera El Turco till denne erkänner att bara har hittat på alltihop. ”Turken” misshandlas så svårt att

han dör. Sent i augusti vänder Coronado tillbaka söderut och når slutligen sitt läger vid Rio Grande, där han tillbringar vintern.



De Soto's expedition korsar Mississippi in till Arkansas, där de faktiskt vid ett tillfälle bara befinner sig ett femtiotal mil ifrån Coronados

expedition, när denna passerar genom Kansas, utan att någon av dem känner till den andres närvaro.



Coronado återvände tomhänt till Mexoco City i juli, där han sedan lever utskrattad och förnedrad under resten av sitt liv, till han dör två år

senare, 1544.



De Soto's expedition cirklar tillbaka till Mississippi, där De Soto själv dör. Hans trupper ger sig då på nytt av mot Texas, i väster. Men efter

flera månaders kringirrande vänder de ännu en gång tillbaka till Mississippi och bygger där båtar som ska kunna föra dem nerför floden, till

Gulfen och som de hoppas, senare ända till Mexico.



Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo skickas på en havsexpedition upp längs Kaliforniens kustlinje. Han seglar in i San Diegos hamn och blir den förste

europé att ta sig till Kalifornien. Där hör han dock att indianerna redan har hört talas om ”män liknande oss, skäggiga, klädda och

bepansrade… och som dödar många av infödingarna”. Cabrillo fortsätter med att göra kartor över hamnarna i San Pedro och Santa Barbara.

Hans expedition spenderar vintern på Santa Catalina Island, där Cabrillo dör.



Under påtryckning från religiösa ledare, speciellt Dominikanerprästen, Bartolome de Las Casas, försökte den spanske kungen Carlos V, att

införa, vad man kallade, ”Nya lagar” i de spanska kolonierna. En ordning som gjorde slut på systemet som kallats ”encomienda” och som i

praktiken hade tillåtit de spanska nybyggarna rätten att hålla sig med indianska slavar.

Cabrillo expeditionen fortsätter under kommando av huvudstyrman Bartoleme Ferrer, som upptäcker San Francisco Bay och seglar uppför

Rogue River, ända upp till norr om den nuvarande gränsen mellan Kalifornien och Oregon, innan han vänder tillbaka.



De överlevande från De Soto expeditionen anländer till Mexico, och bekräftar Coronado's tidigare rapport, att det inte finns något guld eller

andra förmögenheter bland folken i norr.



De ”Nya lagarna”, som förbjöd förslavning av indianerna, upphävdes ånyo efter krav från Den Nya Världens kolonisatörer, som nu på nytt

utvecklade ett samhälle och en ekonomi som byggde på slavarbete.



Bartolome de Las Casa, den förste präst som utnämnts i Den Västra Hemisfären och som varit den som varit ansvarig för de nu nedlagda

lagarna mot indianskt slavarbete, publiserade en skrift som kallades ”Brief Relations of the Destruction of the Indies”, i vilken han gav många

hemska exempel på hur grymt kolonisterna utnyttjade indianerna.



Sir Francis Drake seglar in i en liten hamn norr om San Francisco Bay för att reparera sitt skepp, The Golden Hind, efter att under ett helt år

hållit på att plundra längs den Mexikanska kusten. Efter att ha nu gått iland norr om San Francisco Bay, förklarar han det omgivande landet

att tillhöra drottning Elizabeth I av England.



Don Juan Oñate lämnar Chihuahua för att etablera en koloni som skulle kallas New Mexico. Med sig har han för ändamålet en grupp om 500

nybyggare. Efter att ha trängt upp längs Rio Grandes floddal slår han sig ner och etablerar sitt högkvarter i en konfiskerad pueblo norr om

nuvarande Santa Fe, vilken han kallar San Juan. Därmed har han etablerat den första permanenta européiska bosättningen i den Amerikanska

Västern.

Den 15 november proklamerade Don Juan Oñate, Hopiindianernas land (i det som nu är norra Arizona) som land tillhörigt den spanske

kungen. Fyra hundra år senare finns hopifolket fortfarande kvar och har ännu inte ingått något avtal med någon om att frivilligt ge upp något

land.

Oñate hämnas för ett indianskt attackförsök, genomfört av innevånare från pueblon Acoma, genom att nu sända en mindre arméstyrka mot

deras närmast ointagliga pueblo högt uppe på en klippa. Trots stora negativa odds lyckas spanjorerna ändå förstöra Acoma, döda 800 män,

kvinnor och barn och ta ytterligare 500 till fånga. För att statuera exempel och för att de överlevande inte skull glömma att de numera var

tvungna att åtlyda de nya européiska herrarna, beslutade Oñate att alla tillfångatagna män över 25 år skulle få en fot avhuggen! Ett mycket

grymt och hänsynslöst straff.

På Juldagen, det här året, deklarerar Oñate erövringen av New Mexico slutförd och han etablerar provinsens huvudstad nära pueblon San

Juan, i ett samhälle som han kallar San Gabriel.



De tidigaste Européerna höll envist fast vid sin uppfattning, att de sjukdomar som de hade med sig och som blev till en så förödande katastrof

när de drabbade indianerna, egentligen var en Guds gärning och att Gud hade arrangerat det så för att främja de vitas övertagande av landet.

En nybyggare uttryckte det sålunda: ” Deras sak förlorades därför att det var Guds vilja att sända sådana sjukdomar att 950 utav 1000 av

dem dog och att många låg och ruttnade ovan jord då de inte ens blev begravda”.

Oñate återvänder till New Mexico från sitt sex månader långa sökande efter den sägenomspunna staden Quivira, i Kansas. Vid återkomsten

fann han kolonin San Gabriel nästan helt övergiven.



Oñate färdas västerut genom Arizona på sin väg till den kaliforniska kusten i jakt på guld och silver till att finansiera sin koloni. Han

återvänder dock tomhänt, men stannar vid El Morro, en imponerande klippformation i närheten av Hawikuh Zuni pueblo. Där låter han hugga

in följande inristning i klippan, bland alla de indianska petroglyfer som redan finns där: "There passed by here the Adelantado Don Juan de

Oñate, from the discovery of the Sea of the South, the 16th of April of 1605."



Vid den här tidpunkten hade sjukdomar, förda till Nordamerika av européerna, redan förött många stammar över stora delar av kontinenten.

Förluster enbart i New Spain har uppskattats till så mycket som 90 procent!



Oñate avgår som guvernör för New Mexico och varnar myndigheterna i Mexico att hela kolonin kommer att överges om inte förstärkningar

sänds inom ett år.



Kolonin Jamestown grundas i Virginia av kolonister från the London Company. Vid årets slut har sjukdomar och svält reducerat de

ursprungliga 105 kolonisterna till bara 32 överlevande.



Kapten John Smith tas tillfånga av den indianske hövdingen Powhatan, men räddas från döden av hövdingens dotter, Pocahontas.



Den 3 juli kommer indianerna med majs, bönor, squash och rökt kött till kolonin.



Staden Quebec grundas i Kanada, som den första permanenta franska koloinin på den Nordamerikanska kontinenten.



On July 29, Samuel de Champlain, accompanied by 2 other Frenchmen and 60 Algonquins and Hurons, defeated a band of Iroquois Indians

near the future Ticonderoga, beginning a long period of French/Iroquois enmity.



Franciscan claims of success in converting the Indians of New Mexico persuade Mexican officials to maintain their colony there rather than

abandon Christian souls to damnation. Pedro de Peralta is named governor of the colony and establishes Santa Fe as its new capital. For his

Governor's Palace on the new town plaza, he does not recreate the architecture of Spain but instead adopts the style and materials of the

pueblos.

Former Dutch lawyer Adrian Block explored Manhattan Island in the ship Tiger. He returned to Europe with a cargo of furs and two kidnapped

Indians, whom he named Orson and Valentine.



On May 13, the Viceroy of Mexico found Spanish Explorer Juan de Oñate guilty of atrocities against the Indians of New Mexico. As part of his

punishment, he was banned from entering New Mexico again.



A smallpox epidemic decimates the Native American population in New England.

In May, Virginia's Deputy Governor George Yeardley and a group of men killed 20 - 40 Chickahominy Indians. It was under Yeardley's

leadership that friendly relations between the Chickahominy and the colony ended.



Den andra engelska kolonin anläggs i New England, (nuvarande Massachusetts). Den kallades Plymouth Colony, eller ibland New Plymouth

Colony, eller Plymouth Bay Colony.



One of the first treaties between colonists and Native Americans is signed as the Plymouth Pilgrims enact a peace pact with the Wampanoag

Tribe, with the aid of Squanto, an English speaking Native American.



Peter Minuit, a Dutch colonist, buys Manhattan island from Native Americans for 60 guilders (about $24) and names the island New

Amsterdam.



En smittkoppsepidemi dödar tusentals indianer i Southern New England under hösten 1633 och sommaren 1634.



Pequot-kriget, som varade i fyra år, mellan 1634 till 1638; Börjar med att kapten John Stone mördas av indianer ur stammen västliga

Niantics, en stam allierad med pequotstammen. Omständigheterna kring mordet är något oklara.

23 October 1634 Pequots send messenger bearing gifts and promises of tribute to Roger Ludlow, deputy governor of Massachusetts Bay

Colony

7 November 1634 Second Pequot embassy. Massachusetts Bay-Pequot treaty: Pequot negotiators agree to hand over Stone's murderers to

pay indemnity of £250 sterling in wampum to cede Connecticut lands to trade with the English to have disputes with Narragansetts mediated

by the English.Pequot council does not ratify the treaty, objecting to the indemnity and arguing that Stone's murderers were all either dead or

beyond their reach.

Jonathan Brewster, trader from Plymouth, conveys message from Uncas, chief of the Mohegans, that the Pequots plan a preemptive strike

against the English.

Conference at Fort Saybrook of Connecticut and Massachusetts Bay officials with representatives of Western Niantics and Pequots. English

colonists reassert demands of 1634 treaty. Sassious, Western Niantic sachem, pledges loyalty and submission to English.

On July 20, 1636, a respected trader named John Oldham was attacked on a trading voyage to Block Island. He and several of his crew were

killed and his ship looted by Narragansett-allied Indians who sought to discourage English settlers from trading with their Pequot rivals. In the

weeks that followed, colonial officials from Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, assumed the Narragansett were the likely

culprits. Knowing that the Indians of Block Island were allies of the Eastern Niantic, who were allied with the Narragansett, Puritan officials

became suspicious of the Narragansett. However, Narragansett leaders were able to convince the English that the perpetrators were being sheltered by the

Pequots.

News of Oldham's death became the subject of sermons in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In August, Governor Vane sent John Endecott to

exact revenge on the Indians of Block Island. Endecott's party of roughly 90 men sailed to Block Island and attacked two apparently

abandoned Niantic villages. Most of the Niantic escaped, while two of Endecott's men were injured. The English claimed to have killed 14, but

later Narragansett reports claimed only one Indian was killed on the island. The Puritan militia burned the villages to the ground. They carried

away crops which the Niantic had stored for winter, and destroyed what they could not carry. Endecott went on to Fort Saybrook.





Engelsmännen bränner en Pequotby längs Pequot River som hämnd för att en engelsman tidigare mördats. The English at Saybrook were not

happy about the raid, but agreed that some of them would accompany Endecott as guides. Endecott sailed along the coast to a Pequot village,

where he repeated the previous year's demand of payment for the death of Stone and more for Oldham. After some discussion, Endecott

concluded that the Pequot were stalling and attacked. The Pequot ruse had worked, and most escaped into the woods. Endecott had his forces

burn down the village and crops before sailing home.



Pequots attack Fort Saybrook. Siege continues intermittently for months. Through the fall and winter, Fort Saybrook was effectively besieged.

People who ventured outside were killed.



In the colony of Massachusetts the Pequot Indians were the first slaves, but as they "would not endure the yoke," they were sent to the

Bermudas and exchanged for Negroes in the hope that the latter would bear slavery more patiently. The first exchange of Indians for Negroes

was made in 1637, the first year of the Pequot war and was doubtless kept up for many years.



Pequots attempt to persuade Narragansetts to ally with them against the English. English send Roger Williams topersuade Narragansetts to

remain neutral.



Miantonomo allies Narragansetts with the English, "solemnizing the treaty with a gift of wampum and the severed hand of a Pequot brave"



Saybrook Company sends Underhill to Saybrook with 20 men. Mason reinforces Fort Saybrook. Gardiner, Underhill, and Mason quarrel.



Massachusetts General Court authorizes levy to raise funds for anticipated costs of war against Pequots.



As spring arrived in 1637, the Pequot stepped up their raids on Connecticut towns. On April 23, Wongunk chief Sequin attacked Wethersfield

with Pequot help. They killed six men and three women, a number of cattle and horses, and took two young girls captive. (They were

daughters of Abraham Swain and were later ransomed by Dutch traders.) In all, the towns lost about 30 settlers.

In May, leaders of Connecticut river towns met in Hartford, raised a militia, and placed Captain John Mason in command. Mason set out with

90 militia and 70 Mohegan warriors under Uncas to punish the Pequot. At Fort Saybrook, Captain Mason was joined by John Underhill and

another 20 men. Underhill and Mason proceeded to the principal Pequot village, near present-day Groton, but the Pequot chose to defend their

fortified village. Ill-equipped to take the village, Mason sailed east and stopped at the village of Misistuck (present-day Mystic).



On May 26, Captains John Mason and John Underhill attacked and burned Pequot forts at Mystic, Connecticut, massacring 600 Indians.

Believing that the English had returned to Boston, the Pequot sachem Sassacus took several hundred of his warriors to make another raid on

Hartford. Mason had visited and recruited the Narragansett, who joined him with several hundred warriors. Several allied Niantic warriors also

joined Mason's group. On May 26, 1637, with a force up to about 400 fighting men, Mason attacked Misistuck by surprise. He estimated that

"six or seven Hundred" Pequot were there when his forces assaulted the palisade. As some 150 warriors had accompanied Sassacus to

Hartford, so the inhabitants remaining were largely Pequot women and children, and older men. Mason ordered that the enclosure be set on

fire. Justifying his conduct later, Mason declared that the attack against the Pequot was the act of a God who "laughed his Enemies and the

Enemies of his People to scorn making [the Pequot] as a fiery Oven . . . Thus did the Lord judge among the Heathen, filling [Mystic] with dead

Bodies." Mason insisted that any Pequot attempting to escape the flames should be killed. Of the estimated 600 to 700 Pequot resident at

Mystic that day, only seven survived to be taken prisoner, while another seven escaped to the woods.

The Narragansett and Mohegan warriors with Mason and Underhill's colonial militia were horrified by the actions and "manner of the

Englishmen's fight . . . because it is too furious, and slays too many men." The Narragansett left the warfare and returned home.

Believing the mission accomplished, Mason set out for home. Becoming temporarily lost, his militia narrowly missed returning Pequot warriors.

After seeing the destruction of Mystic, they gave chase to the English forces, but to little avail.





The destruction of people and the village of Mystic broke the Pequot. The English victory also deprived them of their allies. Forced to abandon

their villages, the Pequot fled—mostly in small bands—to seek refuge with other southern Algonquian peoples. Many were hunted down by

Mohegan and Narragansett warriors. The largest group, led by Sassacus, were denied aid by the Metoac (Montauk, or Montaukett) from

present-day Long Island. Sassacus led roughly 400 warriors west along the coast toward the Dutch at New Amsterdam and their Native allies.

When they crossed the Connecticut River, the Pequot killed three men whom they encountered near Fort Saybrook.



Mason and Underhill's troops unite with Massachusetts troops led by Captain Patrick and Israel Stoughton. Group of Pequots discovered near

Connecticut River is surrounded by Narragansetts who pretend to offer protection, enabling the English troops to capture them. Survivors flee,

some to Manhattan Island.



Stoughton and Mason pursue fugitive Pequots. English forces surround Mystic survivors in swamp near New Haven. English offer safe conduct

to old men, women achildren and to non-Pequot residents of the swamp. 200 people accept this offer. 80 warriors refuse it and start shooting

arrows at English. English soldiers close in on them.



20-30 Indians (Mason says 60-70) escape in early- morning fog.

Sassacus and other Pequots seek refuge with neighboring tribes but tribes are intimidated by the English (and in some cases were already

unfriendly with the Pequots). Sassacus is refused sanctuary. English receive severed heads of Pequots as tribute from other tribes, including

head of Sassacus sent by Mohawks.

The Pequot War ends with the signing of the Treaty of Hartford. Surviving Pequots are forbidden to return to their villages or to use the tribal

name. The Tribe is divided between the Native allies of the English -- the Mohegans and the Narragansetts -- or placed into slavery among

English colonists.

Hösten 1638; Group of Pequots settle at Pawcatuck in violation of treaty. Mason sent with 40 English soldiers and 120 Mohegans under Uncas

to clean them out. Narragansetts attack Uncas as he is plundering the wigwams, but refuse to fight the English.



Sveriges kolonisering i Amerika, som kom att vara i 17 år, mellan 1638 till 1655.



Captain William Pierce of Salem, Massachusetts sailed to the West Indies and exchanged Indian slaves for black slaves.



Horses stolen from the ranches of New Mexico begin to transform the culture of the Plains, enabling Native Americans to hunt buffalo more

efficiently and to range farther in battle with their enemies. Within another generation the horse will spread from New Mexico through the

region west of the Rocky Mountains to the tribes of the Northwest.



The Mashantucket Pequots are given back some of their land in Noank by the government of Connecticut.



French traders Medard Chouart and Pierre Esprit Radisson become the first Europeans to make contact with the tribes of the northern Plains

when they venture west and south of Lake Superior in search of furs.

Robin Cassacinamon becomes the most influential Pequot leader in the decades following the Pequot War. As a diplomat, he negotiates for the

return of the Pequots to some of their traditional lands in 1666. The Pequots establish a reservation of approximately 3,000 acres at

Mashantucket, at the headwaters of the Mystic River.

Louis Joliet and the Jesuit Father Jacques Marquette become the first Europeans to journey down the Mississippi.

Under pressure from missionaries in the territory, New Mexican Governor Juan Francisco de Treviño begins a campaign against Pueblo

religious practices, hanging four Indians in the plaza at Santa Fe on accusations of witchcraft and publicly whipping 43 others. Among those

whipped is Popé, an Indian from the Ohke Pueblo who has long resisted Spanish authority and who now begins encouraging rebellion. The

hardships of a near-decade long drought, coupled with the increasing demands of the Spanish, help Popé win a receptive audience in the

pueblos.

King Philip's War (1675 - 1676) erupts in New England between colonists and Native Americans as a result of tensions over colonist's

expansionist activities. The bloody war rages up and down the Connecticut River valley in Massachusetts and in the Plymouth and Rhode

Island colonies, eventually resulting in 600 English colonials being killed and 3,000 Native Americans, including women and children on both

sides. King Philip (the colonist's nickname for Metacomet, chief of the Wampanoags) is hunted down and killed on August 12, 1676, in a

swamp in Rhode Island, ending the war in southern New England and ending the independent power of Native Americans there. In New

Hampshire and Maine, the Saco Indians continue to raid settlements for another year and a half.

July 30, 1676: Bacon's Rebellion - Tobacco planters led by Nathan Bacon ask for and are denied permission to attack the Susquehannock

Indians, who have been conducting raids on colonists' settlement. Enraged at Governor Berkeley's refusal, the colonists burn Jamestown and

kill many Indians before order is restored in October.

Pueblo-revolten. From his headquarters in a kiva at Taos, Popé leads the Pueblo Revolt against the Spanish in New Mexico. On August 10, in a

coordinated uprising at more than two dozen Indian settlements, separated by hundreds of miles and six different languages, the Indians kill

more than 400 Spaniards, including 21 of the province's 33 missionaries, and sack or destroy every building and church. Those who survive

flee to Santa Fe, where they are surrounded by a combined force of 2,500 warriors who burn the town and mock their persecutors, now

barricaded in the Governor's Palace, by chanting phrases from the Latin Mass. After a skirmish which temporarily drives the Indians back, the

Spanish retreat to El Paso on the Rio Grande, establishing a secular community around the mission founded there in 1659. The Pueblo people

watch this retreat from the hills overlooking Santa Fe, content simply to have their homeland back again. Under Popé's leadership they have

carried out what will stand as the most successful Indian revolt in North American history. But even with the Spanish gone, the life of the

Pueblos still bears the scars of their influence. Popé eradicates all signs of the Christian religion, but he retains elements of the Spanish

political system, setting himself up in the Governor's Palace as ruler of the pueblos and collecting tribute from the once autonomous

communities of the region until his death in 1688.



Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, and Henri de Tonti complete a four-month voyage to the mouth of the Mississippi, claiming the entire

Mississippi Valley for France and naming it Louisiana.



Intending to establish a permanent French settlement in Louisiana, La Salle accidentally sails past the mouth of the Mississippi River and lands

in Spanish territory on the Texas coast, where he founds Fort St. Louis.



La Salle is killed in a mutiny when he attempts a desperate march from his outpost on the Texas coast to French settlements on the upper

Mississippi for assistance. Those who remain behind at Fort St. Louis have all perished by the time Spanish forces, patrolling the region against

a rumored French incursion, discover their settlement in 1689.



The Jesuit Father Eusebio Kino arrives in present-day Arizona to begin building a string of 24 missions that will minister to the local Indians.



The beginning of King William's War (1689 - 1697) as hostilities in Europe between the French and English spill over to the colonies. In

February, Schenectady, New York is burned by the French with the aid of their Native American allies.

Alonso de León establishes a mission at San Francisco de los Tejas near the Neches River, the first Spanish settlement in what will become

Texas. By 1693, however, resistance from local Indians and the absence of a French threat in the region lead Mexican authorities to abandon

this outpost and withdraw from Tejas for more than twenty years.



Pequot Sachem Robin Cassacinnamon dies.



On an expedition to reclaim New Mexico for Spain more than a decade after the Pueblo Revolt, Diego de Vargas leads a band of 200 soldiers

from El Paso to Santa Fe, where he surrounds the town before dawn and then calls on the Indians to surrender, pledging clemency if they will

swear allegiance to the King and return to the Christian faith. After a decade in which many have been forced to abandon their pueblos to

escape Apache raiders, the Indians gathered in Santa Fe agree to peace. Vargas keeps his word, and over the next few months extends the

same offer throughout the region. By year's end, he has accomplished his mission and reimposed Spanish rule over New Mexico almost

without bloodshed.



French explorer Pierre Liette had a four-year sojourn in the Chicago area during which he noticed that "the sin of sodomy" prevailed among

the Miami Indians, and that some men were bred from childhood for this purpose.



Queen Annes War (1702 - 1703).



On June 23, former Governor of South Carolina, James Moore, led a force of 50 British, and 1,000 Creek Indians against Spanish settlements.

They attacked a Mission in Northwestern Florida. They took many Indians as slaves and killed Father Manuel de Mendoza.



A slave market was erected at the foot of Wall Street and here Negroes and Indians, men, women and children were daily declared the

property of the highest cash bidder.



Hostilities break out between Native Americans and settlers in North Carolina after the massacre of settlers there. The conflict, known as the

Tuscarora Indian War will last two years.



Yamasee tribes attack and kill several hundred Carolina settlers.



South Carolina settlers and their Cherokee allies attack and defeat the Yamassee.



After decades of constant dispute with English settlers over the Pequot lands at Noank, the Pequots formally give up their planting rights there

but retain their fishing rights in exchange for clear title to Mashantucket.



Jesuit explorer Pierre Francois Xavier de Charlevoix recorded effeminacy and widespread homosexuality and lesbianism among the "Indian"

tribes in what is now Louisiana. The most prominent tribes in the area at the time were the Iroquois and Illinois.



Ten sleeping Indians were scalped by whites in New Hampshire for a bounty.

Upon hearing of an impending French and Indian attack upon the Ulster county frontiers, Europeans massacred several Indian families in their

wigwams at Walden in the Hudson River Valley.



On November 28, 1745, French military forces out of Canada, accompanied by 220 Caughnawaga Mohawk and Abenaki Indians, attacked and

burned the English settlement at Saratoga. The 101 inhabitants were either killed or taken prisoner.



In the 1752 census, 147 "Indian" slaves — 87 females and 60 males — were listed as living in French households in what would later be called

Illinois. These people were from different cultural groups than the local Native American population and were often captives of war.



On April 9, an Indian slave trader sent a letter to South Carolina Governor J. Glenn asking for permission to use one group of Indians to fight

another: "We want no pay, only what we can take and plunder, and what slaves we take to be our own."

French and Indian War (Sjuårskriget) startar medstriden vid Jumonville. Kriget pågick till den 10 februari 1763 med freden i Paris.



On April 8, Governor Robert Morris declared war on the Delaware and Shawnee Indians. Included in his war declaration was "The Scalp Act,"

which put a bounty on the scalps of Indian men, women and boys.



On August 1, the first Indian reservation in North America was established by the New Jersey Colonial Assembly.



Responding to a Comanche attack that destroyed two missions on the San Saba River in central Tejas, a Spanish force of 600 marched north

to the Red River where they engaged several thousand Comanche and other Plains Indians fighting behind breastworks and armed with French

rifles. The Spaniards were routed, losing a cannon in their retreat, and Comanche raids became a constant threat to settlers throughout Tejas.



Governor Thomas Velez Cachupin had a number of Indians living at Albiquiú [La Cañada, New Mexico] tried for witchcraft sometime after

1762. They were conveniently condemned into servitude.



The Proclamation of 1763, signed by King George III of England, prohibits any English settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains and

requires those already settled in those regions to return east in an attempt to ease tensions with Native Americans.



Freden i Paris avslutar det 7-åriga kriget, som i USA kallas French and Indian War

Pontiac War (1763 - 1766). In May, the Ottawa Native Americans under Chief Pontiac begin all-out warfare against the British west of Niagara,

destroying several British forts and conducting a siege against the British at Detroit. In August, Pontiac's forces are defeated by the British

near Pittsburgh. The siege of Detroit ends in November, but hostilities between the British and Chief Pontiac continue for several years. The

Proclamation of 1763, signed by King George III of England, prohibits any English settlement west of the Appalachian mountains and requires

those already settled in those regions to return east in an attempt to ease tensions with Native Americans. An indication of the basic racism

inherent in the use of violence by colonial whites can be found in the notorious Paxton Boys. In 1763 this group of frontier thugs did not

hesitate to kill dozens of friendly Christian Indians, for they were easier to get at than the hostiles who would put up a fight. The Paxton Boys

mostly beat their victims to death, though they did not scruple at using axes. Yet when they marched on Philadelphia to press their claims for

more funding and arms for a war against the Indians, they were met by an armed militia, and their forces melted away. Only some 250

Paxton Boys remained, and they were intellectually outnumbered by Benjamin Franklin, who offered these "white savages" a face-saving out.

The western insurgents presented a pro-murder petition to the legislature, an amazing exercise in projection that argued that Indians should

be killed because they were prone to massacre innocents. The point is, again, that these white rebels contented themselves with a petition and

then went home. The legislature ignored their drivel. In brief, then, personal violence in colonial America appears to have been reserved for

despised races. On December 8, an organization compensating settlers for losses resulting from Indian raids was created by Indian

Commissioner Sir William Johnson. On December 27, a troop of 50 armed men entered the Workhouse at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, and

hacked to death the only 14 surviving Conestoga Indians (the rest of the tribe having been similarly dispensed with 13 days earlier).



An organization compensating settlers for losses resulting from Indian raids was created by Indian Commissioner Sir William Johnson.



A troop of 50 armed men entered the Workhouse at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, and hacked to death the only 14 surviving Conestoga Indians

(the rest of the tribe having been similarly dispensed with 13 days earlier).



Forced to labor in the mission fields and to worship according to the missionaries' teachings, the Indians at San Diego rebelled against the

Spanish, burning every building and killing most of the inhabitants, including the mission's head priest. Thanks to a Spanish sharpshooter, the

Indians were finally driven off and the Spanish retained control of their outpost.



On May 25, 1776, the Continental Congress resolved that it was "highly expedient to engage Indians in service of the United Colonies," and

authorized recruiting 2,000 paid auxiliaries. The program was a dismal failure, as virtually every tribe refused to fight for the colonists.



On July 21, 1776, Cherokee Indians attacked a settlement in western North Carolina. Militia forces retaliated by destroying a nearby Cherokee

village.

Under tiden från 1772 till 1780 dog 4/5 av arikarastammen på grund av sjukdomar som smittkoppor, mässling och liknande.



Smittkoppor raderade ut mer än hälften av Piegan Blackfeet-stammen det här året.



On March 8, 1782, Captain David Williamson and about 90 volunteer militiamen slaughtered 62 adults and 34 children of the neutral, pacifist,

and Christian Delaware people at Gnadenhutten, Ohio in retaliation for raids by other Indian tribes.

On April 21, 1782, the Presidio, overlooking San Francisco, was erected by the Spanish to subdue Indians interfering with mail transmissions

along El Camino Real.



On July 13, the Northwest Ordinance was enacted, stating "the utmost good faith shall always be observed toward the Indians . . . in their

property, rights, and liberty they shall never be disturbed."



First federal treaty enacted with the Delaware Indians.



Indian Commerce Clause of the Constitution is added stating "The Congress shall have Power . . . to regulate Commerce with foreign Nations,

and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes." This clause is generally seen as the principal basis for the federal government's

broad power over Indians. Indian affairs assignation. Indian agents, who were appointed as the federal government's liaison with tribes, fell

under jurisdiction of the War Department. The Indian agents were empowered to negotiate treaties with the tribes.



On March 1, 1790, the first U.S. Census count included slave and free Negroes. Indians were not included. Pre-1795



The Indian Trade and Intercourse Act is passed, placing nearly all interaction between Indians and non-Indians under federal, rather than

state control, established the boundaries of Indian country, protected Indian lands against non-Indian aggression, subjected trading with

Indians to federal regulation, and stipulated that injuries against Indians by non-Indians was a federal crime. The conduct of Indians among

themselves, while in Indian country, was left entirely to the tribes. These Acts were renewed periodically until 1834.

Harmar's Defeat / Battle of Heller's Corner; Eel River, Indiana, 11 miles från nuvarande Fort Wayne, Ind. Överstelöjtnant Josiah Harmar

med 30 män ur 1:a Infanteriet och frivilliga från Kentucky i strid med ett hundratal indianer ur Miamistammen, under Little Turtle. 22 soldater

dödades.

Hartshorn's Defeat; Fänrik Philip Hartshorn, med en rekognoseringsstyrka ur general Harmars armé, råkade i bakhåll och angreps av en

stor indiansk styrka, som dödade fänriken och ytterligare nitton av hans män.

I närheten av sammanflödet mellan St. Joseph och St. Mary Rivers, Indiana (nuvarande Fort Wayne, Ind,) en strid mellan Little Turtles

Miamiindianer och en styrka bestående av 60 man ur 1:a Infanteriet, samt militia i form av major J. P. Wyllys, major J. C. Hall, major M'Mullin

bataljoner, samt en kavalleritrupp under major Fontaine. Major Wyllys dödad.

Trading begins between Native Americans and French and Spanish merchants from St. Louis, Missouri.



Military battle between U.S. Army and Shawnee. The army, some 1,500 strong, invaded Shawnee territory, in what is now western Ohio. The

Americans were defeated in 1791 after suffering 900 casualties, 600 of whom died.



St. Clair's Defeat; I närheten av Fort Recovery, Ohio, vid floden Miami of the Lakes källor, drabbade en 1400 man stark truppstyrka under

generalmajor Arthur St. Clair samman med tvåtusen indianer ur stammarna Miami, Delaware, Shawanoe, Wyandot, Ottawa, Chippewa och

Potawatomi, under shawneledaren Red Jacket och delawarehövdingen Buckongahela, tillsammans med denvite överlöparen Simon Girty.

Striden kom att utvecklas till ett fruktansvärt blodbad, där de vita förlorade 632 döda och 264 sårade.

On November 6, 1792, George Washington, in his fourth annual address to Congress, expressed dissatisfaction that "Indian hostilities" had not

stopped in the young country's frontier, north of the Ohio River.

En dryg mil bortom Fort St.Claire, Ohio, blev en tansportfora angripen av indianer. Löjtnant John Lowry och 14 andra män ur hans

eskortstyrka dödades.



En skärmytsling mellan indianska styrkor och en skvadron "Light Dragoons, inträffade vid Fort Recovery, Wabash River, Ohio.



Battle of Fallen Timbers; var den sista och avgörande striden i det som kallats Northwest Indian War, eller ibland också "Little Turtles War".

En tretusen man stark armé, under general Anthony "Mad Anthony" Wayne besegrade en hälften så stor indiansk styrka ledd av Blue Jacket

och Buckongahelas.

The Treaty of Greenville - This treaty marked the end of an undeclared and multi-tribal war begun in the late 1770s and led by the Shawnees

who fought to resist American expansion into Ohio. In 1795, over a thousand Indian delegates ceded two-thirds of present-day Ohio, part of

Indiana, and the sites where the modern cities of Detroit, Toledo, and Chicago are currently situated. The Indians, in return, were promised a

permanent boundary between their lands and American territory.

Federal law prohibits the sale of liquor to Indians.

Kongressen anslår ekonomiska medel för att "utbilda och civilisera indianer"

Creekindianerna avträder land i fredsavtalet "Treaty of Fort Wilkinson". 1802 At Fort Wilkinson, located west of the Oconee River and just

south of present day Milledgeville, the Creek Indians signed the Treaty of Fort Wilkinson in which they ceded two parcels of land to the United

States. One was a narrow strip west of the Oconee and Appalachee rivers, the second a wider (roughly twelve miles) strip running from the

Altamaha to the St. Marys River. In exchange the U.S. agreed to provide the Creeks with various goods, including blacksmith tools, over the

next ten years.

The Louisiana Purchase adds to the United States French territory from the Gulf of Mexico to the Northwest.



The Lewis and Clark expedition begins its exploration of the West.

Lewis and Clark expedition with Sacagawea (1804 - 1806). Under direction of President Jefferson, Lewis and Clark charted the western

territory with the help of Sacagawea, a Shoshone Indian.

The Sioux meet the Lewis and Clark Expedition

Trading posts begin to be established in the west.

Fur trading becomes an important part of Oglala life.

Oglala and other Lakota tribes expand their region of influence and control to cover most of the current regions known as North and South

Dakota, westward to the Big Horn Mountains in Wyoming and south to the Platte River in Nebraska.

In "Louisiana Territory Act" the U.S. government gave first official notice to Indians to move west of the Mississippi River.



Cherokeestammen avträder land till de vita i Tennessee och Alabama

Inom Krigsdepartementet skapas "Office of Superintendent of Indian Trade" som tilldelas uppgiften att kontrollera de statliga handelsposter

som skulle göra affärer med indianerna

The Osage, a Sioux tribe, sign the Osage Treaty ceding their lands in what is now Missouri and Arkansas to the U. S.

Tecumseh, Chief of the Shawnees, and his brother known as The Prophet, founded Prophetstown for the settlement of other Indian peoples

who believed that signing treaties with the U.S. government would culminate in the loss of the Indian way of life. At the same time, Tecumseh

organized a defensive confederacy of Indian tribes of the Northwestern frontier who shared a common goal - making the Ohio River the

permanent boundary between the United States and Indian land. Meanwhile, William Henry Harrison, governor or Ohio, began enacting

treaties with various tribes.

On February 8, 1809, Russians who built a blockhouse on the Hoh River (Olympic Penninsula, Washington) were taken captive by Hoh Indians,

and were held as slaves for two years, 1811.

"Treaty of Fort Wayne",

Tecumseh's War; At a meeting between Tecumseh and Harrison at Vincennes in 1810, Tecumseh declared that he and the confederacy

would never recognize any treaties signed with the U.S. government. En händelse som kom att bli inledningen till det som kallats "Tecumseh's

War.

The Treaty of Fort Wayne brought the Delaware, Potawatomi, Miami, and Eel River Miami nations together to cede 3 million acres of their land

along the Wabash River to the United States.



Nicholas Biddle of the Lewis & Clark expedition noted that among the Minitaree Indians the effeminate boys were raised as females. Upon

reaching puberty, the boys were then married to older men. The French called them Birdashes.



On August 31, Fort Okanogan was established at the confluence of the Columbia and Okanogan Rivers; Indians met the Astorians with pledges

of friendship and gifts of beaver.



Battle of Tippecanoe; Shawnee leader Tecumseh's dream of a pan-Indian confederation was squashed when his brother Tenskwatawa led an

attack against Indiana Territory militia forces in the Battle of Tippecanoe. Tenskwatawa was defeated.



1812 års krig; On June 1, 1812, President James Madison sent a message to the Congress, recounting American grievances against Great

Britain, though not specifically calling for a declaration of war. After Madison's message, the House of Representatives quickly voted (79 to 49)

a declaration of war, and the Senate agreed by 19 to 13. The conflict began formally on June 18, 1812 when Madison signed the measure into

law. I det här kriget kom många indianer att delta. Främst på engelska sidan.

Det amerikanska Fort Mackinac (efterföljaren till det tidigare Fort Michilimackinac, Michigan), kapitulerar utan strid inför övermäktiga engelska

och indianska styrkor i början av 1812 års krig.

Belägringen av Fort Detroit; Det belägrade Detroit kapitulerar till engelsmännen.

Massacre of Fort Dearborn; Fort Dearborn (beläget inom nuvarande staden Chicago's, Ill. Gränser) evakuerades av amerikanerna när det

blev känt att Fort Detroit hade fallit. Den avtågande amerikanska styrkan, bestående 54 soldater, ett dussin militiamän, några kvinnor och

barn, angreps ett par kilometer söder om fortet av en grupp potawatomiindianer och drygt halva styrkan, inklusive ett par kvinnor och

merparten av barnen dödades.



Belägringen av Fort Wayne; Potawatomihövdingen Winamac försökte med list att betvinga den amerikanska styrkan i Fort Wayne, men

hans olika försök resulterade inte i någon total seger. Samtidigt var en stor undsättningsstyrka på väg mot fortet. När Chief Winamac den 12

sept försökte en sista attack mot fortet och slogs tillbaka med betydande förluster gav indianerna upp och försvann från platsen.



The Creek War (1813 - 1814) was instigated by General Andrew Jackson who sought to end Creek resistance to ceding their land to the

U.S. government. The Creek Nation was defeated and at the Treaty of Fort Jackson, the Creek lost 14 million acres, or two-thirds of their tribal

lands. To count the Creek dead, whites cut off their noses, piling 557 of them. They also skinned their bodies to tan as souvenirs. This was the

single largest cession of territory ever made in the southeast.

"Battle of Horseshoe Bend", en av huvuddrabbningarna under det så kallade "Creek War". En drabbning där 800 creekindianer dödades.

(Ej att förväxla med striden med samma namn 1832 under Black Hawks krig).

"Treaty of Fort Jackson" avslutar det så kallade "Creek War", där stammarna avträder 22 miljoner acre av sitt land.

Choctawindianer ledda av chief Pushmataha hjälpte amerikanska trupper att besegra engelsmännen i striden vid New Orleans. Det här var den

sista viktiga drabbningen under det som kallats "1812 års krig".



Blacks and Creek Indians captured Fort Blount, Florida from Seminoles and used it as a haven for escaped slaves and as a base for attacks on

slave owners.



Seminole Wars (1816 - 1858 / OBS det finns ett flertal olika uppgifter om mellan vilka tidpunkter dessa tre olika krigstillfällen uppstod)



On July 27, Fort Blount, a Seminole fort on Apalachicola Bay, Florida, was attacked by U.S. troops. The fort, held by 300 fugitive slaves and 20

Indians, was taken after a siege of several days. The fort was destroyed, punishing the Seminoles for harboring runaway slaves.



Congress passed the Indian Country Crimes Act which provided for federal jurisdiction over crimes between non-Indians and Indians, and

maintained exclusive tribal jurisdiction of all Indian crimes.



On April 18, Andrew Jackson defeated a force of Indians and African Americans at the Battle of Suwanee, ending the First Seminole War.



By this year, more than 20,000 Indians lived in virtual slavery on the California missions.



South Carolina settlers and their Cherokee allies attack and defeat the Yamassee.

The U.S. government began moving what it called the "Five Civilized Tribes" of southeast America (Cherokee, Creek, Seminole, Choctaw, and

Chickasaw) to lands west of the Mississippi River.

The Arikara War

Det första embryot till poliskåren Texas Rangers startar (se vidare under 1835)

Johnson v. McIntosh Supreme Court decision - This case involved the validity of land sold by tribal chiefs to private persons in 1773 and 1775.

The Court held that that Indian tribes had no power to grant lands to anyone other than the federal government. The government, in turn,

held title to all Indian lands based upon the "doctrine of discovery"—the belief that initial "discovery" of lands gave title to the government

responsible for the discovery. Thus, Indian ". . . rights to complete sovereignty, as independent nations, were necessarily diminished, and

their power to dispose of the soil, at their own will, to whomsoever they pleased, was denied by the original fundamental principle, that

discovery gave exclusive title to those who made it."

The Indian Office Federal Agency (föregångare till The Bureau of Indian Affairs) was established by the Secretary of War and operated under

the administration of the War Department.



The US Army establishes outposts in Oklahoma to prepare for the relocation of Cherokee and Choctaw tribes to the new Indian Territory.



The federal government establishes its policy of trading land Indian land in the east for territory in the west.



Creek chief William McIntosh signs treaty ceding Creek lands to the U.S. and agrees to vacate by 1826; other Creeks repudiate the treaty and

kill him.

Creek Indians sign a second treaty ceding lands in western Georgia



Elias Boudinot and Sequoyah begin publishing the Cherokee Phoenix, the first American newspaper published in a Native American language.



Creek Indians receive orders to relocate across the Mississippi River



On April 7, President Andrew Jackson submitted a bill to Congress calling for the removal of tribes in the east to lands west of the Mississippi.



On May 28th, the Indian Removal Act was passed

From 1830 to 1840 thousands of Native Americans were forcibly removed to lands west of Mississippi.

On September 15, the Choctaws sign a treaty exchanging 8 million acres of land east of the Mississippi for land in Oklahoma.



On December 22, the State of Georgia made it unlawful for Cherokee to meet in council, unless it is for the purpose of giving land to whites.



Influenza epidemic among tribes of British Columbia. In 1830-33, there are outbreaks of European diseases in California and Oregon.

Konstnären och utforskaren George Catlin färdas omkring och målar av präriens indianer mellan åren 1830 till 1836.



From 1831-39, the Five Civilized tribes of the Southeast are relocated to the Indian Territory.

Two U.S. Supreme Court cases (1831 and 1832) change the nature of tribal sovereignty by ruling that Indian tribes were not foreign nations,

but rather were "domestic dependent nations." As such, both cases provided the basis for the federal protection of Indian tribes, or the federal

trust relationship or responsibility.

Black Hawk of the Sauk and Fox tribes agrees to move west of Mississippi.



Cherokee Nation v. Georgia - The Cherokee Nation sued the State of Georgia for passing laws and enacting policies that not only limited their

sovereignty, but which were forbidden in the Constitution. The Court's decision proclaimed that Indians were neither U.S. citizens, nor

independent nations, but rather were "domestic dependent nations" whose relationship to the U.S. "resembles that of a ward to his guardian."

In this case, the federal trust responsibility was discussed for the first time.



On December 6, President Andrew Jackson, in his Third Annual Message to Congress, praised the beneficial results of Indian Removal for the

States directly affected and the Union as a whole, as well as being "equally advantageous to the Indians."

On December 25, a force of Black Seminole Indians defeated U.S. troops at Okeechobee during the Second Seminole War.

Black Hawk War in Illinois and Wisconsin between combined Sauk and Fox tribes and the United States.

"Battle of Horseshoe Bend" också kallat "Battle of Bloody Lake", ses som en betydelsefull vändpunkt i det så kallade "Black Hawks War".

(Ej att förväxla med striden med samma namn 1813 under det så kallade "Creek War").

Cherokees contest it in court the Indian Removal Act, and in 1832, the Supreme Court decides in their favor, but Andrew Jackson ignores the

decision.

Worcester v. Georgia - A missionary from Vermont who was working on Cherokee territory sued the State of Georgia which had arrested him,

claiming that the state had no authority over him within the boundaries of the Cherokee Nation. The Court, which ruled in Worchester's favor,

held that state laws did not extend to Indian country. Such a ruling clarified that Indian tribes were under protection of the federal

government, as in Cherokee v. Georgia.

On July 23, Eastern Cherokees met in Red Clay, Tennessee to discuss President Jackson's proposals for their removal to Indian Territory in

present day Oklahoma. The proposal was rejected and the Cherokees refused to negotiate unless the federal government honored previous

treaty promises.

"Bad Axe River Massacre"; On August 2, some 150 Sac and Fox men, women and children, under a flag of truce, were massacred at Bad

Axe River by the Illinois militia.

On January 12, a law was passed making it unlawful for any Indian to remain within the boundaries of the state of Florida.

The Choctaw complete their removal to the west.

Missouri River Expedition (during 1833 and 1834) of two Europeans, Prince Maximilian and the painter Karl Bodmer.



The Oglala Tribe becomes more centrally organized with most bands following Chief Bull Bear and rest following Chief Smoke. This was a

change from their previous more loosely governed bands with many leaders of comparable influence.



William Sublette och Robert Campbell bygger det här året en handelsstation vid sammanflödet mellan Laramie River och North Platte River.

Stationen kom att kallas Fort William och blev föregångaren till det omtalade Fort Laramie.



Congress reorganizes the Indian offices (se 1824), creating the U.S. Department of Indian Affairs (still within the War Department).



Indian Intercourse Act - Congress created Indian Territory in the west that included the land area in all of present-day Kansas, most of

Oklahoma, and parts of what later became Nebraska, Colorado, and Wyoming. The area was set aside for Indians who would be removed from

their ancestral lands which, in turn, would be settled by non-Indians. The area steadily decreased in size until the 1870s when Indian Territory

had been reduced to what is now Oklahoma, excluding the panhandle. The Trade and Intercourse Act redefines the Indian Territory and

Permanent Indian Frontier, and gives the army the right to quarantine Indians.



Treaty of New Echota - A portion of the Cherokee nation agreed to give up Cherokee lands in the Southeast in exchange for land in and

removal to Indian Territory. A larger group of the Cherokee did not accept the terms of this treaty and refused to move westward.

William Sublette och Robert Campbell säljer det här året Fort William till pälsjägarkompanjonerna Jim Bridger, Thomas Fitzpatrick och

Sublettes lillebror, Milton Sublette.



TEXAS Revolution; Texas frigörelsekamp från Mexico startar med segern i striden vid Gonzales.



Den halvmilitära poliskåren Texas Rangers omorganiseras för att försvara områdets vita mot indianerna, men också mot laglösa vita och

mexikanska banditer.

Toledo War (1835 - 1837) among the whites (also called the Ohio and Michigan Boundary Dispute).



Second Seminole War (1835 - 1843). - The second and most terrible of three wars between the U.S. government and the Seminole people

was also one of the longest and most expensive wars in which the U.S. army was ever engaged. Thousands of troops were sent, 1,500 men

died, and between 40-60 million dollars were spent to force most of the Seminoles to move to Indian Territory - more than the entire U.S.

government's budget for Indian Removal.



In five groups, over 14,000 Creeks were forcibly removed by the U.S. Army from Alabama to Oklahoma.

Bridger, Fitzpatrick och Milton Sublette sålde det här året Fort William till American Fur Company.

Texas utropar sin självständighet från Mexico under namnet The Republic of Texas



Smallpox epidemic among Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara tribes of the upper Missouri. From 1837-70, at least four different smallpox epidemics

ravage western tribes.

Två tredjedelar av de 6,000 svartfotsindianerna dog av smittkoppor det här året



Seminolhövdingen Osceola flyttades från fästningen St. Augustine till fängelset vid Fort Moultrie, där han senare avled.



On January 30, Seminole leader Osceola died from complications of malaria at Fort Moultrie, South Carolina. He led a valiant fight against

removal of his people to Indian Territory, but eventually the Seminoles were forcibly relocated.



The Cherokee "Trail of Tears" takes place in 1838-39. Trail of Tears - Despite the Supreme Court's rulings in 1831 and 1832 that the Cherokee

had a right to stay on their lands, President Jackson sent federal troops to forcibly remove almost 16,000 Cherokee who had refused to move

westward under the unrecognized Treaty of New Echota (1835) and had remained in Georgia. In May, American soldiers herded most into

camps where they remained imprisoned throughout the summer and where at least 1,500 perished. The remainder began an 800-mile forced

march to Oklahoma that fall. In all some, 4,000 Cherokee died during the removal process.



Mayan ruins rediscovered in Central America by John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood in 1839 - 1842.



Father Pierre-Jean DeSmet S.J. deltar i pälsjägarrendezvous vid Green River



American Fur Company ersätter det gamla Fort William med en adobebyggnad som de kallar Fort John

Forty-eight wagons arrive in Sacramento by way of the Oregon Trail, one of the earliest large groups to make this journey. It was the Bidwell /

Bartleson party with Thomas Fitzpatrick as guide.

John Charles Fremont (U.S.) explores the Far West with Kit Carson as a guide. Three expeditions during the time 1842 to 1846.



Jim Bridger och Louis Vasquez bygger vid Blacks Fork, ett biflöde till Green River, WY, en trading post för emigranterna längs Oregon Trail. En

anläggning som kom att kallas Fort Bridger. Handelsstationen kom under en kort tid på 1850-talet att ägas av Mormonkyrkan efter att de

tidigare i princip hade jagat bort Bridger och på tveksamma grunder påstod sig ha köpt fortet av Vasquez.



Seminole Nation v. United States . The Court held officials of the United States were to be held to the "most exacting fiduciary standards" in

performing their duties toward American Indians. Thus, it "has charged itself with moral obligations of the highest responsibility and trust"

towards American Indian Nations; i.e., upholding the trust responsibility.



Russian-Greek Orthodox Church establishes the first mission school for Eskimos in Alaska.



Andra Seminolkriget slutar



The first issues of the "Cherokee Advocate" are published in Oklahoma. Federal soldiers confiscate the press.



Stephen Meek leder ett stort vagntåg med Oregonemigranter via en en ny väg, som han ansåg skulle förkorta resan. Nu skulle det visa sig att

Meek inte var så välinformerad om förhållandena längs den väg han föreslagit och gruppen kom att råka ut för stora svårigheter och många

dog längs vägen. Gruppen splittrades och Meek förlorade helt kontrollen och några av deltagarna hotade till och med att döda honom. Den

väg han hade stakat ut kom att kallas Meek's Cutoff och har förevigats i en film 2010 med titeln "Meek's Cutoff".

Texas Annektering; Efter förhandlingar i juli gick den bankrupta Republiken Texas med på att USA annekterade området mot att man tog

över republikens obetalda skulder på 10 miljoner dollar och Texas kom därmed att tas upp i De Förenta Staerna som dess 28:e stat, vilket

slutligen godkändes av Texas Kongress i oktober och USAs president kunde slutligen underteckna den definitiva annekteringen den 19

december.

Uttrycket "Manifest Destiny" (Ödesmanifestet) sågs för första gången i tryckt form, efter att ha myntats av journalisten John L. O'Sullivan

från New York



War between the United States and Mexico over the American annexation of Texas (1846 - 1848). With the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in

1848, the Spanish Southwest and its many Indian tribes become part of the United States.



Oregon Country becomes part of the United States as a result of a settlement with England.



Paul Kane travels among and paints Indians of southern Canada and the American Northwest.



Westward migration begins in earnest along the Oregon Trail through Plains Indian country.



Handelsstationen Fort Lewis, vid övre Missouri, flyttas på begäran av svartfotsindianerna till den plats där senare Fort Benton byggdes.



Thomas H. Hardy, Superintendant of Indian Affairs in St. Louis warns of trouble from declining buffalo herds

Brigham Young leder mormonska utvandrare från Illinois till The Great Salt Lake Valley i Utah och de första Mormonerna når platsen för

dagens Salt Lake City som alltså grundades av Brigham Young. Han låter etablera en färjeförbindelse över North Platte där staden Casper nu

ligger.

Outbreak of measles among the Cayuses.



En enkel föregångare till Fort Kearny, Nebraska uppfördes nära en plats som kallades Nebraska City, men ersattes redan åter därpå av en

permanent militärpost på en plats som låg längs Oregonleden och därför bättre svarade mot behovet av skydd för trafiken på leden.



Samuel Colt och Eli Whitney börjar producera den berömda Coltrevolver som fick namnet "Walker" efter kapten Sam Walker vid Texas

Rangers. Revolvern hade de konstruerat året innan. Den allra första Coltrevolvern tillverkades annars redan 1836.

Cayuse Indian War in Oregon (1847 - 1850).



Commercial whalers first arrive in Alaska.



Den året innan flyttade handelsstationen Fort Lewis (se under år 1847) hade börjat återuppbyggas, men handelsmannen Alexander Culbertson

var inte nöjd med dess utformning, så han beordrade att fortet i stället skulle byggas upp av adobeblock. Så skedde också samtidigt som

fortet döptes om och fick namnet Fort Benton. Rekonstruktionen var inte helt färdig förrän 1860 för att sedan tas över av militären år 1869.



January 24, 1848: James Marshall discovers gold near Sutter's Fort, California. News of the find begins the California Gold Rush of 1849.

Treaty of Guadelope Hidalgo; avslutade kriget mellan USA och Mexico

Christian Sharp utvecklade och fick patent på en hävarmsmanövrerad bakladdningsmekanism för gevär. En uppfinning som så småningom

kom att få sitt genombrott det i buffeljaktsammanhang så omtalade jaktgeväret som kallats "Sharps Big Fifty"

Guldrushen i Kalifornien (1848 - 1855).



Fort Kearny, Nebraska, etablerades för att utgöra ett skydd för trafiken längs Oregonleden. Redan året innan hade en enklare föregångare

uppförts på en annan plats, men ansågs felplacerad och övergavs till förmån för detta fort. Fortet var i bruk till 1871, då det avvecklades.



Bureau of Indian Affairs transferred from the War Department to the Department of the Interior.



The U.S. Government purchases Fort Laramie (Fort John) from the American Fur Company and begins to bring in troops.



Physician services were extended to Indians with the establishment of a corps of civilian field employees.



The Courthouse Rebellion in Canada, involving the Metis of the Red River.



Minnesota Territory incorporeras i United States of America. Utgjorde ett "Teritory" ända till 1858, när det blev USAs 32:a delstat



Fort Laramie blir en militärpost ingående i en kedja poster som skulle skydda trafiken på Oregonleden. De andra två var Fort Kearny i

Nebraska och Fort Hall i Idaho. Fort Laramie hade ursprungligen byggts av pälshandlarna William Sublette och Robert Campbell 1834 och då

kallats Fort William. Deras fort såldes 1836 till American Fur Company som 1841 ersatte det med en något större post kallad Fort John. Det

var denna post som militären 1849 köpte för $4000 och döpte om till Fort Laramie. Fortet var aktivt ända till 1890.



Armén jagar Jicarillaapacher vid Rayado, New Mexico, som stulit hästar.



Glanton Massacre (Winterhaven, California)



Wagon Mound; New Mexico. Ett band Jicarillaapacher överföll en postdiligens på väg från Independence, Missouri till Santa Fe



Ett band av comancheindianer överfaller en patrull ur Texas Rangers i närheten av Arroyo San Roque, ett västligt biflöde till Nueces River, TX



Comancheindianer överfaller en posteskort på väg till Laredo, TX

On September 9, California entered the Union. With miners flooding the hillsides and devastating the land, California's Indians found

themselves deprived of their traditional food sources and forced by hunger to raid the mining towns and other white settlements. Miners

retaliated by hunting Indians down and brutally abusing them. The California legislature responded to the situation with an Indenture Act

which established a form of legal slavery for the native peoples of the state by allowing whites to declare them vagrant and auction off their

services for up to four months. The law also permitted whites to indenture Indian children, with the permission of a parent or friend, which led

to widespread kidnapping of Indian children, who were then sold as "apprentices."



The first of a series of treaties between Province of Canada and Canadian tribes are enacted, a policy continuing until 1923.





Mariposa War (1850 - 1851) in California between miners, and Miwoks and Yokuts.



Cholera epidemic (1850 - 1860) among the Indians of the Great Basin and southern plains.

Extermination of buffalo herds (1850 - 1975) by sports and hide hunters severely limits Plains Indians food supply and ability to survive.



Yuma and Mojave Uprising in California and Arizona.



The Treaty of Traverse des Sioux (10 Stat. 949) was a treaty signed on July 23, 1851, between the United States government and Sioux

Indian bands in Minnesota Territory (Wahpeton and Sisseton) by which the Sioux ceded territory. The treaty was instigated by Alexander

Ramsey, the first governor of Minnesota Territory, and Luke Lea, Commissioner of Indian Affairs in Washington, D.C. The United States

wanted the treaty to gain control of agricultural lands for more settlers.



Treaty of Fort Laramie between whites and tribes of the northern plains. A series of Fort Laramie treaties were signed with the Lakota,

Cheyenne, Arapaho and other Plains tribes delineating the extent of their territories and allowing passage across these territories in exchange

for payments to the tribes. The extent of Lakota territories were clearly described. Thus began the incursions of miners and wagon trains on

the Oregon and later the Bozeman trails, few at first but an onslaught after the end of the Civil War.

On August 5, 1851, Santee Sioux Chief Little Crow signed a treaty with the federal government, ceding nearly all his people's territory in

Minnesota. Though not happy with the agreement, he abided by it for many years. Avtalet kom att kallas Treaty of Mendota och omfattade

stammarna Mdewakanton and Wahpekute

Federal commissioners attempting to halt the brutal treatment of Indians in California negotiated eighteen treaties with various tribes and

village groups, promising them 8.5 million acres of reservation lands. California politicians succeeded in having the treaties secretly rejected

by Congress in 1852, leaving the native peoples of the state homeless within a hostile white society.



Expeditioner (1851 till 1860) arrangerade av Army Corps of Topographics Engineers, under ledning av kapten William F. Raynolds, mätte och

kartlade olika vägar längs Klippiga Bergens östra sluttningar från Kanada till Mexico.



Fort Union, New Mexico, anlades 1851, för att skydda trafiken längs Santa Fe-leden. Fortet var aktivt till 1891.

Brigham Young avslutar och stänger den färjeförbindelse han hade etablerat i närheten av nuvarande staden Casper Wyoming 1847



California began confining its remaining Indian population on harsh military reservations, but the combination of legal enslavement and near

genocide has already made California the site of the worst slaughter of Native Americans in United States history. As many as 150,000 Indians

lived in the state before 1849; by 1870, fewer than 30,000 will remain.



John Richard etablerar en handelsstation och bygger en tullbro över Platte River vid nuvarande staden Evansville, Wyoming (Casper)



Gadsden Purchase. American acquisition from Mexico of lands in New Mexico, Arizona, and California.

Liquidation of northern portion of the Indian Territory, with creation of the state of Kansas and Nebraska Territory was done during the period

1853 to 1854.

United States acquires 174 million acres of Indian lands through 52 treaties, during the period 1853 to 1856, all of which are subsequently

broken by whites.

During a gathering of Lakotas and Cheyennes near Fort Laramie to receive their annual treaty goods, an argument occurred in which a

Minneconjou fired a shot at a soldier operating a ferry on the Platte River. Lt. Richard B. Garnett, in command at the fort, sent out 23 men of

the 6th. Infantry under Lt. Hugh Fleming to arrest the offender. In spite of the approximately 600 Lakota and Cheyenne lodges with over

1,000 warriors nearby, Fleming boldly demanded his prisoner in the Minneconjou camp of 40 lodges. The discussion grew heated and the

soldiers fired, killing three Indians, wounding three others, and taking two prisoner. Fleming was extremely lucky to retreat with no losses.

Only great exertion on the part of the chiefs prevented a massive retaliation, as they correctly proclaimed that the soldiers had been "the first

to make the ground bloody."



Commissioner of Indian Affairs calls for end of the Indian removal policy.

Grattan-Massakern; Löjtnant Grattan och 30 soldater dödade av siouxindianer sydväst om staden Lingle, Wyoming. While the Lakotas and

Cheyennes waited at their camps in the Fort Laramie area for their yearly annuities, emigrants were traveling close by along the Oregon Trail.

When a Minneconjou (Lakota) named High Forehead shot an old, lame cow belonging to a Mormon emigrant, the angry owner reported it at

the post. In charge at Laramie, Lt. Hugh Fleming advised caution, perhaps wiser from his experience with the Indians the year before (see Fort

Laramie, June 15, 1853). However, young Lt. John L. Grattan, eager to show his Indian fighting prowess, insisted that he be allowed to make

an arrest. The next morning, Grattan led 30 men of Company G, 6th. Infantry, plus two artillery pieces to the Indian camp, about eight miles

east of the fort. High Forehead was visiting in the Brule (Lakota) village of Brave (or Conquering) Bear when Grattan marched up to them and

demanded the culprit who had shot the cow. Brave Bear could not order the minneconjou to submit, and a tense 45-minute talk only hardened

High Forehead's resolve to die right there. The interpreter, Auguste Lucien, hated the Indians and may have made matters worse by twisting

each party's words. Finally Grattan lost his patience, and his men leveled their muskets. No one knows who fired first, but the killing started in

a flash. Brave Bear was wounded in the crossfire. The cannons roared, blowing off tipi tops, then fell silent. Grattan went down, and several

hundred warriors engulfed the soldiers. About 18 fought their way out of the camp but were killed as they fled to the fort. One soldier made it

to the trading post of James Bordeaux, then to Fort Laramie, where he soon died from his wounds. Bordeaux spent a harried night giving

away his stock to appease the Indians and trying to convince them not to attack the fort. Eventually, he and the older chiefs calmed the

excited warriors, but not before they had pillaged another company's warehouse. Grattan and his 30 men were killed. Brave Bear's brother

and a few more Indians were wounded. Brave Bear lingered, but died in November.



After the Brule chief Brave Bear died from injuries received in the fight with Lt. John L. Grattan (see Grattan's Fight, August 19th.), many

young warriors wanted to retaliate. Brave Bear's oldest surviving brother, Red Leaf, his half-brother Long Chin, Spotted Tail, and two younger

braves headed for the Overland Trail. About 12 miles west of Horse Creek, near present-day Torrington, Wyoming, they waylaid a mail stage

headed for Salt Lake City, killed three men, and robbed the coach of a metal box containing $20,000 in gold, which was never recovered.



Walla Walla Council in Washington Territory between white officials and tribes of the Columbia Plateau (Walla Walla, Cayuse och Umatilla).







Avtalet kallat Laguna Negra Treaty mellan guvernör David Meriweather och navajoindianerna undertecknades





September 3, 1855: Ash Hollow Massacre (Blue Water Creek) - Colonel William Harney uses 1,300 soldiers to massacre an entire Brulé village

in retribution for the killing of 30 soldiers, who were killed in retribution for the killing of the Brulé chief, Conquering Bear, in a dispute over a

cow.



Avtal sluts med Blackfeet, Nez Perce och Flathead





The Connecticut General Assembly passes an act that provides for the sale of the majority of the Pequot reservation without tribal consent.

Yakima War (1855 - 1856) in Washington, involving the Yakimas, Walla Wallas, Umatillas, and Cayuses.



Rogue River War (1855 - 1856) in Oregon, involving the Takelmas and Tututnis.



Third Seminole Uprising in Florida 1855 - 1858.

The State of Connecticut sells off most of the 989 acres of the Pequots' reservation. Two hundred thirteen acres remain.

January 26, 1856: In the first Battle of Seattle, settlers drove Indians from their land so that a little town of white folks could prosper. The

sloop Decatur fired its cannon, routing the "Indians." Two settlers were killed.

Spirit Lake Massacre; Inkpaduta och ett band av Santeesioux attakerar och dödar nybyggare nära Spirit Lake, Iowa. 26 nybyggare dödas

och 4 kvinnor förs bort



Inkpaduta och hans Santeesiouxeband drar norrut efter drabbningen vid Spirit Lake och slår sig samman med Sleepy Eyes band. Här belägrar

de den 26 mars en grupp nybyggare som barrikaderat sig i ett hus. De dödar en pojke och sårar två män och en kvinna. Senare dödar de

ytterligare 7 nybyggare, innan de drar västerut mot Dakota. När det står klart för andra Santeegrupper att de nu inte ska få ut sina

avtalsransoner ordnar de en människojakt och dödar Roaring Cloud (som var skyldig till att ha dödat en kvinna), men Inkpaduta undkommer.



Battle of Solomon Fork in Kansas, involving the Cheyennes.



The Mountain Meadows Massacre



"Wild Bill" Hickock sätter under natten eld på Fort Bridger för att hindra armén att ta över posten



Coeur d'Alene War or Spokane War in Washington involving the Coeur d'Alenes, Spokanes, Palouses, Yakimas, and Northern Paiutes.



Treaty signed between U.S. and the Yankton Sioux



Minnesota blir USAs 32:a stat



On May 17, 1,200 Coeur d'Alene, Palouse, Spokane, and Skitswich Indians defeated a strong force of Colonel Steptoe near Colfax,

Washington, at the village of To-ho-to-nim-me.

Green Russell och Sam Bates hittar under den första veckan 1858 det första större guldfyndet i Colorado

Fort Abercrombie, ND, anläggs vid Red River som skydd för vagntransporterna från Minnesota till guldfälten i Montana. Fortet kommer att stå

under ständiga angrepp från Little Crows siouxer under upproret 1862. Posten avvecklas den 23 oktober 1877

On September 17, Colonel Wright dictated terms of surrender to Indians at Coeur d'Alene mission. 24 chiefs of the Yakama, Cayuse,

Wallawalla, Palouse and Spokane tribes were shot or hanged.

Colorado Gold Rush (1858 - 1859) (Pike's Peak Gold Rush).

Fort Bridger, nära staden Lyman, Wyoming, tas över av armén för att skydda Ponnyexpressen och trafiken på Overland Stage Route. Fortet

användes ända till 1890.

På våren 1859 två män, Peter O'Riley and Patrick McLaughlin, fann silver i vad som kom att kallas Comstock Lode, i Nevada

British government transfers control of Indian affairs to the Canadian provinces.

Henry Rifle skapades; B. Tyler Henry konstruerade och Oliver F. Winchester tillverkade ett magasinsgevär i kaliber 0,44" med

kantantändningspatroner. Geväret kallades Henry Repeating Rifle och kom att bli föregångaren till de välkända Winchestergevären.

Konstruktionen hade startats i slutet av 1850-talet och produktionen påbörjades 1862 och pågick fram till 1866.

On February 26, white settlers from Eureka, California attacked and killed 188 members of the Wiyot Tribe on Indian Island in Humboldt Bay.

Only one Wiyot member survived — a child named Jerry James, who was the son of chief Captain Jim.

Christian Spencer får patent på ett repetergevär (det så kallade Spencer Repeating Rifle) med en kaliber 0,52", byggd för patroner med

kantantändning.

Ponnyexpressen startades. Verksamheten pågick bara till oktober 1861, då den första transkontinentala telegraflinjen öppnades.

On April 29, Navajo Chief Manuelito and his warriors attacked Fort Defiance in northeastern Arizona. The fort, the first built in Navajo country,

was near livestock grazing land used by the Navajo. Conflict began when the army claimed the grazing land for their horses.



Paiute War (also called the Pyramid Lake War) in Nevada, involving the Southern Paiutes. (Pågick från maj till augusti).



The Navajo War (1860 - 1864 / avser vad vi kan kalla den amerikanska delen) broke out in the New Mexico Territory as a result of tensions

between the Navajos and American military forces in the area. During a final standoff in January 1864 at Canyon de Chelly, fears of harsh

winter conditions and starvation forced the Navajo to surrender to Kit Carson and his troops. Carson ordered the destruction of Navajo

property and organized the Navajo Long Walk to Bosque Redondo reservation at Fort Sumner, New Mexico.

On February 13, the first military action to result in the Congressional Medal of Honor occurred. Colonel Bernard Irwin attacked and defeated

hostile Chiricahua Indians in Arizona. Det här var en händelse som inträffade innan den här bemärkelseformen hade instiftats, men hans

insats var ihågkommen och han fick alltså medaljen så att säga i efterhand.



On February 18, Arapaho and Cheyenne ceded most of eastern Colorado , which had been guaranteed to them forever in an 1851 treaty.



Colorado blev ett Territorium; (the Territory of Colorado), som varade till 1876, då området blev staten Colorado.



Dakota blev ett Territorium; (the Territory of Dakota), som varade till 1889 då området blev staterna North Dakota respektive South Dakota.



Nevada blev ett Territorium; (the Territory of Nevada), som varade till 1864, då området blev staten Nevada.

On September 22, in an unprovoked peacetime attack, U.S. Army soldiers massacred visiting Navajo men, women and children during a horse

race at Fort Wingate, New Mexico.

On September 22, 500 Apaches led by Cochise attacked the town of Pinos Altos, New Mexico. Three miners and 14 Indians were killed.

Den första transkontinentala telegraflinjen tas i bruk; Därmed läggs också den relativt nystartade Ponyexpressen ner.

Civil War (1861 - 1865). In 1861, the Confederate government organizes a Bureau of Indian Affairs. Most tribes remain neutral. The South,

however, makes promises to Indians concerning the return of their tribal lands to encourage their support. After the war, as punishment for

their support of the Confederacy, the Five Civilized Tribes are compelled to accept a treaty relinquishing the western half of the Indian

Territory to 20 tribes from Kansas and Nebraska.

Apache uprisings (1861 - 1863) under chiefs Cochise and Mangas Colorado in the Southwest, resulting from the Bascom Affair.



The Five Civilized Tribes are divided over the Civil War, most join the Confederacy.



Gatling Gun, ett första maskingevär patenterades.

Homestead Act opens up Indian land in Kansas and Nebraska to white homesteaders, who are deeded 160-acre plots after inhabiting them for

five years. Lagen ändrades 1910 så att man tilldelades 320 acres och 1916 ändrades den på nytt och fick då namnet Stock Raising Homestead

Law, innebärande en tilldelning på 640 acres.



Fort Caspar etableras vid North Platte River (i nuvarande staden Casper, Wyoming) som skydd för trafiken på Oregon Trail, bron över floden

samt telegraflinjen. Ursprungligen kallad Platte Bridge Station döptes den om 1867 till Fort Caspar för att hedra minnet av löjtnant Caspar

Collins, som hade dött i siouxernas och cheyennernas massiva anfall mot stationen 1865. I dag är stationen återuppbygd och är ett museum.



Pacific Railroad Act undertecknas av president Lincoln, varigenom klartecken gavs för att starta byggnationen av den transkontinentala

järnvägen Union Pacific från öster och Central Pacific från väster.

Guld upptäcks i Grasshopper Creek, Montana. Det leder till att statens första guldgrävarstad snabbt växer upp. En stad som får namnet

Bannack och tämligen omgående blir så stor och betydelsefull att den blir statens residensstad. Idag är den en bevarad så kallad "spökstad"

och fungerar som museum.

August 18, 1862: Beginning of the Sioux Uprising (or Santee War) in Minnesota. The Sioux declared war on the white settlers, killing more

than 1,000. They were eventually defeated by the U.S. army, which marched 1,700 survivors to Fort Snelling. Others escaped to the safety of

their western relatives. Over 400 Indians were tried for murder, 38 of whom were publicly executed. By 1864 90% of the Santee, and many of

the Teton who sheltered them were dead or in prison.

Militärstyrkor under general Henry L. Sibley besegrar Little Crows santee-siouxstyrkor vid Wood Lake, Minnesota.



Fort Douglas, 3 miles öster om Salt Lake City, etableras av general Patrick E. Connor och hans frivilligstyrkor från Kalifornien. Avsikten var att

det skulle bli en bas för de styrkor som skulle patrullera och skydda Emigrantvägen ända fram till Pacific Springs i väster. Lika betydelsefullt,

men outtalat, var det säkert att armén därifrån också skulle kunna kontrollera den ökande mormonkolonin kring Salt Lake.

December 26, 1862: The mass execution of 38 Sioux men in Mankato, Minnesota for crimes during the Sioux Uprising. The trials of almost

every adult male who had voluntarily surrendered to General Sibley, at a rate of up to 40 a day, were conducted under the premise of guilty

until proven innocent. Originally 303 men were condemned to death. President Lincoln intervened and ordered a complete review of the

records. This resulted in a reduced list of 40 to be executed. One was reprieved by the military because he had supplied testimony against

many of the others. A last minute reprieve removed one more from the list. A mix-up in properly recording the names of the men and in

associating the records with the proper men resulted in one man being ordered released for saving a woman's life, a day after he was hung.



Pass Creek, (Walcott, Wyoming) ; Ute Indians attacked the Pass Creek stage station, near the junction of Pass Creek and the North Platte

River, driving off stock and destroying equipment. In response, Lt. Henry Brandley and a 20-man detachment of Company B, 9th. Kansas

Cavalry, rode out from Fort Halleck. They overtook and killed a few of the raiders, but Brandley was badly wounded by a ball through the left

arm.

Arizona Territory bildades

Idaho Territory bildades

Guld hittas i Alder Gulch, Montana. Ett guldgrävarcentrum växer upp och får namnet Virginia City. Det är idag kulturminnesförklarat och

fungerar som ett museum. Det här var området dit den omtvistade vägen "Bozeman Trail" ledde.



De amerikanska myndigheterna sluter ett fredsavtal med shoshoneindianerna i Fort Bridger, Wyoming.

Murder of Little Crow; After the end of the Santee Sioux uprising, Little Crow leaves the area. Eventually he returns to steal horses and

supplies so he, and his followers can survive. On this day, near Hutchinson, Minnesota, Little Crow and his son stop to pick some berries.

Minnesota has recently enacted a law which pays a bounty of $25 for every Sioux scalp. Some settlers see Little Crow, and they open fire.

Little Crow will be mortally wounded. His killer would get a bonus bounty of 500 dollars. Little Crow's scalp would go on public display in

St.Paul. Little Crow's son, Wowinapa, escapes, but is later captured in Dakota Territory.

Grand Pass (Ryan Park, Wyoming); Since February 1863, Grand River and Uinta Utes had been raiding the mail line west of Fort Halleck and had

stolen 173 horses and 34 miles from Ben Holladay's company. to stop this, about 70 men from a detachment of 1st. Colorado Cavalry and from

Company B, 9th. Kansas Cavalry, left Fort Halleck in July in search if the Utes. At sunrise on July 7th., in a pass in the Medicine Bow Mountains

about 25 miles south of the fort, Lts. Henry Brandley and Hugh W. Williams and their men overtook the Indians. When the troopers rode up, 250 Utes

opened fire from the timber and underbrush. Undaunted Brandley and Williams dismounted the men and charged up the slope. The Utes, well-armed

with Hawkins rifles, would likely have killed a great many more soldiers, but, according to Capt. Asaph Allen, commander at Fort Halleck, "in firing

down the steep hill-side they invariably fired too high. It was a perfect hail-storm of lead over the heads of the troops". The fight lasted two hours.

When the soldiers achieved the crest of the pass, the Utes broke and fled. One soldier, Sgt. S.N. Waugh of Company B, was killed in the charge, and 6

were wounded. The Utes left 20 dead on the field; they carried off another 40 dead and wounded. The fight left the Fort Halleck region in comparative

peace.

Battle of Dead Buffalo Lake.

Battle of Stony Lake.

Whitestone Hill Battle, North Dakota. General Alfred Sully's trupper angrep ett kombinerat siouxläger och drev indianerna på flykten. Många

indianer dödades eller tillfångatogs och hela lägret förstördes.

Whitestone Hill Battle 2. Under jakten på de bortflyende indianerna kom det till ytterligare en mindre drabbning den här dagen.

Shoshoni War (also called the Bear River Campaign) in Utah and Idaho, involving the Western Shoshonis.

Navajo War in New Mexico and Arizona. In 1864, Navajo prisoners are forced on the "Long Walk" to Bosque Redondo. Manuelito surrenders in

1866.

Montana Territory bildades

On June 11, rancher Nathan Hungate, his wife and two little girls were slaughtered in Chivington, Colorado by Indians.

Townsend Wagon Train Fight. A large train of 467 people and 150 wagons was attacked on July 9 a few miles west of the Powder River

Crossing by a large Sioux and Cheyenne war party. The Indians came to the camp, asking to accompany the wagon train and requesting food.

They were not allowed to accompany the train, but were given food. John "Mich" Boyer and John Richard Jr. (ev. även Rafael Gallegos) tried to

talk to them. According to historian Robert A. Murray, "as one man was missing, Townsend sent a small force out to look for him. The Indians,

knowing the man had been killed by one of them, threw down their food, and hand-to-hand fighting ensued. Three emigrant men were killed

in the fight ...an estimated thirteen Indians were killed."



Kelly Wagon Train (LaPrele, Wyoming); When a wagon train from Kansas consisting of ten emigrants, including the Josiah S. Kelly family,

the Larimer family, and others, reached Fort Laramie, people at the fort assured them that the road ahead was safe and that the Indians were

friendly. A few more wagons joined them when they left the fort. As the train was crossing Little Box Elder Creek, about four miles west of

LaPrele Station, more than 200 Oglala Sioux swept in. Professing friendship, the Indians asked for food and supplies, and the emigrants fed

them. After the meal, the warriors attacked with guns and arrows. Kelly, Larimer, and a servant were wounded but escaped. The four other

men--Gardner Wakefield, a Mr. Taylor, a Mr. Sharp, and a servant named Franklin, were killed. The Indians tore through the wagons, looting

and destroying, and captured Kelly's and Larimer's wives and the two children. It was dark when they rode away, and Mrs. Kelly let her little

daughter slide off the horse, hoping she would be rescued. Instead, the girl's father found her body later, filled with arrows and scalped. The

next night, Mrs. Larimer and her son managed to steal away and made it to safety. The Sioux returned Mrs. Kelly to Fort Sully in December.



Battle of Killdeer Mountain

Fort Wadsworth, SD, anläggs av major John Clowney, 30th Wisconsin Inf. För att kontrollera siouxerna efter det stora "Dakota-upproret".

Fortet döptes senare (aug 1876) om till Fort Sisseton.

Nevada blev USAs 36:e stat den 31 okt, 1864

Det första slaget vid Adobe Walls, Texas, där Kit Carson med frivilligtrupper från New Mexico utkämpade en hård strid med Kiowa och

Comancheindianer

SAND CREEK MASSACRE; On November 29, 750 Colorado volunteers of the 3rd Colorado Calvary, under the command of Colonel John

Chivington (a Methodist pastor), attacked a Cheyenne and Arapaho village at Arapaho in retaliation for the Hungate's. The soldiers scalped the

victims, then sliced off women's breasts, cut out their vaginas, cut the testicles from the men, cut off fingers, raped dead squaws in relays,

and used baby toddlers as target practice. 163 Indians were killed; 110 of them were women and children. The dead were left to be eaten by

coyotes and vultures. On the way back to Fort Lyon, the soldiers wore the sliced breasts and vaginas atop their hats or stretched over

saddlebows. Weeks later, soldiers paraded through Denver, waving body parts of the dead. After two congressional hearings, Colonel

Chivington was driven into exile, and Colorado Governor John Evans was removed from office.

Cheyenne-Arapaho War (1864 - 1865) in Colorado and Kansas. In 1864, Chivington's Colorado Volunteers kill more than 300 Indians in the

Sand Creek Massacre.

The Long Walk to Bosque Redondo - Under the military leadership of Kit Carson, the federal government forced 8,000 Navajo men, women,

and children to walk more than 300 miles from their ancestral homeland in northeastern Arizona to a newly-designated reservation at Bosque

Redondo in northwestern New Mexico. The march ended in confinement on barren lands, as well as malnutrition, disease, and hunger. For four

years they endured life in this desolate area under virtual prison camp circumstances. In 1866, the Navajo signed a treaty allowing them to

return to their traditional homes to begin rebuilding their communities. In return, the Navajo were forced to promise to remain on the

reservation, to stop raiding white communities, and to become ranchers and farmers. In 1868, the government finally returned the Navajo to

their homeland.

Indians regarded as competent witnesses under federal law and allowed to testify in trials.



Dear Creek Station (Glenrock, Wyoming); In May 1865 Companies D and L of the 11th. Kansas Cavalry were garrisoned at Dear Creek Station,

about 28 miles east of Platte Bridge Station and just east of present-day Glenrock, Wyoming. Several Indian battles occurred near the post on

the same day. Three miles above their camp on Deer Creek, 25 Indians assaulted Lt. W.B. Godfrey of Company D and 3 soldiers. After a brisk

two-hour fight the men succeeded in repulsing their attackers without suffering casualties. Godfrey estimated they killed 2 Indians and

wounded 4. At the same time, 50 Indians besieged the camp of a Sgt. Smythe and 6 men of Company L, 11th. Kansas. After two and a half

hours the Indians withdrew abut ran off with 26 cavalry horses. The Indians lost 3 warriors and 5 were wounded. One soldier was killed. After

the attacks, at Camp Plumb on Mud Creek, about ten miles west of Deer Creek Station, Lt. Col. Preston B. Plumb of the 11th. Kansas Cavalry

directed Lt. Jacob Van Antwerp of Company L to take 24 men in pursuit of the Indian raiders. Antwerp tracked them southeast to Deer Creek,

then to Box Elder Creek, and down to the North Platte River. About seven miles east of Deer Creek Station, he found 100 warriors, but they

were on the opposite bank and the river was running too high to ford. Antwerp returned to Camp Plumb empty-handed on May 22nd.

Dry Creek (Casper, Wyoming); Lt. Col. Preston B. Plumb, in command of the 11th. Kansas Cavalry, made his headquarters at Camp Dodge,

about seven miles southeast of Platte Bridge Station, which was guarded by soldiers from Company G of the 11th. Ohio Cavalry. At about 3

P.M. on June 3rd., a band of ten Indians fired on Platte Bridge Station from across the North Platte River. When a messenger brought Plumb

the news, he took ten men of Company B and rode to the station. There he gathered ten more men from the 11th. Ohio Cavalry and a few

more from Companies A and F, 11th. Kansas Cavalry, and headed west after the raiders. A chase of five miles had half the cavalry's horses

dropping back in exhaustion, but Plumb's men were close enough to fire on and hit two Indians. The warriors abruptly turned and charged at

Plumb, who did not turn away. The Indians then broke off, at a considerably faster speed than they had been going before. These Indians,

Plumb discovered, were a decoy. "This purpose quite apparent immediately after," Plumb later said, "as a party of about sixty Indians came

charging down the bottom of Dry Creek half a mile to our left, with the apparent purpose of getting between us and the station and cutting off

the stragglers". At this time another 20 men from Companies A and F of the 11th. Kansas Cavalry showed up, and the Indians turned around.

The soldiers chased the warriors for two miles. Six men of A and F Companies and one of Company G, 11th. Ohio, pursuing a party

considerably in advance, were ambushed by about 30 Indians, front and rear. Before assistance arrived two privates were killed. One was

scalped after his horse fell on him and pinned him to the ground; the other's body was saved from mutilation when a Pvt. Martin of Company

A, taking cover in a ravine, drove the Indians off with his carbine. Plumb reported one Indian killed and about five wounded. The two soldiers

killed were the only army casualties.



June 8, 1865 Sage Creek Station (Saratoga, Wyoming); Just a few days after Lt. James A. Brown detached five men of Company K, 11th. Ohio

Cavalry, to guard the Sage Creek Station on the Overland Road west of Fort Halleck, they were attacked by about 100 Lakotas and

Cheyennes. After one hour's fighting and with dwindling ammunition, they were compelled to evacuate with two civilians. Though well

mounted, the fleeing men faced a desperate eight-mile run west to reach Pine Grove Station, with the Indians in pursuit. During the chase,

Pvts. George Bodine and Perry Stewart were killed, Cpl. W. H. Caldwell and Pvt. William Wilson were wounded, and Pvt. Orlando Ducket was

wounded and captured. The two civilians were presumed killed. Caldwell and Wilson made it to Pine Grove Station, where they joined a

detachment of ten men of their own company, commanded by a Sgt. McFaddin, as they retreated to Sulphur Springs. The next morning, the

soldiers found the bodies of Stewart and Bodine lying in the road horribly mutilated, the latter scalped. They also found the body of one of the

civilians, but the other civilian and Pvt. Ducket were not found. It was thought that the Indians burned their bodies at Sage Creek Station.



General Patrick Connor organizes 3 columns of soldiers to begin an invasion of the Powder River Basin, from the Black Hills, Paha Sapa , to the

Big Horn Mountains. They had one order: "Attack and kill every male Indian over twelve years of age." Conner builds a fort on the Powder

River. Wagon trains begin to cross the Powder River Basin on their way to the Montana gold fields.

Platte Bridge (Casper, Wyoming); After their winter raids (January 7th., Julesburg, Colorado), the Cheyennes and Lakotas who had left

Colorado and Kansas for the Powder River country in February joined with the Lakotas who had escaped from the army during a relocation

march (June 14th., Horse Creek/Fouts's fight, Morrill, Nebraska) to form a great force. Together they planned a major attack of about 2,500

warriors against Plate Bridge Station, commanded by Maj. Martin Anderson of the 11th. Kansas Cavalry. The garrison consisted of about 120

men of Companies C, I, and K of the 11th. Kansas Cavalry, detachments of Company G, 11th. Ohio Cavalry, and some 3rd. U.S. volunteers

under Capt. A Smith Lybe. Among the officers at the Platte Bridge post was Lt. Caspar Collins, son of the retired colonel of the 11th. Ohio

Cavalry. On July 26th., solders saw numerous Indians north of the North Platte River; this posed a threat to a wagon train expected soon from

the west. When Collins was ordered to take some men out to help guard the train, he fully expected to die. Turning to his friend, he said, "Jim,

I know I shall never get back alive. Here is my cap that you have admired so much. Keep it to remember me by." With that, he led out 25

men from Companies I and K. Collins and his men crossed the long wooden bridge across the river and turned west. Riding along the banks

near the bluffs, they were jumped by about 1,000 warriors. The soldiers spun around and tried to cut their way back to the bridge. There were

so many Indians on both sides that they shot and hit more of their own warriors than cavalrymen. Meanwhile, Lt. Henry C. Bretney of the

11th. Ohio was crossing the bridge with 40 men to help Collins in case there was trouble. Concealed near the bridge were about 200

Arapahos, but when they jumped out, some well-placed volleys drove them back. The path was open for Collins if he could break through.

Collin's fight was so close that the troopers could almost touch the warriors riding alongside them. Collins was wounded in the hip, but he

continued riding until he saw a trooper go down and stopped to help him. As he tried to get the man up on his horse, they were both

overwhelmed. Bretney held off the Indians until the retreating troopers galloped back across the bridge. Four other men died with Collins, and

eight more were wounded. Later that day, Lt. George M. Walker, 11th. Kansas Cavalry, led 15 men out to repair a telegraph line the Indians

had cut in their raid. Capt. Lybe posted a small force to their rear for support. Walker had barely reached the broken line when Lybe signaled

that Indians were coming. The men fell back pell-mell as the Indians closed in. The warriors caught four troopers and speared two of them,

killing Pvt. James A. Porter and seriously wounding farrier Joseph Hilty, whose horse carried him to safety. Sgt. Duncan McDougal placed his

revolver against the ribs of an Indian riding next to him and fired his last cartridge into him. The howitzer at the station held the Indians long

enough for the soldiers to retreat behind its walls. Six soldiers were killed and nine wounded in the second fight. Indian casualties were

difficult to separate from the additional losses they took later in the day (next entry). It seems probable that five were killed and ten wounded.

Red Buttes/Custard's Wagon Train (Casper, Wyoming); After the Cheyennes and Lakotas chased the soldiers at Platte Bridge Station back into

the post (previous entry), they were distracted from pursuing the fight by word of a wagon train approaching from the west. Sgt. Amos J.

Custard of Company H, 11th. Kansas Cavalry, was in charge of the 14 teams, 5 wagons, and about 25 men of Companies H and D. Custard

left Sweetwater Station on July 25th. and camped for the night at Willow Springs, halfway to Platte Bridge. That evening Lt. Henry C. Bretney

and Capt. A Smith Lybe with their detachments, also on their way to Platte Bridge, stopped at Custard's camp and suggested he join them, but

the sergeant thought the mules were too tired. The next morning Custard took his train down the telegraph road near the North Platte River.

Past Red Buttes, he met a 30-man patrol of the 11th. Ohio Cavalry, who warned him that thousands of Indians were besieging the station just

ahead and urged him to turn back. "No sir", said Custard, "we don't stop here. We are going to Platte Bridge in spite of all the redskins this

side of hell". Farther on, Custard heard the gunfire and sent five men to scout ahead. The scouts were soon attacked and dashed to the river

for safety. Two of them were shot at the river, but three others eventually made it to the station. On the way they killed the Cheyenne Left

Hand, brother of the famous war leader Roman Nose. Shortly after the scouts left, the Indians swarmed on Custard. He hurriedly corralled his

wagons, and the remaining 20 men fired from beneath or inside the wagons. The warriors got in close, some rolling logs and rocks in for cover

as they tightened the circle. Though hopelessly outnumbered, Custard and his men held out for four hours. When Roman Nose finally directed

the warriors to rush in for the final combat, there were only a handful of soldiers still alive. The few they captured were subjected to horrible

tortures, for the soldiers had shot a substantial number of Indians. The Cheyennes threw away the scalps they took, for too many warriors had

died to celebrate the battle. Killed were Custard, 19 soldiers at the wagons, and the 2 shot at the river. The Cheyennes lost 6 warriors, with

another 6 wounded. The Lakotas lost about 6 killed and 12 wounded.



General Connor bygger ett första fort (Camp Connor - senare Fort Reno) längs Powder River.



Crazy Woman's Fork (Buffalo, Wyoming); The Powder River campaign against the Cheyenne and Lakota had been in the planning stages all

spring and early summer, and after interminable supply delays, it finally got under way. Brig. Gen. Patrick E. Connor led the "Left Column" out

of Fort Laramie on July 30th. It consisted of 90 men each of the 7th. Iowa and 11th. Ohio Cavalries, 116 of the 2nd. California Cavalry, 95

Pawnee scouts under Capt. Frank North, and 84 Omaha scouts. Accompanying them were 200 men of Col. James H. Kidd's 6th. Michigan

Cavalry, who were to build a garrison a new fort on the Powder River. While the troops looked for a place to build a post, North led a scout of

Pawnees down the Powder River, north of the main command. On August 13th., near Crazy Woman's Fork, North chased a war party until he

became separated from his support. The warriors shot North's horse, and things looked grim for him when one of his scouts, Bob White, rode

up. North ordered White to go for help. The scout stated, according to teamster Finn Burnett, "Me heap brave, me no run, you and me killem

plenty Sioux, that better". After possibly wounding a few warriors, other Pawnee scouts arrived to end the action.

Bone Pile Creek (Gillette, Wyoming); Hoping to pioneer and publicize a shorter route to Montana, prominent Iowa merchant James Sawyers

organized an expedition to build a road along the proposed route. He left the mouth of the Niobrara River, in northern Nebraska, on June 13th.

with 53 men and 15 wagons pulled by 45 yoke of oxen. His escort was a rather unwilling Capt. George Williford leading 143 men of the 5th.

U.S. Volunteers and a detachment of Dakota Cavalry. Joining them was an emigrant train of 5 wagons and 36 freight wagons owned by C.E.

Hedges & Company of Sioux City, Iowa. The party traveled slowly up the Niobrara, at times struggling through sand hills with temperatures

climbing over 100 degrees. by the time they reached the badlands of the upper White River, Williford was running out of provisions. On July

21st. he sent 15 men to Fort Laramie, about 75 miles southwest, for needed supplies. By August 9th., the expedition had reached the Belle

Fourche River and decided to strike northwest to the Powder River. A nearly waterless 32-mile trek over the next two days convinced Sawyers

that it was not the place for a wagon road, and he retraced his steps. On August 13th. the party camped on Bone Pile Creek, about ten miles

southwest of present-day Gillette, Wyoming. About a mile and a half form camp, a band of Cheyennes jumped Nathaniel D. Hedges, a 19-year-

old partner in the freighting firm. They killed him and ran off eight horses. The distressed expedition moved a few miles down Bone Pile Creek,

corralled, and placed a strict guard. They buried Hedges in the center of the corral and concealed his grave. On the 14th. the Indians appeared

in force and made a dash at the camp's herd, but the group drive them off. The next day over 500 warriors appeared on the bluffs. They

swept onto the plain and circled around shooting, but the camp repelled them again. At noon the Indians asked for a parley. Sawyer gave

them a wagonload of sugar, bacon, coffee, flour, and tobacco to buy his way out. Williford objected to the gift, doubting it would work, and he

proved correct. No sooner had the expedition started to get under way again then a melee erupted. Some Lakota had come in after the gifts

were distributed. Two Dakota cavalrymen of Company B, John Rawze and Anthony Nelson, were shot down. Finally the Indians left, and

Nelson's body was recovered and buried in the corral as Hedges had been. Rawze's body could not be found. The expedition turned south to

Fort Connor. The two soldiers and one civilian killed were the whites' total casualties. Five Lakotas were wounded, two of them mortally.





Powder River (Northeastern Wyoming); While construction began on Fort Connor, near present-day Sussex, Wyoming, Frank North's Pawnee

scouts kept up a vigilant search for Cheyennes and Sioux. They trailed a band of Cheyennes who had been raiding along the Platte River and

were heading north. The signs showed about 40 horses and mules and 1 travois. North, with 48 Pawnees and a number of white soldiers and

civilians, caught up with the raiders on the Powder River about 50 miles north of Fort Connor. The Cheyennes assumed the approaching

Indians were Cheyennes or Lakotas, for they made a friendly sign. Suddenly the Pawnees charged in, shouting. The fight was one-sided, the

exuberant Pawnees killing 27 Cheyennes, including Yellow Woman, stepmother of George Bent. A wounded Cheyenne in the travois rolled

himself over a steep cutbank, but a Pawnee saw him, climbed down, and killed him with a saber. North's scouts lost 4 horses but captured 18

horses and 17 miles, many with government brands showing they had been taken in the Platte Bridge fight. Back at Fort Connor, the Pawnees

held a great scalp dance long into the night. North was praised after the battle, which earned him the name "Pawnee Chief" from his scouts.

Tongue River (Ranchester, Wyoming); Launching the Powder River campaign (see Crazy Woman's Fork, August 13th.), Brig. Gen.

Patrick E. Connor led his Left Column north from Fort Laramie on July 30th. They moved up the Bozeman Trail to the Powder River, where the

6th. Michigan Cavalry, who had accompanied the column to build a new post on the river, began construction of Fort Connor. Connor

continued north with his column on August 22nd., trailing along the east edge of the Bighorn Mountains to the Tongue River and moving

downstream toward the planned meeting place with other columns under Col. Nelson Cole and Col. Samuel Walker. On the 28th., scouts

brought word of an Indian village 40 miles upstream at the head of the Tongue. Conner prepared to backtrack and attack. Leaving part of the

command with the 184-wagon train, Connor led 125 cavalrymen and 90 scouts in a night march to Black Bear and David's Arapaho village, a

mile south of present-day Ranchester, Wyoming. There were nearly 300 lodges with about 700 Indians. Though it was early in the morning,

the Indians were dismantling the camp. Connor lined up his men, who fired a volley then barreled into them. The soldiers fought with the

warriors while the women and children fled. A battery of howitzers under Maj. Nelson O'Brien of the 7th. Iowa Cavalry blasted the village.

Capt. Henry E. Palmer of the 11th. Kansas Cavalry said of the fight: "I was in the village in the midst of a hand to hand fight with warriors and

their squaws, for many of the female portion of this band did as brave fighting as their savage lords. Unfortunately for the women and

children, our men had no time to direct their aim. . .squaws and children, as well as warriors, fell among the dad and wounded". Conner led a

pursuit up the valley for ten miles. At about 11 A.M., at the edge of a canyon, he turned around and found he had outdistanced most of his

support and now had only about 13 men with him. He retreated to the Indians village site and spend the rest of the day destroying the lodges

and burning tons of buffalo robes, blankets, furs, and meat. The number of horses Connor captured was estimated between 500 and 1,100. In

the late afternoon, Connor marched his men the 40 miles back to the wagon train. The soldiers had been in the saddle for 100 miles and

without rest for 40 hours. Connor lost 2 soldiers and 3 scouts, and 7 soldiers were wounded. He captured 7 women and 11 children, but later

freed them. Connor estimated that 35 Indians were killed, while Palmer said 63 were slain.



Roman Nose's Fight - The Cheyenne Chief, Roman Nose, in revenge for the Sand Creek Massacre, led several hundred Cheyenne warriors in a

siege of the Cole and Walker columns of exhausted and starving soldiers who were attempting to return to Fort Laramie. Because they were

armed only with bows, lances and a few old trade guns, they were unable to overrun the soldiers, but they harasses them for several days,

until Connor's returning column rescued them.

Vagntåg börjar korsa Powder River-dalen på sin väg till guldfälten i Montana.

The Southern Cheyenne chiefs sign a treaty agreeing to cede all the land they formerly claimed as their own, most of Colorado Territory, to

the U.S. government. This was the desired end of the Sand Creek Massacre.



Connor returns to Fort Laramie leaving two companies of soldiers at the fort they had constructed at the fork of the Crazy Woman Creek and

the Powder River. Red Cloud and his warriors kept these men isolated and without supplies all winter. Many died of scurvy, malnutrition and

pneumonia before winter's end. They were not relieved until June 28th by Colonel Carrington's company.



Nine treaties signed with the Sioux including the Brulé, Hunkpapa, Oglala and Minneconjou. These were widely advertised as signifying the

end of the Plains wars although none of the war chiefs had signed any of these treaties.



An illegal Executive Order removed lands from the Oregon Coast Indian Reservation, cutting the territory in half.

United States gives contract to Protestant missionary societies to operate Indian schools.

Jesse Chisholm, a mixed-blood, opens the Chisholm Trail.



Mexican Kickapoo Uprising in the Southwest (1865 - 1873).



Railroad Enabling Act appropriates Indian lands for railway use.

July 17, 1866 Cazeau Wagon Train (Banner, Wyoming); Traders Peter Cazeau and Henry Arrison were traveling along the Bozeman Trail

in two wagons with three employees, Cazeau's Oglala wife Mary, and their four children. On July 16th. they were camped on Peno Creek, six

miles north of Fort Phil Kearny, when a group of Northern Cheyennes joined them. Later, some angry Oglalas appeared, demanding that the

Cheyennes join them in a war against the soldiers at the fort. When the Cheyennes refused, the Oglalas called them cowards, whipped them,

and drove them from the camp. Early the next morning, the Oglalas returned and killed Cazeau, Arrison, and the three hired men. Mary and

the children escaped into the brush and safely reached the fort.

July 20, 1866 Crazy Woman Creek (Buffalo, Wyoming); A small 18th. U.S. Infantry detachment of 29 soldiers under Lt. George

Templeton was heading north to Fort Phil Kearny as escort for the wives of Lt. Alexander Wands and Sgt. F.M. Fessenden, a servant, and

several children. After passing Fort Reno (formerly Fort Connor), they party went down Dry Creek to its junction with Crazy Woman Creek.

Scouting ahead, Templeton and Lt. Napoleon H. Daniels were jumped by over 50 warriors, probably Lakotas, perhaps with some Cheyennes.

Daniels was killed. The Indians chased Templeton back to the train with an arrow in his back and a wound on his face. He ordered the train

corralled and organized the defense. Several men were wounded and a few mules were shot down. At sunset, two men volunteered to ride

back to Fort Reno for help. Just then, another train of 34 wagons and 47 men, under Capt. Thomas B. Burrowes, approached from the

northwest. Burrowes was unaware that anything was wrong until he saw Templeton's corralled train, then came across the body of Pvt.

Terrence Callery, one of his own men who had gone out to hunt. Burrowes's train forted up with Templeton's. The next morning the soldiers

found the body of Lt. Daniels stripped, scalped, and pierced with 22 arrows. Responding to the call for help, Lt. Thaddeus S. Kirtland and 13

men rode in on July 21st., but the Indians had gone by then. The entire party went back to Fort Reno the next day. Two men were killed in

the siege and six were wounded. Indian casualties are unknown.

July 24, 1866 Clear Creek (Buffalo, Wyoming); At Fort Reno, after the siege at Crazy Woman Creek (previous entry), the soldiers buried

Lt. Daniels, then Capt. Burrowes and his train joined the Templeton party to Fort Phil Kearny. On July 23rd. the train caught up with two large

civilian wagon trains that had left the fort the day before, led by High Kirkendall and William Dillon. The conglomeration consisted of about 200

wagons and stretched for 6 miles across the plains. The first wagons reached Clear Creek, at present-day Buffalo, Wyoming, on the afternoon

of the 24th. and corralled. Kirkendall's train, 6 miles south, had to corral on their own when 25 Indians tried to run off their mules. In the

meantime, William Dillon and five other men had left camp to see what was holding Kirkendall up, when they were attacked. The six men shot

their horses and made a small circle to hold off the Indians. After four hours of fighting, they tried to make a run for Kirkendall's corral. Dillon

was critically wounded, and one of the men carried him while three others walked backward, shooting at their pursuers. Kirkendall recognized

what was happening and sent a party out to rescue them. At the first corral, at Clear Creek, Burrowes heard of the attack and sent couriers to

Fort Phil Kearny for help. He also dispatched 16 men to assist Kirkendall and Dillon, and Kirkendall was able to move his wagons to Clear

Creek. Dillon died that night. The next morning, 60 men and a howitzer arrived from Fort Phil Kearny, and they all proceeded to that post.

Dillon was the only casualty from the wagon trains. Two Lakotas were killed in the fight.



Uteindianer tillsammans med indianer från pueblon Zuni attackerar Manuelito's band söder om Sierra Escudilla (nära Springerville AZ).



Navajoledaren Ganado Mucho och hans band lämnade Escudilla och startar sin flytt till Bosque Redondo.



Navajoledaren Manuelito kapitulerar vid Fort Wingate och hans band startar sin flytt till Bosque Redondo.



Red Clouds war (1866 - 1868). War for the Bozeman Trail in Wyoming and Montana, involving the Sioux, Cheyennes, and Arapahos under

Chief Red Cloud. A second Fort Laramie Treaty resolves the conflict in 1868.



December 6, 1866 Peno Creek (Banner, Wyoming); After Indians (probably Lakotas) attacked a wood-cutting detail about four miles

from Fort Phil Kearny, post commander Col. Henry B. Carrington, 18th. Infantry, led 25 mounted infantrymen under Lt. George W. Grummond

north of Lodge Trail Ridge, and sent Capt. William J. Fetterman and Lt. Horatio S. Bingham with a squad of mounted infantry and about 30

troopers of Company C, 2nd. Cavalry, northwest toward the wood wagons. The idea was for Fetterman to drive the Indians from the west side

of Lodge Trail Ridge to the east side, where Carrington would be waiting for them. The plan quickly came unraveled either through

miscommunication or from deliberately disobeyed orders. Bingham rode ahead of Fetterman, fair in advance of the command. Likewise,

Grummond rode out ahead of Carrington. On his way to Lodge Trail Ridge, Carrington had a skirmish with 100 warriors, delaying him.

Fetterman arrived in time only to check Bingham's fleeing troopers, who had gone chasing after a few Indians along Peno Creek and were

nearly annihilated by a large force of warriors--the first Indians had been decoys. The green soldiers stopped their flight only after Lt.

Alexander Wands threatened to have them shot by their own comrades. Bingham, however, did not stop. He continued on with a handful of

troopers toward Carrington, whom he saw on the ridge. He never made it. Carrington and Fetterman pulled back to the fort. Carrington killed

one Indian himself and estimated that ten warriors were killed. Bingham and Sgt. G.R. Bowers were killed, and another sergeant and four

privates were wounded. Bingham's body was found lying over a stump with more than 50 arrows in it.

December 21, 1866 Fort Phil Kearny/Fetterman Massacre (Buffalo, Wyoming); In a near repeat of the December 6th. incident

(previous entry), a train of wood wagons came under attack outside Fort Phil Kearny, and Col. Henry B. Carrington sent Capt. William J.

Fetterman out with 80 men, including 27 horsemen of Company C, 2nd. Cavalry; detachments of Companies A, C, E, and H of the 18th.

Infantry; and 2 civilians, James S. Wheatley and Isaac Fisher. "Under no circumstances", ordered Carrington, "pursue over. . .Lodge Trail

Ridge". Fetterman, however, was pulled into a chase by a decoy party that included the Lakotas Crazy Horse, Black Shield, and White Bull.

Fetterman and his command followed the Indians over the ridge. As soon as the soldiers were out of sight of the fort, the concealed warriors

struck. On the north-south ridge that would become known as Massacre Hill, perhaps 1,000 warriors, perfectly following the plan of the

Minneconjou chief High Back Bone, rose up from the valley of Peno Creek and charged up the hill. The cavalrymen under Lt. George W.

Grummond, who were farthest north, fell back toward the infantry along the trail as they all tried desperately to find a place to make a stand.

The two civilians, behind a pile of rocks at the north end of the ridge, put up one of the best fights with their Henry rifles. The battle lasted

only about half an hour. All 81 soldiers and civilians were killed; Fetterman and Capt. Frederick H. Brown reportedly shot each other in the

head simultaneously at the end of the battle. The Cheyennes lost 2 men, the Arapahos 1, and the Lakotas about 60. Perhaps 100 were

wounded.

Snake War (1866 - 1868) in Oregon and Idaho, involving Northern Paiute bands of Yahuskins and Walpapis.



British North American Act establishes Confederation of Canada. First Dominion Parliament assembled.



Wagon Box Fight (Story, Wyoming); A crew of civilian woodcutters ere camped on Little Piney Creek, about five miles northwest of Fort

Phil Kearny, with their military escort, Capt. James W. Powell and Lt. John C. Jenness, 27th. Infantry, and 51 men of Company C, who had just

relieved Company A. Early in the morning of August 2nd., nearly 1,000 Sioux warriors, mainly Oglalas, Minneconjous, and Sans Arcs, under

Red Cloud and High Back Bone, struck the camp. Some soldiers and civilians were caught outside the camp or in transit between the camp

and the fort, and they had their own fights or escaped. All Powell could muster to his wagon coral were Jenness, 24 enlisted men, and 6

civilians. Perhaps 800 warriors concentrated on the wagons. A mounted charge from the southwest was beaten back by judicious fire from the

soldier's new Springfield-Allin breech-loading rifles. When the initial charge failed, the warriors dismounted and crept close to the north and

east side of the corral, where the terrain provided cover. In the second attack, Lt. Jenness remained standing, ignoring the entreaties of his

men. "I know how to fight Indians", he said. Just then a bullet him him square in the forehead. Also killed were Pvts. Henry Haggerty and

Tommy Doyle. A Minneconjou named Jipala brazenly advanced with a spear and a buffalo hide, challenging the soldiers to shoot him. He

remained unscathed for a long time, but Pvt. Max Littman finally brought him down. The defenders repulsed eight charges between 7 A.M. and

1:30 P.M. Eventually survivors outside the corral brought word to Phil Kearny. Maj. Benjamin Smith took 100 men and a mountain howitzer to

their relief. The howitzer's boom announced the rescue, and the Sioux, tired and frustrated at their inability to overrun the corral, pulled back.

About 4 woodcutters and 14 soldiers hiding in the woods came back when the fight was over. Three men in the corral were killed and two

were wounded; four more defenders were killed outside the enclosure. Historian George Hyde wrote that six Indians were killed and six were

wounded. Some estimates of Sioux casualties were as high as an absurd 1,500. Powell estimated 60 Indians killed and 120 wounded; the real

figure was like half that.



United States köper Alaska från Ryssland och lägger därmed Eskimo- och Aleutbefolkningen till sin egen.



General Hancock öppnar en kampanj mot Cheyennerna och Arapahoerna på de centrala prärierna.

Treaty of Medicine Lodge in which Plains tribal leaders accept permanent lands within the Indian Territory.



"Peace Commission" makes a survey of Indian affairs and recommends that the current treaty process be abandoned. This commission and

the Nez Perce Indians negotiate the last of 370 treaties between the federal government and tribes.



Andra Fort Laramie-avtalet



Commissioner of Indian Affairs estimated that Indian Wars in the West are costing the government $1 million per Indian killed.



Indianer förvägras rätten att rösta som ett resultat av en separat tolkning av ett stycke i "the 14th Amendment".



Southern Plains War (1868 - 1869) (also called the Sheridan Campaign), involving the Cheyennes, Sioux, Arapahos, Kiowas, and Comanches.



President Grant's så kallade "Peace Policy" etableras och är det som gäller fram till 1874.

Fort Benton, vid övre Missouri, tas över av militären, som behåller det till 1875. Idag är platsen ett museum och delar av en av de

ursprungliga byggnaderna finns fortfarande kvar och utgör därmed en av de allra äldsta byggnaderna i staten Montana.

Brigadier General Ely Parker (Donehogawa), en Seneca, blir den första indian som utses till commissioner of Indian Affairs. Han tjänstgör till

1871.

Den transkontinentala järnvägen färdigställs. Union Pacific och Central Pacific möts vid Promontory Summit, Utah, där man firar invigningen

genom att slå i inte mindre än fyra guldspikar, representerande de fyra huvudaktörerna.



Popo Agie (Lander, Wyoming); On the Shoshone reservation near the Little Wind River, civilian James Camp and Pvt. John Holt, Company

K, 7th. Infantry, were killed, possibly by Shoshone or Bannocks, who shared the reservation, but more likely by wandering Lakotas in the

vicinity. The same day, at Camp ?Augur, to the southeast on the Popo Agie River, soldiers spotted hostile Lakotas within three miles of the

post. Lt. Charles B. Stambaugh, with a 28-man detachment of Company D, 2nd. Cavalry, rode out to investigate.After following a trail for 14

miles, Stambaugh ran into 200 Lakotas and engaged them in battle. In a three-hour fight, two soldiers were wounded, two Indians killed, and

ten Indians were wounded. Stambaugh also had eight horses killed and four injured, so he could not pursue the retreating Lakotas.



Horseshoe Creek (Glendo, Wyoming); At Horseshoe Creek near present-day Glendo, Wyoming, about 150 Lakotas attacked the mail

stage heading from Fort Fetterman to Fort Laramie. Riding escort were ten soldiers of the 4th. Infantry under Sgt. Conrad Bahr, Company E.

The Indians sought to overwhelm the escort, but the men fought back, hitting several attackers. Three soldiers were wounded. The mail got

through.

Hudson's Bay Company sells its vast holdings of land (Rupert's Land) to the Dominion of Canada.

Red River Rebellion; First Riel Rebellion in Canada of Red River Metis.



En smittkoppsepidemi breder 1869 - 1870 ut sig över de kanadensiska prärierna och drabbar stammar som Blackfeet, Piegans, and Bloods.

John Wesley Powell, geologist and ethnologist, explores the Colorado River and Grand Canyon during the years 1869 to 1872.

Use of peyote spreads from Mexican Indians to Comanches, Kiowas, and other tribes.

Miner's Delight (South Pass City, Wyoming;) When the Shoshone Reservation was placed beside mines in the Sweetwater District, near

South Pass in the Wind River Range, miners demanded protection from the army. Responding to a report of alleged depredations, Capt. David

S. Gordon and Lt. Charles B. Stambaugh, Company D, 2nd. Cavalry, moved out of Camp Auger, in the Popo Agie Valley near present-day

Lander, Wyoming. Early in the morning the troopers charged some Araphahos driving stolen stock, killing two of the Indians and wounding

one. Later, near Twin Creek, Stambaugh and 10 soldiers fought sharply with more than 60 Arapahos. The soldiers killed five warriors and

wounded one. The Araphahos wounded a Sgt. Brown and killed Stambaugh.

President Grant gives control of Indian agencies to 12 different Christian denominations instead of army officers.



Treaty-making period formally ends as Congress passes law forbidding further negotiations of treaties with Indian tribes. The Cherokee

Tobacco Case of 1870, ruling that the Cherokees are not exempt from taxes on produce (as established in an earlier treaty), sets the stage for

the new law. Indians are now to be subject to acts of Congress and executive orders. According to the Indian Appropriation Act of March 3,

1871, no longer was any group of Indians in the United States recognized as an independent nation by the federal government.[4] Moreover,

Congress directed that all Indians should be treated as individuals and legally designated "wards" of the federal government.[5] Before this bill

was enacted, the federal government signed treaties with different Native American tribes, committing the tribes to land cessions, in exchange

for specific lands designated to Indians for exclusive indigenous use as well as annual payments in the form of cash, livestock, supplies, and

services.[6] But such treaties, which took much time and effort to finalize, ceased with the passage of the 1871 Indian Appropriation Act,

declaring that “no Indian nation or tribe” would be recognized “as an independent nation, tribe, or power with whom the United States may

contract by treaty.” [7] Thus, it can be argued that this bill made it significantly easier for the federal government to secure lands that were

previously owned by Native Americans.



General Sheridan issues orders forbidding western Indians to leave reservations without permission of civilian agents.

White hunters begin wholesale killing of buffalo.

Indian burial grounds invaded by whites seeking bones for manufacture of buttons.

Modoc War (1872 - 1873) in California and Oregon. Indian leader Captain Jack hanged in 1873.

Crook's Toronto Basin Campaign (1872 - 1873) against the Apaches and Yavapais in the Southwest.

First International Indian Fair held in Oklahoma.

North West Mounted Police organierades i Kanada. De var föregångare till den senare så välkända "Ridande Polisen"; Royal Canadian Mounted

Police, RCMP

Gold discovered in the Black Hills of South Dakota. Treaties protecting Indian lands ignored by miners.

Red River War (1874 - 1875) on the Southern Plains, involving the Comanches, Kiowas, and Cheyennes, under Quanah Parker.

Snake Mountain (Lysite, Wyoming) After the Sun Dance in June, the Lakotas, along with the Cheyennes and Arapahos, agreed to make a

great raid on the Shoshones of Wind River. After they crossed the Bighorns, the Indians disagreed as to whether the raid was for war and

spoils, or just for horses. The Arapahos broke off and moved their camp into the mountains between the eastern Owl Creek Range and the

southern Bighorns. Shoshone scouts reported the Arapahos' location to authorities at Camp Brown. Capt. Alfred E. Bates was chosen to take

his 60 men of Company B, 2nd. Cavalry, with 20 Shoshone scouts under Lt. Robert H. Young, 4th. Infantry; 167 Shoshones under Chief

Washakie; and several civilians to hunt them down. Bates left on the evening of July 1st. and headed northeast. The Arapahos, in the

meantime, had moved their camp, and it was not until July 4th. that Bates found them--112 lodges along a deep ravine and creek branching

off the had of Nowood Creek below Snake Mountain (now called Bates Creek and Battle Mountain). In the early light, Bates saw that he

needed to get around to the other side of the valley to surround the camp, but he knew he had little chance of surprise when the Shoshone

scouts began singing battle songs. "Their howls were terrific", Bates reported. The captain ordered the Shoshones to follow him down the

ravine and charge through at his rear. Because of the rough ground, he left men behind with the broken-down horses and the packs. He had

only 35 men to carry out the charge. The Arapahos, having been alerted, fired from the ravine, which was 15 feet wide and 10 feet deep.

Bates drove them out and down the gully. In less than half an hour, the Arapahos had taken refuge in the cliffs above. Firing from the rocks,

the Arapahos killed two soldiers and wounded three in just a few minutes. Lt. Young, wounded, was in danger of being captured when a

civilian named Cosgrove pulled him to safety. Meanwhile, Bates had seen nothing of his Shoshones, and he ordered his men to pull back. The

Shoshones, however, were in the thick of the fight. Pe-a-quite fought his way into the village and was killed, and another brave died in a hand-

to-hand fight in front of a lodge. When Bates moved out, the Arapahos could not chase after them, having lost too may horses. The

command's medical supplies were lost during the battle, and the surgeon had nothing with which to treat the wounded. Washakie lost a sack

of scalps when his captured gray horse got away from him and returned to the Arapahos. Bates lost Pvts. James M. Walker and Peter Engall,

and Lt. Young and Pvts. French, Gable, and Pearson were wounded. The Shoshones lost two and three were wounded, including Chief Black

Coal, who was hit in the chest and hand and later got the name Tag-ge-tha-the (Shot-off Fingers). Still believing that the Shoshones had

failed him, Bates lamented that with more men, he could have completely destroyed the village.



Andra slaget vid Adobe Walls. En strid ingående i det som kallats "Red River War". En strid som varade i ett par dagar mellan åtskilliga hundra

comanche- cheyenne- och kiowaindianer mot en handfull vita buffeljägare, som förskansat sig i sina jordhyddor vid sitt basläger.



Canada enacts Canadian Indian Act which defines Indian policy and gives individual Indians the right to seek enfranchisement as Canadian

citizens by renouncing their rights and privileges as Indians.

Sioux War for the Black Hills (1876 - 1877), involving the Sioux, Cheyennes, and Arapahos, under Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse. In 1876, the

Battle of Little Bighorn.

Det andra Fort Reno, i Wyoming, döptes om till Fort McKinney. Det var beläget vid Powder River, 3 miles uppströms från platsen för det första

Fort Reno (det som ursprungligen varit Camp Connor). Fort McKinney kom att flyttas ännu en gång, 1878, till en plats väster om staden

Buffalo, WY. Den då övergivna platsen kom att kallas "Powder River Crossing". (Se 18 augusti 1878).

General George Crook lämnar Fort Fetterman, Wyoming, med knappt 900 man för att delta i arméns kniptångsmanöver mot Sitting Bulls

siouxer i Powder River-landet.

Battle on Powder River. General Crooks styrkor hade funnit ett indianläger vid Powder River, som Crook beordrade överste J. J. Reynolds att

angripa. Reynolds drev indianerna ur lägret, som han brände. Senare gjorde indianerna ett motangrepp och återtog större delen av sin

hästhjord, som soldaterna först hade lagt beslag på. Händelsen betraktades av armén som ett misslyckande och Reynolds ställdes inför

krigsrätt. Misslyckandet innebar att Crook fick avbryta sin kampanj och återvända till Fort Fetterman för återupprustning.

Dakota kolonnen med 7:e Kavalleriregementet lämnar Fort Abraham Lincoln för sommarens kampanj mot Sitting Bulls siouxindianer.

General Crook startade på nytt mot norr, med drygt 1000 man, för att delta i sommarens kampanj mot Sitting Bulls siouxer.

Battle of Rosebud Creek; General Crooks styrkor, omfattande något tusental man, angreps oväntat av en nästan lika stor styrka siouxer och

cheyenner vid Rosebudflodens stora krök. Striden blev mycket hård och böljade fram och tillbaka under större delen av dagen, innan

indianerna hade fått nog och drog sig tillbaka. I historien har den här striden beskrivits som "oavgjord", eller som "en strategisk förlust för

Crook", som på nytt fick lov att avbryta sin kampanj och återvända till Fort Fetterman. Därmed var den ena tredjedelen av militärledningens

planerade angreppsstyrka utslagen. Crook hade 10 döda och 24 sårade, medan indianerna förluster har beskrivits som allt ifrån endast något

halvdussin till upp emot tre gånger så många som soldaternas.



Battle of Little Bighorn; Överstelöjtnant George A. Custer och hela hans bataljon (210 man) dog på kullarna ovanför Little Bighorn-floden

söndagen den 25 juni, sedan de misslyckats med att angripa ett jättelikt läger av sioux- och cheyenneindianer i flodens dalgång. På en annan

del av slagfältet hade samtidigt angreppsstyrkans andra bataljon, under major Albert Reno, också blivit tillbakaslagen med stora förluster,

men lyckats förskansa sig på höjderna ovanför floden, där de senare fått förstärkning av resten av den stora angreppsstyrkan och utstod en

belägring under de närmaste två dagarna, innan indianerna segrande drog sig tillbaka. Truppernas totala förluster var knappt 270 man.

Dessutom många svårt sårade (c:a 60). Indianernas förluster går inte att beräkna, men har rapporterats som allt ifrån "en handfull", till flera

hundra. Torde eventuellt kunnat ha uppgått till något femtio- till hundrtal. men det är omöjligt att veta.



Warbonnet Creek Battle; Överste Wesley Merritt och hans 5:e Kavalleriregementet stoppar, vid Hat Creek, i nordvästra Nebraska, en grupp

cheyenner på väg från Red Clouds agentur vid Fort Robinson, Nebraska, med avsikt att ansluta sig till Sitting Bulls siouxer uppe i Powder River-

landet. Under den korta striden dödar och skalperar "Buffalo Bill" Cody en ung cheyennekrigare som hette Yellow Hair (ibland felaktigt kallad

Yellow Hand). Händelsen dramatiserades senare av Buffalo Bill i hans Western-cirkus i ett teatraliskt nummer som han kallade "First scalp for

Custer". Själva skalpen har funnits vid Buffalo Bill Historical Center, i Cody, men är numera bortplockad från utställningen.



Colorado blir USAs 38:e stat

James Butler, "Wild Bill" Hickock blir mördad i Deadwood, South Dakota, av Jack McCall.

"Cantonment onTongue River" anlades av överste Nelson A. Miles vid Tongue Rivers utlopp i Yellowstonefloden, Montana, som en bas från

vilken hans infanteri skulle bevaka och jaga Sitting Bulls siouxer efter striden vid Little Bighorn. Posten ersattes i november 1878 av en ny,

stor anläggning en mile väster om den gamla. En anläggning som kom att kallas Fort Keogh. (Se 8 nov 1878).

Fort Sisseton; Fort Wadsworth, som hade anlagts 1864, döptes om till Fort Sisseton. Fortet var i aktivt bruk fram till 9 jun 1889. Idag är det

en State Park.

Battle of Slim Buttes; Kapten Anson Mills, med sitt kompani som en förtrupp till general Crooks styrka, upptäckte och attakerade en indianby

som slagit läger vid Rabbit Creek, nära Slim Buttes, South Dakota. Under striden dödades indianernas ledare, American Horse (också kallad

Iron Plume), tillsammans med något tiotal andra och ett antal fångar togs. Dessutom brände Mills hela deras läger och lade beslag på ett

hundratal av indianernas hästar.



Dull Knife Battle, vid Red Fork of Powder River, i det som nu är Johnson County, Wyoming; angrep en styrka på drygt 600 man, under ledning

av överste Ranald MacKenzie, Dull Knifes cheyenneläger, dödade omkring 40 indianer (i vanlig ordning är det ingen som med säkerhet vet det

exakta antalet) och beslagtog 500 av indianernas hästar. Armén förlorade en officer och sex soldater och hade 21 sårade. Cheyennerna blev

helt utblottade och sökte sig under mycket svåra förhållande, genom kyla och snö, till Crazy Horse läger, där de fick den första hjälpen.



Vid Bark Creek, Montana. Kompanierna G, H och I, ur 5:e Infanteriet, under befäl av löjtnant F. D. Baldwin, angrep Sitting Bulls siouxer.



Löjtnant Baldwins trupper angrep ånyo Sitting Bulls siouxer. Den här gången vid Ash Creek, som är ett litet biflöde till Red Water Creek,

Montana, där hela deras läger föll i trupperhas händer.



Standing Bear, a Ponca chief, refused to move to a reservation because it was within lands already given to the Lakota.

The U.S. Government seized the Black Hills from Lakota Sioux in violation of a treaty. Congress passed the Manypenny Agreement, den 28

feb, a law taking the Black Hills and ending Sioux rights outside the Great Sioux Reservation. The Sioux land - 134 million acres guaranteed by

treaty in 1868 was reduced to less than 15 million acres.



John D. Lee was brought to trial for his part in the Fancher Party Massacre of 1857. He was convicted by an all Mormon jury. On March 23 he

was executed by firing squad at the site of the massacre, after denouncing Brigham Young for abandoning him. His last words are for his

executioners: "Center my heart, boys. Don't mangle my body." Se "Mountain Meadows Massacre 7 sept 1857.



Sitting Bull escapes to Canada with about 300 followers.



Crazy Horse finally surrendered to General George Crook at Fort Robinson, Nebraska on May 6, having received assurances that he and his

followers will be permitted to settle in the Powder River country of Montana. Defiant even in defeat, Crazy Horse arrived with a band of 800

warriors, all brandishing weapons and chanting songs of war.



A small band of Minneconjou Sioux (The Lame Deer band) is defeated by General Nelson A. Miles, thus ending the Great Sioux Wars.



The Ponca arrived at the Otto reservation. They were forcibly marched from their old reservation to Indian Territory. The Otto took pity on the

Ponca and gave them some horses to help carry their people.

Murder of Crazy Horse. By late summer, there were rumors that Crazy Horse was planning a return to battle, and on September 5 he was

arrested and brought back to Fort Robinson, where, when he resisted being jailed, he was held by an Indian guard and killed by a bayonet

thrust from a soldier. He was 36.

Blackfeet cede land to the Dominion of Canada.

Nez Perce War - This war occurred when the US army responded to some American deaths along the Salmon River, said to have been

committed by the Nez Perce. To avoid a battle that would have resulted in being forced onto a reservation, about 800 Nez Perce fled 1,500

miles. They were caught 30 miles south of the Canadian border. Survivors were sent to Indian Territory in Oklahoma, despite the promise of

the US government to allow them to return to their homeland.

Nez Perce leader Chief Joseph surrendered his rifle at Eagle Creek in the Bear Paw Mountains in Montana after months in which his starving

band eluded pursuing federal troops: "From where the sun now stands, I will fight no more forever."



Buffalo have disappeared and Lakota now live on handouts from the Federal Government.

Apache Resistance in the Southwest under Victorio lasted from 1877 to 1880.

A Commission finds the Indian Bureau permeated with "cupidity, inefficiency, and the most barefaced dishonesty." The department's affairs

were "a reproach to the whole nation." Carl Schurz had already dismissed the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, John Q. Smith on September

27, 1877. He now discharged many more Bureau employees and began a reorganization of the Indian agents.



Snake River (Jackson Hole, Wyoming) Fugitive Bannock Indians who had escaped from the September 4th. Fight with Col. Nelson Miles

(see Clark's Fork, Belfry, Montana) were caught on a tributary of the Snake River near Jackson Hole, Wyoming. Lt. Hoel S. Bishop with a 30-

man detachment of Company G, 5th. Cavalry, and some Shoshone scouts struck them, killing one and capturing seven.

Fort Keogh anlades en mile väster om den tidigare Cantonment on Tongue River, Montana, som ersättning för denna ursprungliga

anläggning. Fortet var i militärens tjänst ända till 1907, då det blev en uppfödningsstation för hästar till armén. Som sådan fungerade den till

1924, då den övergick till Jordbruksdepartementet, som där anlade en forskningsstation för utveckling av boskapsuppfödning. Platsen ligger

alldeles i staden Miles Citys västra utkanter och där finns fortfarande ett par av de ursprungliga byggnaderna kvar, men inget egentligt

museum.

Bannock War in Idaho and Oregon, involving the Bannocks, Northern Paiutes, and Cayuses.

Congress makes appropriation to provide for Indian Police, a policy which in 1883 brings about the Court of Indian Offenses with authorization

for tribal units to administer justice in all but major crimes. In the Major Crimes Act of 1885, federal courts are formally given jurisdiction over

Indian cases involving major crimes.

Flight of the Northern Cheyennes under Dull Knife on the plains 1878 - 1879.



Sheepeater War in Idaho.



Ute War (också kallat White River War) i Colorado.

Richard Pratt founds the Carlisle Indian School in Pennsylvania, with the philosophy of assimilating Indians into white culture. The first

students, a group of 84 Lakota children, arrived at the newly established United States Indian Training and Industrial School at Carlisle,

Pennsylvania, a boarding school founded by former Indian-fighter Captain Richard Henry Pratt to remove young Indians from their native

culture and refashion them as members of mainstream American society. Over the next two decades, twenty-four more schools on the Carlisle

model will be established outside the reservations, along with 81 boarding schools and nearly 150 day schools on the Indians’ own land.



Bureau of American Ethnology, a branch of the Smithsonian, is founded for anthropological studies.



Federal Court at Omaha, Nebraska, responding to a habeas corpus trial brought by Standing Bear, a Ponca, gives Indians the right to sue.



Many "Friends of the Indian" organizations are founded during the period 1879 to 1885, including Indian Protection Committee, Indian Rights

Association, Women's National Indian Association, and National Indian Defense Association.



In January, the U.S. Army rounded up 540 Paiute in Oregon and, in what’s known as the Paiute Trail of Tears, forcibly took them to the

Yakima Reservation in Washington. On February 2, they arrived at the reservation after a forced march through winter snows.



On January 14, Chief Joseph of the Nez Perce Tribe addressed Congress about tribal lands stolen through treaties. He gave the analogy that it

was like having horses that he doesn’t want to sell being sold by his neighbor, with the neighbor then letting the buyer take the horses.



Civilization Regulations - Congress set up a series of offenses that only Indians could commit. These regulations outlawed Indian religions, the

practices of "so-called" medicine men, ceremonies like the Sun Dance, and leaving the reservation without permission. These regulations were

in place until 1936.



A Century of Dishonor publication. - Helen Hunt Jackson released her book detailing the plight of American Indians and criticizing the US

government's treatment of Indians.



The Spokan Indian Reservation was established.



Sitting Bull and 185 of his remaining followers surrender at Fort Buford, North Dakota. He is sent to Fort Randall, South Dakota for two years

as a prisoner of war instead of being pardoned, as promised.

Spotted Tail, is assassinated by Crow Dog - White officials dismiss the killing as a simple quarrel, but the Sioux feel that it was the result of a

plot to wrest control from a strong Indian leader.

Court of Claims is opened to Indians when the Choctaws are granted access to it.

Apache Resistance under Geronimo in the Southwest. Geronimo surrenders in 1886.



Congressional Act - Congress provided funds for the mandatory education of 100 Indian pupils in industrial schools and for the appointment of

an Inspector or Superintendent of Indian schools.

Fort Washakie (Fort Washakie, Wyoming) "Ute Jack", a white River Ute at the Shoshone Agency in Wyoming, was supposedly stirring up

trouble. Lt. George H. Morgan took six men of Company K, 3rd. Cavalry, to investigate. When Morgan went to arrest Jack, the Ute resisted,

wielding a knife, and attempted to escape. The soldiers shot him in the arm, but he ducked into a tipi and grabbed a carbine, then killed a

sergeant of the detachment. When Maj. Julius W. Mason, 3rd. Cavalry, arrived with more soldiers, Jack was finally captured and killed.



Indian Rights Association - This organization was created to protect the interests and rights of Indians. The association was composed of white

reformers who wanted to help Indians abandon their cultural and spiritual beliefs and assimilate into American society.



On October 24, a federal Grand Jury in Arizona charged civil authorities with mismanagement of Indian Affairs on the San Carlos Reservation.



Ex Parte Crow Dog Supreme Court decision. - Crow Dog, a Sioux Indian who shot an killed an Indian (Spotted Tail; se 5 aug 1881) on the

Rosebud Reservation, was prosecuted in federal court, found guilty, and sentenced to death. On appeal it was argued that the federal

government's prosecution had infringed upon tribal sovereignty. The Court ruled that the US did not have jurisdiction and that Crow Dog must

be released. The decision was a reaffirmation of tribal sovereignty and led to the passage of the 1885 Major Crimes Act which identified seven

major crimes, that if committed by an Indian on Indian land, were placed within federal jurisdiction.



A group of clergymen, government officials and social reformers calling itself "The Friends of the Indian” met in upstate New York to develop a

strategy for bringing Native Americans into the mainstream of American life. Their decisions set the course for U.S. policy toward Native

Americans over the next generation and resulted in the near destruction of native American cultures.



Courts of Indian Offenses - The Secretary of the Interior established these courts to uphold the 1880 Civilization Regulations to eliminate

"heathenish practices" among the Indians. The rules of the courts forbade the practice of all public and private religious activities by Indians on

their reservations, including ceremonial dances, like the Sun Dance, and the practices of "so-called medicine men."



In May, Lakota Chief Sitting Bull was released from prison. He rejoined his tribe in Standing Rock where he was forced to work the fields. He

spoke forcefully against plans to open part of the reservation to White settlers. Despite the old chief's objections, the land transfer proceeded

as planned. He lived the rest of his life across the Grand River from his birthplace.



On September 8, Sitting Bull delivered a speech, at the celebration of the driving of the last spike in the transcontinental railroad system, to

great applause. He delivered the speech in his Sioux language, departing from a speech originally prepared by an army translator. Denouncing

the U.S. government, settlers, and army, the listeners thought he was welcoming and praising them. While giving the speech, Sitting Bull

paused for applause periodically, bowed, smiled, and continued insulting his audience as the translator delivered the original address.



On November 3, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that an Indian is by birth "an alien and a dependent."



Canadian Parliament passes the Indian Advancement Act, encouraging "Democratic" election of chiefs by Indian bands. The Mohawks at St.

Regis, Ontario, resist the provision, wanting to keep their traditional method of choosing leaders.

Canada outlaws the Potlatch Ceremony among Northwest Coast Indians.

Congress acknowledges the rights of Eskimos to Alaskan territorial lands.

Sitting Bull tours with Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show.

Major Crimes Act - This Congressional Act gave federal courts jurisdiction over Indians accused of rape, manslaughter, murder, assault with

intent to kill, arson, or larceny against another Indian on a reservation. The list was eventually expanded to include 14 crimes.

Last great herd of buffalo exterminated.

Second Riel Rebellion of Metis living along the Saskatchewan River in Canada. Cree Indians surrender to Dominion troops.

Canadian Pacific transcontinental railroad is completed.

When U.S. troops pursued a band of Apache, at Little Dry Creek, near Pleasanton, New Mexico, the Indians caught the soldiers in a triple cross-

fire trap and killed five and wounded two.

Mohawk Indians of the Caughnawaga Reserve in Quebec are trained in high-steel construction to work on a bridge across the St. Lawrence

River. This starts a tradition among the Iroquois.

United States v. Kagama Supreme Court decision. Two Indians on the Hoopa Valley Reservation in northern California killed another Indian on

the reservation. They were prosecuted and found guilty by the federal government. The Indians argued that Congress did not have

constitutional authority to pass the Major Crimes Act (1885). The Court, however, upheld the full and absolute (plenary) power of the

Congress to pass the Major Crimes Act and of the federal government - not state governments - exclusively to deal with Indian tribes. "These

Indian tribes are the wards of the nation. They are communities dependent on the United States - dependent largely for their daily food;

dependent for their political rights. They owe no allegiance to the states, and receive from them no protection. Because of the local ill feeling,

the people of the states where they are found are often their deadliest enemies. From their very weakness and helplessness, so largely due to

the course of dealing of the federal government with them, and the treaties in which it has been promised, there arises the duty of protection,

and with it the power." Thus, the case challenged the major crime act and its ruling upheld it by implying that because Indian tribes were

wards of the US, Congress had the power to regulate tribes, even if it interfered with their sovereign power to deal with criminal offenders on

tribal lands.

Geronimo, described by one follower as "the most intelligent and resourceful . . most vigorous and farsighted” of the Apache leaders,

surrendered to General Nelson A. Miles in Skeleton Canyon, Arizona, after more than a decade of guerilla warfare against American and

Mexican settlers in the Southwest. The terms of surrender required Geronimo and his tribe to settle in Florida, where the Army hoped he could

be contained.



The Dawes Severalty Act, otherwise known as the General Allotment Act, gives the President power to reduce the landholdings of the Indian

nations across the country by allotting 160 acres to the heads of Indian families and 80 acres to individuals. The "surplus lands" on the

reservations were opened up to settlement.

On July 16, J. D. C. Atkins, the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, wrote in his annual report that English would be the exclusive language used at

all Indian schools. He argued that native languages were not only of no use, but were detrimental to the education and civilization of Indians.



Oglala Lakota move to Pine Ridge Agency on South Dakota /Nebraska border.



The Quileut Indian reservation at La Push, Washington was established.



The Sioux Act - This Congressional Act divided the Great Sioux Reservation into five separate reservations in an effort to dilute their power

and make much of their land available for non-Indian settlement.

Two million acres of the Indian Territory (Oklahoma) are bought from Indians and given to white settlers for the Land Run. In the first "

Oklahoma Land Rush," the U.S. government bows to pressure and opens for settlement land that it had previously promised would be a

permanent refuge for Native Americans moved from their eastern territories. Native American tribes are paid about $4 million for the parcel of

land. The starting gun sounds at noon, and an estimated 50,000 settlers race across the land; by sunset, all 1.92 million acres have been

claimed.



Two Zuni Indians were hanged over the wall of a Spanish church in Arizona on the charge of using witchcraft to chase away rain clouds.



A Paiute rancher named Wovoka announced that he had dreamed a vision of a new world set aside for native people and that white people

would vanish en masse. It was the birth of the short-lived Ghost Dance religion.



Ghost Dance Movement led by the Paiute prophet Wovoka gains influence among western Indians. At Wounded Knee, United States troops

massacre 350 Sioux Indians en route to a Ghost Dance celebration.



Congress established the Oklahoma Territory on unoccupied lands in the Indian Territory , breaking a 60-year-old pledge to preserve this area

exclusively for Native Americans forced from their lands in the east. Territoriet kom att omvandlas till delstat 16 november 1907.



1890 Feb 10, Around 11 million acres, ceded to US by Sioux Indians, opened for settlement.

Charles L. Hyde, a Pierre, South Dakota citizen, wrote a letter to the Secretary of the Interior saying the Ghost Dance was leading to a

possible uprising by the Sioux. Prior to the letter, federal agents were not concerned about the Ghost Dance, but soon after, they feared the

ceremony.

Reservation Police forcibly removed Kicking Bear from Standing Rock Agency, South Dakota , for teaching the Ghost Dance, a visionary

ceremony foretelling the disappearance of white people.

1890 Dec 15, Sioux Indian Chief Sitting Bull and 11 other tribe members were killed in Grand River, S.D., during a fracas with Indian police

[US troops]. In an attempt to arrest Sitting Bull at his Standing Rock, South Dakota, cabin, shooting broke out and Lt. Bullhead shot the great

Sioux leader. The killing of Indian leader Sitting Bull was one factor that led to the Wounded Knee Massacre on the Pine Ridge Reservation in

South Dakota. The reservation was left in disarray when Sioux leader Sitting Bull was killed by Indian police.



1890 Dec 28, As Big Foot, another Sioux leader, led his tribe away from the reservation they were surrounded by 7th Cavalry troops at

Wounded Knee Creek. The next morning, when the cavalry tried to disarm the Sioux, shots rang out and during the next 6 hours, 146 Sioux

men, women and children, including Big Foot, were killed. The 7th Cavalry lost 30 killed.



1890 Dec 29, The last major conflict of the Indian wars took place at Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota after Colonel James W. Forsyth of

the 7th Cavalry tried to disarm Chief Big Foot and his followers. Seventy-year-old Sioux chief Big Foot was killed by the 7th U.S. Cavalry

during the massacre at Wounded Knee on December 29, 1890. Three days later his body was found frozen where he had been killed. The

South Dakota reservation had been left in disarray when Sioux leader Sitting Bull was killed by Indian police on December 15, and as Big Foot

led his tribe away from the reservation on December 28, they were surrounded by 7th Cavalry troops. The next morning, when the cavalry

tried to disarm the Sioux, shots broke out and during the next 6 hours, 146 Sioux men, women and children were killed. The 7th Cavalry lost

30 killed. The Wounded Knee massacre took place in South Dakota as some 300 Sioux Indians were killed by U.S. troops sent to disarm them.



1891-1899 During this period the Hopi of Arizona began to produce silver jewelry. A man named Sikyatala learned silversmithing from a Zuni

man.



Indian Education - A Congressional Act authorized the Commissioner of Indian Affairs "to make and enforce by proper means" rules and

regulations to ensure that Indian children attended schools designed and administered by non-Indians.



Amendment to the Dawes Act - This amendment modified the amount of land to be allotted and set conditions for leasing allotments.



1891 Sep 18, Harriet Maxwell Converse was the first white woman to become an Indian chief (her Indian name was Ga-is-wa-noh: the

Watcher). She had been adopted into the Seneca tribe. She devoted herself to the study and preservation of Native American culture, was a

staunch defender of Indian property rights during the 1880s.



1891 The San Manuel Band of Mission Indians had their homeland established in the foothills of the California San Bernardino Mountains by

presidential executive order.



1892 Oct 15, US government convinced the Crow Indians to give up 1.8 million acres of their reservation (in the mountainous area of western

Montana) for 50 cents per acre. Presidential proclamation opened this land to settlers.



1892 In New York state the Seneca Indians set up a treaty whereby non-Indian residents of Salamanca, a town built on the Seneca Nation of

Indians' Allegany Reservation, paid rent to the Seneca.

Experts estimated that fewer that 2,000 buffalo remained of the more than 20 million that once roamed the Western plains.



Indian Education - This Congressional Act made school attendance for Indian children compulsory and authorized the BIA to withhold rations

and government annuities to parents who did not send their children to school.



On February 10, the Campo Indian Reservation near San Diego was established for the Campo band of Kumeyaay Indians. The tribe that had

dwindled down to 200 members, from 2000 forty years earlier, was given one acre of land.



1893 Sep 16, Some 50,000 "Sooners" claimed land in the Cherokee Strip during the first day of the Oklahoma land rush.

1894 Aug 16, Indian chiefs from the Sioux & Onondaga tribes met to urge their people to renounce Christianity and return to their old Indian

faith.

On January 8, the Yakama signed away 23,000 acres of timberland formerly inhabited by the Wenatchee tribe to the U.S. for $20,000.



1894 In Alaska the Cape Fox Tlingit Indians moved to Saxman after smallpox reduced their population from some 1000 to 200.



Chief Lomahongyoma and eighteen other Hopi Indians were placed in Alcatraz from jan to aug for their resistance to government attempts to

erase the Hopi culture. The nineteen Hopi were jailed for their resistance to farm on individual plots away from the mesas and for refusing to

send their children to government boarding schools.



Curtis Act - This Congressional Act ended tribal governments practice of refusing allotments and mandated the allotment of tribal lands in

Indian Territory - including the lands of the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Seminole nations.



On March 2, Congress allowed railroad companies blanket approval for rights-of-way through Indian lands



1899 Edward H. Harriman, chairman of the Union Pacific RR, led a survey expedition along the Alaska coast with 126 passengers aboard a

luxury steamer. The 2-month, 9,000 mile journey from Seattle to Siberia included a stop at Cape Fox where the visitors gathered up a items

from what looked like an abandoned Tlingit Indian settlement. Much of the plunder was returned in 2001.



1901 E.P. Valentine, antiquarian, removed hundreds of Monacan remains from a burial site in Virginia later known as the Hayes Creek Mound.

The remains were reburied in 1998.



1902 A massacre by Mexican federal troops, "the Battle of the Sierra Mazatan," killed about 150 Yaqui men, women and children. US

anthropologist Ales Hrdlicka came upon some of the bodies while they were still decaying, hacked off the heads with a machete and boiled

them to remove the flesh for his study of Mexico's "races." He sent the resulting collection to the New York museum. In 2009 Yaqui Indians

buried their lost warriors after a two-year effort to rescue the remains from New York's American Museum of Natural History.

Lone Wolf vs. Hickcock Supreme Court decision - The Kiowa and Comanche sued the Secretary of the Interior to stop the transfer of their

lands without consent of tribal members which violated the promises made in the 1867 Treaty of Medicine Lodge. The Court ruled that the

trust relationship served as a source of power for Congress to take action on tribal land held under the terms of a treaty. Thus, Congress

could, by statute, abrogate the provisions of an Indian treaty. Further, Congress had a plenary - or absolute - power over tribal relations.



1904 Sep 21, Exiled Nez Perce leader Chief Joseph died in Washington state reportedly of a "broken heart." In 1984 “Chief Joseph’s Own

Story” was published.



Antiquities Act - This Congressional Act declared that Indian bones and objects found on federal land were the property of the United States.



Burke Act - This act amended the Dawes Act to give the secretary of the interior the power to remove allotments from trust before the time

set by the Dawes Act, by declaring that the holders had "adopted the habits of civilized life." This act also changed the point at which the

government would award citizenship from the granting of the allotment to the granting of the title.

1907 Nov 16, Oklahoma became the 46th US state of the union. Black settlers founded some 30 towns before statehood was achieved.

Oklahoma’s Osage Indian Reservation became Osage County, one of the largest in the US.



Winters v. United States Supreme Court decision. Indians from the Fort Belknap reservation in Montana sued to prevent a white settler from

damming the Milk River and diverting water from their reservation. The Court found that when Congress created reservations, it did so with

the implicit intention that Indians should have enough water to live. Thus, Indians had federally reserved and protected water rights.



1909 Feb 17, Apache chief Geronimo died of pneumonia at age 80, while still in captivity at Fort Sill, Okla.



1909 Dec 10, Red Cloud, Sioux Indian chief, died.



Homestead Act ändras så att tilldelningen blev 320 acres av land i stället för de ursprungliga 160.



Act to Provide for Determining the Heirs of Deceased Indians ("and other purposes"). This act altered the Dawes Act by dealing with

inheritance and leasing of allotments and with the allotment of land that could be used for irrigated farming, among many other things.



Society of American Indians - The Society was the first step in the direction of pan-Indian unity - was established and managed exclusively by

American Indians, most of whom were well-known in non-Indian society and well-educated. Although members favored assimilation, they also

lobbied for many reform issues, especially improved health care on reservations, citizenship, and a special court of claims for Indians.



1911 Sep, Ishi (d.1916), a native California Indian, walked out of the forest near Oroville, Ca. He underwent examination at UC medical center

in San Francisco and liked to practice "drawing bow" on Parnassus Heights.

1912 May 26, Jay Silverheels (d.1980) was born as Harold J. Smith on the Six Nations Indian Reservation, Brantford, Ontario, Canada. He was

the son of a Mohawk Indian chief and became an actor who portrayed Tonto on "The Lone Ranger."



1912 Nov 9, The football team of Pennsylvania’s Carlisle Indian School, with running back Jim Thorpe, defeated the Army team, with Dwight

D. Eisenhower as linebacker, 27-6. In 2007 Sally Jenkins authored “The Real Americans: The Team That Changed a Game, a People, a

Nation.”



1913 Mary McAboy began hand-making Skookum Indian dolls. Skookum was a Siwash Indian word that roughly means bully good.





US v. Sandoval Supreme Court decision. The Court upheld the application of a federal liquor-control law to the New Mexico Pueblos, even

though Pueblo lands had never been designated by the federal government as reservation land. The Court ruled that an unbroken line of

federal legislative, executive, and judicial actions had "...attributed to the United States as a superior and civilized nation the power and duty

of exercising a fostering care and protection over all dependent Indian communities within its borders..." Thus, once Congress had begun to

act in a guardian role toward the tribes, it was up to Congress, not the courts, to determine when the state of wardship should end.



Första Världskriget (1914 - 1918). When the US entered the war, about 17,000 Indians served in the armed forces. Some Indians, however,

specifically resisted the draft because they were not citizens and could not vote or because they felt it would be an infringement of their tribal

sovereignty. In 1919, Indian veterans of the war were granted citizenship.



1915-1929 Alfred V. Kidder, archeologist, excavated numerous bones of Indians buried in the upper Pecos Valley of New Mexico. In 1999 the

bones of nearly 2,000 Indians were returned by Harvard Univ. to New Mexico for burial.

1916 May 13, The 1st US observance of American Indian Day. American Indian and Alaska Native Heritage Month originated in 1915 when the

president of the Congress of American Indian Associations issued a proclamation declaring the second Saturday in May each year as American

Indian Day. The first American Indian Day was celebrated in May 1916, in New York. In 1990, President George H.W. Bush signed a joint

congressional resolution designating November 1990 as National American Indian Heritage Month. Similar proclamations have been issued

each year since 1994.

Den gamla Homestead Act från 1862 ändrades nu och fick namnet Stock Raising Homestead Law och innebar att man fick en sig tilldelat 640

acres av land.



1916 In Utah the US government took land from the Ute Indians for the rights to oil shale reserves. In 2000 84,000 acres were given back.



Native American Church - This Indian church was organized in Oklahoma to combine an ancient Indian practice - the use of peyote - with

Christian beliefs of morality and self-respect. The Church prohibits alcohol, requires monogamy and family responsibility, and promotes hard

work. By 1923, 14 states had outlawed the use of peyote and in 1940, the Navajo tribal council banned it from the reservation. In1944, the

Native American Church of the United States was incorporated. Today, the Church continues to play an important role in the lives of many

Indian people.

1919 May 26, Jay Silverheels, actor, was born. He played Tonto in The Lone Ranger TV series



Indianer som kämpat på USAs sida i Första Världskriget erhöll amerikanskt medborgarskap



1921 Nov 14, The Cherokee Indians asked the U.S. Supreme Court to review their claim to 1 million acres of land in Texas.



1923 Jan 5, The Senate debated the benefits of Peyote for the American Indian.



1924 Mar 20, The Virginia Legislature passed two closely related eugenics laws: SB 219, entitled "The Racial Integrity Act[1]" and SB 281, "An

ACT to provide for the sexual sterilization of inmates of State institutions in certain cases", henceforth referred to as "The Sterilization Act".

The Racial Integrity Act required that a racial description of every person be recorded at birth, and felonized marriage between "white persons"

and non-white persons. The law was the most famous ban on miscegenation in the US, and was overturned by the US Supreme Court in 1967,

in Loving v. Virginia. Virginia repealed the sterilization in 1979. In 2001 the House of Delegates voted to express regret for the state’s

selecting breeding policies that had forced sterilizations on some 8,000 people. The Senate soon followed suit.



1924 Jun 2, Congress granted U.S. citizenship to all American Indians. The Snyder Act Granted full citizenship to all Native Americans born in

the U.S. Some Indians, however, did not want to become US citizens, preferring to maintain only their tribal membership.



Indian Health Division - Congress established the Division to operate under the jurisdiction of the Bureau of Indian Affairs.



1927 Oct 19, Marjorie Tallchief, US ballerina (Harkness Ballet), was born.



The Meriam Report "The Problem of Indian Administration." - The report, commissioned by the Department of Interior in 1926, focused on the

poverty, ill health, and despair that characterized many Indian communities. It recommended reforms that would increase the BIA's efficiency,

and promote the social and economic advancement of Indians: the termination of allotment and the phasing out of Indian boarding schools.



The Indian New Deal - The brainchild of BIA director John Collier, the New Deal was an attempt to promote the revitalization of Indian cultural,

lingual, governmental, and spiritual traditions. This blueprint for reform was written by non-Indians who felt they knew how to champion

Indian rights.



Johnson-O'Malley Act - This Congressional Act stipulated that the federal government was to pay states between 35 and 50 cents per day for

Indian children enrolled in schools.

Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) - The IRA was the centerpiece of the Indian New Deal. It encouraged Indians to "recover" their cultural

heritage, prohibited new allotments and extended the trust period for existing allotments, and sought to promote tribal self-government by

encouraging tribes to adopt constitutions and form federally-chartered corporations. In order to take advantage of IRA funding, tribes were

required to adopt a U.S. style constitution. Tribes were given two years to accept or reject the IRA. Tribes who accepted it could then elect a

tribal council. 174 tribes accepted it, 135 which drafted tribal constitutions. However, 78 tribes rejected the IRA, most fearing the

consequences of even further federal direction.

1937-1955 Gov. McCarran of Nevada entered legislation on behalf of Italian American squatters on reservation lands of the Pyramid Paiutes.



1941 Frances Macgregor (d.2002 at 95), sociologist and photographer, published ""Twentieth Century Indians." The collection of photos

helped prompt Congress to devote more money to Indian reservations.



Andra Världskriget (1939 - 1945). USA träder in i Andra Världskriget 1841. During the course of the war, about 25,000 American Indians

served in the armed forces; another 40,000 Indian men and women were employed in wartime industries. Key among the American Indians

participating in WWII were the Navajo and Comanche Code Talkers. In the Philippines, a Choctaw scout escaped from the Japanese at the

battle of Corregidor, and led underground guerrilla forces until the war ended. The Oneida, Chippewa, and Comanche blocked Japanese

decoding of military information by dispatching messages in their tribal languages. Navajo Code Talkers were instrumental in the landing at

Guadalcanal, where they sent and received reports from field commanders.

1944 Jun 6, Cherokee tribal members communicated via radios in their native language on the Normandy beaches.



1944 California Indians were awarded $17 million that was promised in treaties nearly a century earlier. $12 million was deducted for goods

and services already given.



National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) - About 100 Indian People met to create the nation's first large-scale national organization

designed to monitor federal policies. Today, over 250 member tribes throughout the US work to secure for Indian People and their

descendants the rights and benefits to which they are entitled; to enlighten the public toward the better understanding of Indian people; to

preserve rights under Indian treaties or agreements with the United States; and to promote the common welfare of the American Indians and

Alaska Natives.



1945 Feb 18, U.S. Marines stormed ashore at Iwo Jima. Navajo code talkers used their native language to communicate by radio on Japanese

troop movements.



1946 Nov 25, Supreme Court granted Oregon Indians land payment rights from the U.S. government.



Indian Claims Commission Act - The Commission was created to do away with tribal grievances over treaty enforcement, resource

management, and disputes between tribes and the US government. Tribes were given five years to file a claim, during which them they had to

prove aboriginal title to the lands in question and then bring suit for settlement. The Commission would then review the case and assess the

amount, if any, that was to be paid in compensation. Until the Commission ended operations in 1978, it settled 285 cases and paid more than

$800 million in settlements.



Trujillo v. Garley Supreme Court decision - In response to the allegation that many states had successfully prohibited Indians from voting, the

Court ruled that states were required to grant Native Americans the right to vote.



1948 Sec. of the Interior J.A. Krug signed a contract relinquishing Indian reservation land for the Garrison Dam.

1949 A.J. Liebling, New York reported, arrived in Nevada for Reno divorce, which required a 6-week residency. He began a series of articles

for the New Yorker on the Pyramid Paiutes and their struggle with Italian American squatters over water rights. In 1999 the collected stories

were edited by Elmer Rusco and published under the title "A Reporter At Large: Dateline: Pyramid Lake, Nevada."



c1950s Cherokee Admiral Joseph J. "Jocko" Clark rose to command the U.S. Seventh Fleet during the Korean War, making him the most

powerful war chief in American Indian history.



Termination - Under House Concurrent Resolution 108, the trust relationship with many Indian tribes was terminated. Terminated tribes were

then subject to state laws and their lands were sold to non-Indians. Eventually, Congress terminated over 100 tribes, most of which were

small and consisted of a few hundred members as most. The Menominee of Wisconsin and the Klamath of Oregon were exceptions with 3,270

and 2,133 members respectively.

Public Law 280 - This Congressional law transferred jurisdiction over most tribal lands to state governments in California, Oregon , Nebraska,

Minnesota, and Wisconsin. Alaska was added in 1958. Additionally, it provided that any other state could assume such jurisdiction by passing a

law or amending the state's constitution.



Relocation - In order to deal with increasing unemployment among American Indians, the BIA enacted a new policy to persuade large numbers

of Indians to relocate into urban areas. Using the lure of job training and housing, brochures depicting Indian families leading a middle-class

life were distributed by the BIA. While the initial response was enthusiastic, within five years the relocation program was counted a failure,

with 50 percent of the participants returning to their reservations. This was the first of many late 20th Century failures to "mainstream" the

Indian population.



Public Law 83-568 - This Congressional law transferred responsibility for American Indians and Alaskan Natives' health care from the BIA in

the Department of Interior, to the Public Health Services within the Department of Health and Human Services.



1954 US Congress voted to withdraw support to Wisconsin Indians guaranteed in 1854. The Menomonee (people of the wild rice) Chiefs

Oshkosh and Keshena met with federal Indian agents in Keshena Falls, Wisconsin, in 1854 and agreed to retain only 275,000 acres from their

original 9 1/2 million acres. As part of the settlement the chiefs and their followers were promised eternal government protection.



1954 The 600-square-mile Garrison Dam in North Dakota, authorized by Congress in 1949, was completed. It covered the ancestral lands of

Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara Indians.



1957 George Gustav Heye (b.1876), collector of Indian artifacts, died. He and a few rich friends set up a foundation in 1922 that established

the Museum of the American Indian. The museum closed in 1994 and the Smithsonian acquired the collection.



1958 Jul 11, Monument Valley, straddling the Arizona-Utah border, became the 1st Navajo Tribal Park.

1958 Jul, Mildred Loving (1940-2008), a woman of American Indian and black heritage, and her white husband, Richard (d.1975), were

arrested in Virginia within weeks of arriving from Washington DC and convicted on charges of "cohabiting as man and wife. In 1967 the US

Supreme Court, in Loving v. Virginia, struck down state laws prohibiting interracial marriages.



1960 Edmund Wilson and Joseph Mitchell authored “Apologies to the Iroquois.” It memorialized the seizure by Robert Moses, the unelected

head of the New York Power Authority, of 600 acres by eminent domain for a power reservoir near Niagara Falls.



1961 William E. Brandon (d.2002) authored "The American Heritage Book of Indians."

National Indian Youth Council (NIYC) - This organization sought, and still seeks, to resurrect a sense of national pride among young Indian

people and to instill an activist message - Indians were no longer to bow their heads in humble obedience to the BIA and other institutions of

white society. Instead, they were to look back to their own great cultural traditions and make decisions about their lives based upon such

traditions.

1962 The Miccosukee Indian tribe gained federal recognition after its leaders made a state visit to Fidel Castro.



1962 The Lake Oahe reservoir in South Dakota, created by the US Army Corps of Engineers, reduced the Cheyenne River reservation of the

Sioux Indians by 100,000 acres.



1964 Mar 9, A group of 5 Lakota (Sioux) Native Americans occupied Alcatraz Island in a peaceful protest. They declared that it should be a

Native American cultural center and university.



1964 The Economic Opportunity Act opened the gates for Indian management of their own affairs.



Vietnam War (1965 - 1973) - At least 43,000 American Indians fought in the Vietnam War.



1965 In western New York the Kinzua Dam on the Allegheny River opened. Construction of the dam forced the departure of Pennsylvania's last

Native Americans, the Senecas, who now live near Salamanca, New York, on the northern shores of land flooded by the dam.



1968 Apr 11, President Johnson signed into law the Civil Rights Act of 1968, a week after the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. This

included a Fair Housing Act and the Indian Civil Rights Act, which limited sentences that tribes could hand down on any charge to six months.

In 1968 Congress increased the maximum to one year.



1968 Dennis Banks (b.1937), an Anishinabe Indian from Minnesota, co-founded the American Indian Movement (AIM). Vernon Bellecourt

(1932-2007), an Ojibwe Indian from Minnesota, also helped found the movement.

1969 May 5, N. Scott Momaday (b.1934) received the Pulitzer Prize for Literature for “House Made of Dawn.” The Kiowa author was the first

American Indian to win the prize. Norman Mailer won the general non-fiction Pulitzer Prize for “Armies of the Night” (1968).



1969 Nov 20, A group of 80 Native Americans, all college students, seized Alcatraz Island in the name of "Indians of All Tribes." The

occupation lasted 19 months. They offered $24 in beads and cloth to buy the island, demanded an American Indian Univ., museum and

cultural center, and listed reasons why the island was a suitable Indian reservation.



1969 The 62-foot-tall Skowhegan Indian statue was built in Skowhegan, Maine.



1969 A government clerk in the Bureau of Indian Affairs dropped the Samish Indian nation from the list of recognized tribes. In 2002 the tribe,

native to the San Juan Islands and western Skagit County of Washington state, sued for recognition and damages.



1970 May, The US government shut off power and stopped fresh water supplies from the Native American Indians on Alcatraz Island. A fire

broke out and each side blamed the other.



1970 Dec 2, The US Senate voted to give 48,000 acres of New Mexico back to the Taos Indians.



1970 Dee Brown (1908-2002), American writer, published "Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee," a history of Native Americans in the American

West in the late nineteenth century and their displacement and slaughter by the United States federal government.



1970 Tony Hillerman (1925-2008), American writer, introduced Lt. Joe Leaphorn in his first detective novel "The Blessing Way," as an

experienced police officer who understood, but did not share his people's traditional belief in a rich spirit world. Officer Jim Chee, introduced in

"People of Darkness" (1978), was a younger officer studying to become a "hathaali" — Navajo for "shaman."



Nixon's "Special Message on Indian Affairs" - President Nixon delivered a speech to Congress which denounced past federal policies, formally

ended the termination policy, and called for a new era of self-determination for Indian peoples.



1971 Jun 10, Federal marshals, FBI agents and special forces swarmed Alcatraz Island and removed the Native American occupiers: 5 women,

4 children and 6 unarmed men.



1971 William E. Brandon (d.2002) published "The Magic World," an anthology of American Indian poetry.



1971 The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) was approved by Congress. It gave large portions of prime bear habitat to the Alutiiq

people, who had hunted and fished on the island for 7,000 years. 10% of the state, 44 million acres of land, was ceded to native tribes.

Indian Education Act - This Congressional Act established funding for special bilingual and bicultural programs, culturally relevant teaching

materials, and appropriate training and hiring of counselors. It also created an Office of Indian Education in the US Department of Education.



Raymond Yellow Thunder, oglala sioux, född i Kyle, SD. 1921, mördades under oerhört förnedrande former i staden Gordon, Nebraska.

Händelsen kom att bidra till att en proteströrelse startades på Pine Ridgereservatet.



1972 Sep 7, The Commissioner of Indian Affairs in a memorandum extended federal recognition to the Chippewa tribe of Sault Ste. Marie in

Northern Michigan. The meaning of this federal recognition was further clarified in a memorandum by the Associate Solicitor for Indian Affairs

on February 27, 1974.



1972 Nov 9, The "Trail of Broken Treaties" caravan, an Indian protest, ended in vandalism and chaos at the Bureau of Indian Affairs in

Washington, D.C. The story is told in the 1996 book "Like A Hurricane, The Indian Movement From Alcatraz to Wounded Knee" by Paul Chaat

Smith and Robert Allen Warrior.



1973 Feb 27, Members of the American Indian Movement occupied the hamlet of Wounded Knee in South Dakota, the site of the 1890

massacre of Sioux men, women and children. They protested illegal and discriminatory acts on the part of the Pine Ridge Sioux Tribal Council.

The FBI was called in and a siege lasted for 69 days with 2 AIM leaders killed. The story is told in the 1996 book "Like A Hurricane, The Indian

Movement From Alcatraz to Wounded Knee" by Paul Chaat Smith and Robert Allen Warrior.



1973 Mar 2, Federal forces surrounded Wounded Knee, South Dakota, which was occupied by members of the militant American Indian

Movement who were holding at least 10 hostages.



Council of Energy Resource Tribes (CERT) - Leaders from over 20 tribes created CERT to help Indians secure better terms from corporations

that sought to exploit valuable mineral resources on reservations.



Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act - This Congressional Act recognized the obligation of the US to provide for maximum

participation by American Indians in Federal services to and programs in Indian communities. It also established a goal to provide education

and services to permit Indian children to achieve, and declared a commitment to maintain the Federal government's continuing trust

relationship, and responsibility to, individual Indians and tribes.



1975 Jan 3, President Ford signed Public Law 93-620. This Act, written to enlarge the Grand Canyon National Park, also provided in Section 10

for the enlargement of the adjacent Havasupai Indian Reservation by 185,000 acres and designated a contiguous 95,300 acres of the enlarged

National Park as a permanent traditional use area of the Havasupai Indians of Havasu Canyon, Arizona.



Pine Ridge Reservation Shootout - In June, two FBI agents entered the Pine Ridge Reservation ostensibly looking for a tribal member on theft

and assault charges. Shots were fired under confusing circumstances, resulting in the death of the two agents and one AIM member. The

violence that ensued was coupled with the criminalization of the AIM movement, the result of which was an undermining of the Indian

movement for self-determination.

1975 Dec 12, In South Dakota Anna Mae Pictou Aquash (b.1945) was shot to death. American Indian Movement (AIM) members suspected

her of being an FBI informant. Her body was found on Feb 24, 1976, on Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. In 2003 Arlo Looking Cloud (50) was

convicted in the murder. John Graham, a Canadian, and Fritz Arlo Looking Cloud, a US citizen, were indicted in 2003 in the United States for

Aquash's murder. In 2007 a Canadian court ruled that Graham should be extradited to the United States to face trial.



Leonard Peltier Arrest - Two years after the siege at Wounded Knee, conditions at the Pine Ridge Reservation had deteriorated. AIM activists

and supporters continued to clash directly with tribal Chairman Wilson and his men. In 1975, two FBI agents were killed and AIM activist

Leonard Peltier was arrested, tried, and convicted for the deaths. Sentenced to double life imprisonment, Peltier's arrest and conviction are

still the subject of heated controversy among many American political activists.



1976 Vermont Gov. Tom Salmon granted the Abenaki Indians recognition. The following year a new governor rescinded recognition.

Senate Committee on Indian Affairs (SCIA) - This Senate resolution re-established the SCIA. The Committee was originally created in the early

nineteenth century, but disbanded in 1946 when Indian affairs legislative and oversight jurisdiction was vested in subcommittees of the

Interior and Insular Affairs Commission of the House and Senate. The Committee became permanent in 1984. Its jurisdiction includes studying

the unique issues related to Indian and Hawaiian peoples and proposing legislation to deal with such issues - issues which include but are not

limited to Indian education, economic development, trust responsibilities, land management, health care, and claims against the US.

government.

Report of the American Indian Policy Review Commission - The Commission, established in 1975, issued its report in which it called for a firm

rejection of assimilationist policies, increased financial assistance to the tribes, and a reaffirmation of the tribes' status as permanent, self-

governing institutions.

Indian Child Welfare Act - This Congressional Act addressed the widespread practice of transferring the care and custody of Indian children to

non-Indians. It recognized the authority of tribal courts to hear the adoption and guardianship cases of Indian children and established a strict

set of statutory guidelines for those cases heard in state court.

American Indian Religious Freedom Act - This Congressional Act promised to "protect and preserve for American Indians their inherent right of

freedom to believe, express, and exercise" traditional religions, "including but not limited to access to sites, use and possession of sacred

objects, and the freedom to worship through ceremonial and traditional rites." Although the enactment seemed to recognize the importance of

traditional Indian religious practices, it contained no enforcement provisions.



US v. Wheeler Supreme Court Decision - The Court considered the question of whether the power to punish tribal offenders is "part of inherent

tribal sovereignty, or an aspect of the sovereignty of the Federal Government which has been delegated to the tribes by Congress." He

concluded: "The sovereignty that the Indian tribes retain is of a unique and limited character. It exists only at the sufferance of Congress and

is subject to complete defeasance. But until Congress acts, the tribes retain their existing sovereign powers. In sum, Indian tribes still possess

those aspects of sovereignty not withdrawn by treaty or statute, or by implication as a necessary result of their dependent status." In short,

Indian nations were sovereign, but such sovereignty was limited and subject to Congressional whim.

Federal Acknowledgment Project - This Congressional Act established the Branch of Acknowledgment and Research within the BIA to evaluate

the claims of non-recognized Indian tribes for Federal acknowledgement. The project created a uniform process for reviewing

acknowledgement claimants with widelly varying backgrounds and histories. In 1994, the Project regulations were amended.



1978 Mar 6, The US Supreme Court in its Oliphant decision ruled that tribes could not try non-Indian defendants in tribal courts. It centered on

the arrest of Mark Oliphant, a non-Indian, by tribal police. He argued that the tribal court does not have criminal jurisdiction over non-Indians.



1978 May 15, The US Supreme Court’s Santa Clara Pueblo vs. Martinez decision held that tribal enrollment issues are an Indian-only matter

immune from outside interference. When a Santa Clara woman married a Navajo, the tribal council denied her children membership in the

Santa Clara Pueblo based upon a 1939 tribal ordinance that denied membership to children of women who married outside the tribe. The

woman sued to grant membership to her children. The Court held that Indian tribes are "distinct, independent political communities retaining

their original natural rights in matters of self-government." In short, the Court held that the Court itself did not have the right to interfere in

tribal self-government issues such as tribal membership.



The Seminole Tribe of Florida and Gaming - The Seminole were the first tribe to enter into the bingo gaming industry. Their endeavors

encouraged other tribes to begin gaming enterprises on reservations as a step towards greater economic self-sufficiency.



1980 Mar 5, Jay Silverheels (b.1912), son of a Mohawk Indian chief and actor who portrayed Tonto on "The Lone Ranger", died in Woodland

Hills, Ca., from a stroke.



United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians - U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the Sioux Indians were entitled to an award of $17.5 million, plus 5%

interest per year since 1877, totaling about $106 million in compensation for the unjust taking of the Black Hills and in direct contravention of

the Treaty of Fort Laramie. The Sioux have refused to take the money and sits in a trust fund in Washington, collecting interest.



1980 Little Big Horn College in Crow Agency, Mont., was established.



1981 Jul 9, Tim Giago, an Oglala Sioux writer from the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota, launched The Lakota Times, the first

independently owned Indian newspaper in the US.



1981 Sep 23, Chief Dan George, actor (Harry & Tonto, Little Big Man), died at 82.



1981 The northwest Chinook Indians filed a petition for recognition with the Interior Dept.



1982 Oct 13, The IOC restored 2 gold medals post mortem from the 1912 Olympics to Jim Thorpe (1888-1953).



1982 Iron Eyes Cody (d.1998 at 94), American Indian actor, published his autobiography: "Iron Eyes: My Life as a Hollywood Indian." In 1970

he played an Indian paddling through a polluted stream in a public service ad.

Indian Mineral Development Act. This Congressional Act encouraged Indian tribes to mine their lands in a manner that would help them

become economically self-sufficient.



1982 Maine Indian tribes laid claim to 60% of the state lands and settled for $81.5 million.



Seminole Tribe v. Butterworth Supreme Court Decision - The Court ruled that tribes have the right to create gambling enterprises on their

land, even if such facilities are prohibited by the civil statutes of the state. The ruling enabled reservations to establish casinos, as well as gave

reservations greater authority for tribal governments to levy taxes, own assets, and create judiciaries.



1983 The Pequot Indians of Connecticut won federal recognition.



1983 Lulie Nall, a Penobscot Indian, died. She had designed a tepee-emblazoned flag for the 19-month American Indian occupation of

Alcatraz, that began in 1969. In 2008 the flag was put up for auction and sold for $60,000.



Efter att det inträffat 12 självmord och ett åttiotal försök till självmord bland arapahoindianernas ungdomar på deras reservat Wind River i

Wyoming, tog stammens äldre ledare beslutet om att söka hjälp i de gamla traditionella ceremonierna. Efter att man genomfört flera sådana

och med hjälp av den heliga Flatpipan bett de högre makterna om hjälp så slutade självmordsepidemin och det dröjde 15 år innan något nytt

självmord inträffade på reservatet. De här ceremonierna genomfördes enbart med ungdomarna. Deras föräldrar fick inte vara med och jag

talade själv några år senare om det här med en av dessa föräldrar som kunde berätta vilken märklig stämning som rådde på reservatet under

den här tiden och hur fantastiskt det var när självmorden plötsligt upphörde.



1986 William Loren Katz authored "Black Indians," an account of the relations between Black and Native Americans.



1986 The Mashantucket Pequot Tribal Nation opened its first bingo hall in Connecticut.



1987 Feb 25, The US Supreme Court ruled that California cannot bar gambling on Indian tribal land. This win by the Cabazon tribe opened the

door to Indian gambling nationwide.



Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Association Supreme Court Decision - The Yurok Indians and several other Northern California tribes

argued that the construction of a 6-mile, two-lane paved road between the towns of Gasquet and Orleans (the G-O Road) and the

implementation of a timber management plan would interfere with traditional tribal religions. The Court held that construction of the road did

note violate their freedom of religion. Thus far, the road has not been built due to an administrative decision.



1988 The US Congress passed the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act.



1989 Apr 1, In Canada the Oka conflict began when some 200 Mohawks from the Kanesatake reserve marched though the town of Oka

protesting plans to expand the village's nine-hole golf course to 18 holes, saying expansion encroaches on their burial ground. A 78-day

standoff began on July 11, 1990 and ended Sep 26, 1990. The Oka Crisis cost the Quebec government an estimated $180 million not including

the cost of the army.

1989 In Connecticut the Mashantucket Pequot Indians began the Pequot Pharmaceutical Network, a small health service for their members

and employees. In 10 years it grew to a $15 million business based on drug prices acquired at government rates.



1990 The US government enacted the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA). This Congressional Act required all

institutions that receive federal funds to inventory their collections of Indian human remains and artifacts, make their lists available to Indian

tribes, and return any items requested by the tribes.



NAGPRA Native American Languages Act - This Congressional Act made it US policy to "preserve, protect, and promote the rights and

freedom of Native Americans to use, practice, and develop Native American languages." Consequently, the federal government encourages

and supports of the use of native languages as a medium of instruction in schools; recognizes the right of Indian tribes to give official status to

their languages for conducting their own business; supports proficiency in native languages by granting the same academic credit as for

comparable proficiency in a foreign language; and encourages schools to include native languages in the curriculum in the same way as

foreign languages. Today, many American Indian languages have been lost; less than 100 languages currently are spoken by Indians.



Indian Arts and Crafts Act (IACA) - The Congressional Act is intended to promote Indian artwork and handicraft businesses, reduce foreign an

counterfeit product competition, and stop deceptive marketing practices.

Indian Law Enforcement Act - This Congressional Act created a unified approach to the BIA's provision of law enforcement service on

reservations.



1990 In Arizona Gila River Telecommunications Inc. (GRTI) was founded as a nonprofit telephone company. It serviced the 620-square-mile

Gila River reservation of the Pima Indians, who had inhabited the area for over 2,000 years.



1991 In Montana the name of Custer Battlefield National Monument was changed to Little Bighorn Battlefield Monument. A $2 million

memorial was dedicated Jun 25,2003.



1992 The Mdewakanton Dakota Indians opened their Mystic Lake casino complex on their 248 acres of tribal land in Minnesota.



1992 The Foxwoods Casino, the biggest gaming complex in the Western Hemisphere, opened on the Pequot Reservation at Mashantucket,

Conn. The number of Pequot numbered about 550.



Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RFRA) - This Congressional Act stated that state governments "shall not substantially burden a person's

exercise of religion" except if such exercise of religion conflicts with "a compelling government interest." On June 25, 1997, the US Supreme

Court declared RFRA unconstitutional as it applied to the states.



1993 Southern Ute Indians launched Red Willow, a natural gas production operation. By 2003 the tribe had acquired $1.3 billion in assets.



1994 Sep 13, Bob Blackbull, Blackfoot Indian, received his first shipment of mustangs in Browning, Montana, and revived a piece of their

culture.

American Indian Religious Freedom Act, Amendments - This Congressional Act protected the rights of American Indians to use peyote in

traditional religious ceremonies

President Clinton's Executive Memorandum, April 29th - The president sought ìto clarify our responsibility to ensure that the Federal

Government operates within a government-to-government relationship with federally recognized Native American tribes. I am strongly

committed to building a more effective day-to-day working relationship reflecting respect for the rights of self- government due the sovereign

tribal governments.

1994 The Winnebago nation gave Lance Morgan $9.7 million from its Iowa casino to start a new venture. Morgan formed Nebraska-based Ho-

Chunk Inc.



1994 In Canada a majority of the Mohawk Council of Kahnawake passed a bylaw stipulating that a person must have at least 4 Mohawk great

grandparents to live or own property on its 13,000 acre reservation just south of Montreal.



An Ontario Provincial Police sniper fatally wounded protester Dudley George (1957-1995) as police moved in to try to end the occupation of

Ipperwash Provincial Park, on the shores of Lake Huron, by demonstrators who were demanding the return of the park and adjacent lands to

native ownership. The Chippewas of Kettle and Stony Point First Nation claimed the park lands as an aboriginal burial ground. In 2007 Ontario

said it will return 109 acres to native ownership.



In Canada native protestors at Gustafsen Lake took up arms against the RCMP. They claimed that the land was sacred and never ceded to the

crown. In 1997 13 people were sentenced to prison terms up to 4 1/2 years for the protests.



Five American Indian leaders sued the federal government after it was learned that the Bureau of Indian Affairs could not account for about

15% of an estimated $450 million held for some 300,000 Indians.



In Toronto, a police officer was charged with criminal negligence in the shooting of a protester who became the first Canadian Indian in

modern times killed in a land dispute with the government.

A 9,300 year-old skeleton was found by the Columbia River in Kennewick, Wa. It became known as the "Kennewick Man" or "Richland Man." A

federal judge ruled in 1998 that scientists be allowed to examine the remains held by the US Army Corps of Engineers. Native American

Indians wanted the remains buried.



Executive Order, October 21 on Tribal Colleges and Universities - President Clinton authorized a White House Initiative on Tribal Colleges and

Universities within the US Department of Education to continue the support and development of tribal colleges into the 21st Century.



1996 John Annerino skrev "People of Legend: Native Americans of the Southwest."



1996 Brian Bibby skrev "The Fine Art of California Indian Basketry."

1996 John Blom och Allen Hayes skrev "Southwestern Pottery: Anasazi to Zuni."

A Kalispel Tribe casino plan was approved on a site off its reservation in metropolitan Spokane, Wa. by Interior Sec. Bruce Babbitt.

Lillian Disney donated $100,000 to the Nez Perce Indians to buy some ancient tribal artifacts. She had been raised in Lapwai on their

reservation.

A 1988 lawsuit resulted in an "accommodation agreement" which would give 75-year leases to the Big Mountain Dineh (Navaho) if they

acknowledged Hopi authority. A Mar 31, 1997, deadline was set.

National American Indian Heritage Month - President Clinton beslutade att november månad varje år skulle firas som "National American

Indian Heritage Month".

Elouise Cobell, a Blackfeet woman from Browning, Montana, filed a lawsuit alleging that the US Interior Department mismanaged billions of

dollars held in trust by the government. In 2010 the US House of Representatives approved a $3.4 billion government settlement.

1996 In western North Carolina the Eastern Band of the Cherokee Nation acquired a few hundred acres of ancestral pasture bordering the

Tuckasegee River that contained the Kituwha Mound. Legend held that this was the site where God had given the Cherokee their laws and

their first fire.



1997 Apr 15, The US military said it would allow American Indian soldiers to use peyote in their religious services.



1997 A concept called "circle sentencing" began on the Mille Lacs Indian Reservation. It involved community-imposed sentences for nonviolent

misdemeanors. The program was fashioned after practices by the First Nation Indians in the Yukon Territory.



1998 Jan 20, The Idaho Coeur d’Alene Indian tribe planned to begin a national online lottery called US Lottery. US residents will be restricted

by their local state laws.



1998 Mar 6, It was reported that Panama hired a Canadian Indian tribe, the Tsuu T’ina, to clean out unexploded bombs and shells from an

area of Empire Range, which US military forces abandoned.



1998 Aug 11, The 308,000 sq.-foot Mashantucket Pequot Museum and Research Center opened in Mashantucket, Conn.



1998 Sep 2, The Univ. of Nebraska promised to return the bones of 1,702 Indians to tribes for reburial. It also agreed to build a memorial on a

campus field where bones were burned over 30 years ago in an incinerator used to dispose diseased animal parts.



1998 Paula Mitchell Marks published "In a Barren Land: American Indian Dispossession and Survival."



1998 The Nez Pierce tribe returned to its ancient homeland in Oregon after 121 years of exile.



1998 US government officials, charged with mismanaging trust funds for American Indians, shredded 162 boxes of records. This was disclosed

by a federal judge in 1999.



1999 Mar 24, The US Supreme Court ruled to uphold an 1837 treaty with the Chippewa Indians for hunting and fishing on 13 million acres of

public land in Minnesota.

1999 May 17, In Neah Bay, Washington state, Makah Indian hunters legally killed their first gray whale in 75 years.



1999 Jun 2, American Indians filed a class action law suit against the major tobacco companies charging that they were excluded from the

$206 billion settlement reached with 46 states last November.



1999 Jun, In Florida the Miccosukee Indians celebrated the opening of their $50 million, 300-room resort and convention center on their 680

acres in Everglades National Park. Meanwhile the price tag for restoring the everglades ecosystem was put at $7.8 billion.



1999 Jun 16, In Santa Fe 34 tribes filed a multibillion-dollar lawsuit against the nation's largest tobacco companies.



1999 Jun 18, The Native American Church of North America made an agreement with US Defense Dept. officials at its 50th annual convention

to allow Native Americans to use peyote in religious services.



1999 Sep 28, Groundbreaking was scheduled for the US National Museum of the American Indian in Washington DC.



1999 Nov 24, American Indian farmers filed a $19 billion class-action lawsuit against the Agriculture Department for an alleged 20-year history

of loan-granting discrimination.



Shannon County, South Dakota, home of the Oglala Lakota on Pine Ridge Reservation is identified as the poorest place in the country.

Under 1999 kunde benrester från nära 2,000 indianer, insamlade vid arkeologiska utgrävningar i New Mexico, återlämnas av Harvard

University, till indianerna i New Mexico för begravning.

1999 The show "Spirit: A Journey in Dance, Drums and Song" was composed by Peter Buffett. It was largely based on American Indian dance

tradition.

2000 Jan 14, The federal government announced the return of 84,000 acres in northern Utah to the Ute Indians. The land was taken in 1916

for the rights to oil shale reserves.



2000 Apr 29, Clarence Basil Cuts The Rope, artist and member of the Gros Ventre Tribe, died at age 64 in Montana.



2000 Sep 8, The Bureau of Indian Affairs marked its 175th birthday and Kevin Grover, head of the bureau, offered a formal apology to

American Indians for the misdeeds of the agency.



2000 Nov, In Detroit a casino, 90% owned by the Sault St. Marie Chippewa Indians, opened in Greektown.



2000 Dec, The Timbisha Shoshone Indians were granted 7,600 acres around Death Valley that included 314 acres within the national park.



2000 Philip Burnham authored "Indian Country, God’s Country: Native Americans and the national Parks."

2000 Dolan H. Eargle Jr. authored "Native California Guide: Weaving the Past and Present." It surveyed 143 present-day California Indian

communities.

2000 Ian Frazier authored "On the Rez," a focus on the Ogallala Sioux Reservation in Pine Ridge, S.D.



2000 Alvin M. Josephy Jr., historian authored "A Walk Toward Oregon: A Memoir."



2000 The Seminole Nation voted to cast freedmen descendants out of its tribe. The US government in response cut off most federal programs

and refused to authorize gaming. The Seminole freedman were later allowed back into the tribe.



2001 Jan 1, The Agua Caliente Band of Cahuilla Indians opened up Tahquitz Canyon near Palm Springs for visitors.

2001 Feb 23, A US federal appeals court upheld that the US government mismanaged and neglected Native American trust funds.

2001 Mar 10, In Canada the Nuu-chah-nulth Tribal Council of British Columbia signed a treaty with the federal government.



2001 Jun 10, It was reported that Jamake Highwater, author and TV host, had recently died at age ~59. His over 30 books included "Anpao:

An American Indian Odyssey" and "The Sun, He Dies."



2002 Feb 7, The Cree tribe of northern Quebec under Ted Moses ratified an October deal that ensured 15,000 Cree of receiving no less than

$3.5 billion over the next 50 years and a share in benefits derived from their lands.



2002 Feb 8, In Texas a $60 million casino run by the Tigua Indians was shut down following lobbying efforts by religious activist Ralph Reed

and Washington lobbyists Jack Abramoff and Michael Scanlon. Abramoff and Scanlon then persuaded the tribe to pay $4.2 million to lobby

Congress to reopen it. Senate hearings on the process opened in 2004.



2003 "The New World," a history of American Indians and their influence on the modern Western World by William E. Brandon (d.2002) was to

be published.



Ett minnesmärke över stupade indianer i slaget vid Little Bighorn invigdes på platsen. Kostnaden för minnesmärket uppgick till $2 million



2003 Elizabeth Seay authored "Searching For Lost City," a look at Native Indian languages in Oklahoma.



2004 Jun 21, Five of 61 California Indian tribes signed gaming compacts setting standards for future negotiations. They agreed to higher

payments in exchange for removing a cap of 2,000 slot machines per tribe.

2004 Dec, Cecilia Fire Thunder (58) took office as chairwoman of the 46,000 member Ogallala Sioux on the Pine Ridge reservation in South

Dakota.



2005 Jan, Suzan Shown Harjo, a Cheyenne and Muscogee Indian, exhausted with yet another one of her relatives dying of diabetes, zoned in

on fry bread as a culprit and whipped out a column for Indian Country Today declaring it junk food that leads to fat Indians.

2005 Apr 29, In Canada oil companies stopped all engineering work on a natural gas pipeline from the Arctic ocean to the oil sands of Alberta,

due to high compensation demands by the Deh Cho First Nation native Indian tribe in Fort Simpson, Northwest Territories. The Deh Cho also

sought a new autonomous government and complete ownership of subsurface rights within their 81,000 square mile claim, an area about the

size of Nebraska.



2005 Apr, In Arizona the Hualapai Indian tribe began construction of the Skywalk, a glass overhang over the Grand Canyon, to be completed

in March, 2007. The $30 million project was initiated by David Jin, a Las Vegas businessman from Shanghai, who planned to collect half of the

$25 ticket sales. (Det här är en riktig turistfälla och så typiskt amerikanskt)!



2006 Jan 12, In Palm Springs, Ca., Richard Milanovich, chairman of the Agua Caliente Ban of Cahuilla Indians, apologized to other tribal

leaders for the scandal tied to Washington lobbyist Jack Abramoff. He addressed tribal leaders on the 2nd day of a 3-day conference for casino-

operating tribes. Abramoff and associates had collected some $66 million from 6 American Indian tribes seeking influence in Washington.



2006 Dec 7, The 3,300-member Seminole Tribe of Florida said it was buying the Hard Rock business in a $965 million deal with Rank Group

PLC, a British casino and hotel company.



2006 Viking published “Where the Lightning Strikes: The Lives of American Indian Sacred Places,” by Peter Nabokov.



2007 Jul 16, The Canadian government agreed to disburse C$1.4 billion ($1.3 billion) in aid over 20 years to Quebec's 15,000 Cree to improve

health, security and other services for the native Indians.



2007 Nov 26, A new study by the University of Michigan bolstered claims that Native Americans are descended from one migrant group that

crossed a lost land link from modern Siberia to Alaska. The study examined genes of indigenous people from North to South America and from

two Siberian groups.



2008 Jun 11, Canada, addressing one of the darkest chapters in its history, formally apologized for forcing 150,000 aboriginal children into

grim residential schools, where many said they were sexually and physically abused.



2008 Aug 7, A US federal judge ruled that American Indian plaintiffs were entitled to $455 million, a fraction of the $47 billion they sought in a

year trial for alleged losses on royalties overseen by the Interior Department since 1887.



2008 Nov 28, This day was marked as Native American Heritage Day. US federal legislation set aside the day after Thanksgiving — for this

year only — to honor the contributions American Indians have made to the US. Congress passed legislation this year designating the day as

Native American Heritage Day, and President George W. Bush signed it last month.



2009 Aug 31, Florida’s Gov. Crist signed a 20-year gambling pact with the Seminole Indian tribe, which agreed to pay Florida $12.5 million a

month for 30 months for running, currently illegal, slot machines and blackjack games.

2009 Dec 3, The IRS auctioned 7,100 acres of Crow creek Sioux tribal land near Pierre, South Dakota to help pay off over $3 million in back

taxes. The land sold for $2.6 million.

2009 Dec 8, The US government announced that it intends to pay $3.4 billion to settle claims that it has mismanaged the revenue in American

Indian trust funds. The tentative settlement would resolve a 13-year-old lawsuit over hundreds of thousands of land trust accounts that date

to the 19th century.



Wilma Mankiller (64), the first woman chief of the Cherokee Nation, died.

2010 Apr 21, In Arizona the Havasupai Indian tribe ended a 7-year legal fight with Arizona State Univ. over blood samples members gave to

university researchers for diabetes research that were also used to study schizophrenia, inbreeding and ancient population migration. Tribal

members called it a case of genetic piracy.



The Tribal Law and Order Act; Signerad som lag av president Obama



In Seattle, Wa., John Williams, a Native American homeless woodcarver, was shot and killed by police officer Ian Birk, who had ordered him to

drop his small knife. The shooting was later ruled unjustified, but prosecutors said they would not file criminal charges.



In California Rep. Steve Cooley conceded defeat to Dem. Kamala Harris for the office of attorney general. Harris became the state’s first

woman, the first African American and the first Indian American in California history to be elected as state attorney general.



Pres. Obama signed legislation to pay American Indians and black farmers some $4.6 billion for government mistreatment over many decades.

The legislation settled 4 long-standing Native American water rights in Arizona, New Mexico and Montana.

Den kände kanadensiske skådespelaren och politikern, cree- och stoneyindianen, Gordon Tootoosis avlider i sviterna av lunginflamation på

sjukhuset St. Pauls Hospital, i Saskaton, Kanada

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clovis_culture









http://www.learnersportal.com/CanadaFP/Ancient/per1.html







http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folsom_tradition









http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancestral_Puebloan

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adena_culture



http://www.crystalinks.com/anasazi.html







http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopewell_tradition



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hohokam







http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogollon_culture









http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fremont_culture



http://www.experiencehopi.com/chelly.html



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emeryville_Shellmound









http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinagua

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cliff_Palace

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cahokia









http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississippian_culture









http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pueblo_Bonito



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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaco_Culture_National_Historical_Park









http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoma_Pueblo

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Morro_National_Monument









http://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christofer_Columbus





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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s





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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_L%C3%B3pez_de_C%C3%A1rdenas

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_de_O%C3%B1ate









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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoma_Pueblo









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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamestown,_Virginia

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Smith_(explorer)



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http://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%C3%A9bec_(stad)



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_de_Champlain

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriaen_Block

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plymouth_Colony







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http://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Minuit

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pequot_War

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystic_massacre









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Länk till Nya Sverige



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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Philip's_War





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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pueblo_Revolt

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http://genforum.genealogy.com/kinggeorgeswar/messages/29.html

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_and_Indian_War



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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_and_Indian_War

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonintercourse_Act



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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmar_Campaign

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmar_Campaign



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmar_Campaign

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Clair's_Defeat



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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Fallen_Timbers

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase 3

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tecumseh



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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Wayne_(1809) 2

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tecumseh%27s_War

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http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=7522

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http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1017.html 3

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tippecanoe

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_1812



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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Mackinac

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Detroit 10

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Dearborn

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Fort_Wayne

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creek_War

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Horseshoe_Bend_(1814)

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http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-3026

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_New_Orleans

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seminole_Wars 2



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http://fcit.usf.edu/florida/docs/s/slavex.htm

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http://www.texasrangers.org/history.asp







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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs

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http://ngeorgia.com/history/phoenix.html

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act





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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Catlin









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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Hawk_War

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Bad_Axe

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http://www.nal.usda.gov/speccoll/images1/bodmer.html



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http://www.ultimatewyoming.com/sectionpages/ftlaramie/fortwilliam.html









http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/historical/ok_10.htm



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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_New_Echota

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Revolution



http://www.texasrangers.org/history.asp



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toledo_War





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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_of_1836

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osceola

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trail_of_Tears



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http://mygoldrushtales.com/2011/04/25/the-first-wagon-train-leaves-for-california/

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_C._Fr%C3%A9mont



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Bridger

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http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/C/CH016.html







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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Annexation









http://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manifest_Destiny

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican-American_War







http://www.paulkane.ca/php/index.php



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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_Lake_City









http://www.legendsofamerica.com/ne-fortkearny.html





http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walker_Colt

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http://nativeamericannetroots.net/diary/839/the-cayuse-indian-war





http://www.fortbenton.com/fbrestore/history.htm







http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Gold_Rush

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Guadalupe_Hidalgo

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharps_rifle

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Gold_Rush

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Kearny

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Laramie_National_Historic_Site 3

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota_Territory 12

http://www.nps.gov/fola/index.htm



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C:\Mina dokument\Indiankl\Hemsidan\Indiankl hemsida Magix_web_files\WAGON MOUND maj 1850.doc

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C:\Mina dokument\Indiankl\Hemsidan\Indiankl hemsida Magix_web_files\ARROYO SAN ROQUE 13 maj 1850.doc

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Länk till Posteskort 11

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http://www.canadiana.ca/citm/themes/aboriginals/aboriginals11_e.html

http://www.canadiana.ca/citm/themes/aboriginals_e.html

http://www.militarymuseum.org/Mariposa1.html





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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Traverse_des_Sioux









http://treatyoffortlaramie1851.unl.edu/



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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Mendota

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http://www.nps.gov/foun/index.htm 12

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gadsden_Purchase









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Länk till ”Grattan-massakern”









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http://www.google.se/#hl=sv&q=Laguna+Negra+Treaty+1855&oq=Laguna+Negra+Treaty+1855&aq=f&aqi=&aql=

&gs_sm=s&gs_upl=3404l17727l0l36l32l0l0l0l9l261l5565l2.24.6l32&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.&fp=6b904cd00bd473 12

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Länk till ”Striden vid Blue Water”

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http://www.accessgenealogy.com/scripts/data/database.cgi?file=Data&report=SingleArticle&ArticleID=0040149

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_Lake_Massacre

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http://people.usd.edu/~iais/siouxnation/treaty1858.html 12

http://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota 1



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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Greeneberry_Russell

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Abercrombie

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pike's_Peak_Gold_Rush

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comstock_Lode 12



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_rifle

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http://www.originalvoices.org/PriceOfGoldEight.htm

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http://www.aotc.net/Spencer.htm

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pony_Express 12



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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paiute_War

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navajo_Wars



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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_J._D._Irwin

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Territory

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gatling_gun 12

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homestead_Act

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Caspar

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Railway_Acts

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http://www.bannack.org/

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dakota_War_of_1862

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http://woodlakebattlefield.com/battle-history.php 12

http://www.onlineutah.com/fortdouglashistory.shtml

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http://www.unitednativeamerica.com/hanging.html





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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizona_Territory 12

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idaho_Territory 12



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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Crow



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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Dead_Buffalo_Lake

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Stony_Lake

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Whitestone_Hill

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http://history.nd.gov/textbook/unit3_3_sullysreport_whitestone.html 12









http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montana_Territory 12

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanny_Kelly









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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Killdeer_Mountain

http://fortwiki.com/Fort_Sisseton

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevada 12

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Battle_of_Adobe_Walls

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand_Creek_massacre





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http://www.legendsofamerica.com/na-navajolongwalk.html





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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Caspar

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Tongue_River









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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chisholm_Trail









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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuelito 2

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuelito 2

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Cloud's_War









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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Purchase

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Laramie_(1868) 2









http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ely_S._Parker



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C:\Mina dokument\Indiankl\Hemsidan\Indiankl hemsida Magix_web_files\Red Riverkriget.doc

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Adobe_Walls





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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Powder_River

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Warbonnet_Creek





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http://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado 12

http://abacom.com/~jkrause/hickok.html 12

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Keogh

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http://fortwiki.com/Fort_Sisseton

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Slim_Buttes

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dull_Knife_Fight



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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crazy_Horse

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http://fortwiki.com/Fort_Keogh









http://www.legendsofamerica.com/na-bannockwar.html









http://www.3rd1000.com/history3/events/sheepeat.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_River_War

http://home.epix.net/~landis/histry.html









http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Century_of_Dishonor









http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spotted_Tail

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http://www.bgsu.edu/departments/acs/1890s/buffalobill/bbwildwestshow.html









http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Little_Dry_Creek









http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geronimo









http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawes_Act

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Sioux_Reservation









http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_Dance









http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklahoma_Territory

http://www.newsinhistory.com/blog/sitting-bull-murdered-indian-police









http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wounded_Knee_Massacre









http://www.pbs.org/warrior/content/bio/converse.html

http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/landrush.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Joseph





http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiquities_Act



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burke_Act





http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklahoma









http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geronimo

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Cloud



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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishi

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians

http://www.monumentvalleyonline.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=document&ID=4

www.nyslittree.org/index.cfm/fuseaction/DB.PersonDetail/PersonPK/500.cfm









http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinzua_Dam







http://tinyurl.com/2o3p2q







http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Banks

www.nps.gov/alca/historyculture/we-hold-the-rock.htm





http://www.taospueblo.com/about.php

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bury_My_Heart_at_Wounded_Knee









www.nps.gov/alca/historyculture/we-hold-the-rock.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Yellow_Thunder





http://tinyurl.com/5c8cfu







http://siouxme.com/lodge/treaties.html







http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wounded_Knee_incident









www.tribal-institute.org/envirotext/89.htm

www.dickshovel.com/time.html#1976









http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Peltier

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliphant_v._Suquamish_Indian_Tribe







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http://tinyurl.com/7ub24









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http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/25/ch30.html









http://www.npca.org/stateoftheparks/little_bighorn/









http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foxwoods_Resort_Casino





http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_Freedom_Restoration_Act

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennewick_Man

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http://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/18/arts/walt-disney-s-widow-lillian-dies-at-98.html?pagewanted=2

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elouise_P._Cobell

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http://www.grandcanyonskywalk.com/









http://www.amazon.com/Where-Lightning-Strikes-American-Indian/dp/0143038818

http://www.powersource.com/gallery/people/wilma.html 5



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http://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2010/07/29/tribal-law-and-order-act-2010-a-step-forward-native-women





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Gordon Tootoosis - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

2

FÖRTECKNING ÖVER KÄLLOR

nummer källa utgivare författare

1 egen text Indianklubben Thörn, Bertil

2 Internet Wikipedia

3 Internet Legends of America

4 Internet Hanksville



5 Internet Timelines 1

6 Internet Timelines 2

7 Internet facstaff.uww.edu

8 Internet Blue Cloud Abbey

9 Internet About.Com

10 bok AMS Press, New York Webb, George W.

11 bok Mountain Press Publishing Co.; Missoula, MT Michno, Gregory F.

12 bok Gatchell Museum Ass. Inc.; Buffalo WY Bollinger, Gil

13 bok Writer's Digest Books; Cincinnati,OH Moulto, Candy

14 bok The Oregon Trail Revisited Franzva, Gregory M.

15 Internet Wyoming Indian Encounters: The Unfriendly Kind

16 bok Mountain Press Publishing Co.; Missoula, MT Michno, Gregory F.

17 bok Da Capo Press; Konstantin, Phil

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titel





Native American Timeline of Events (1492 - 1999)

Timeline of Events Relevant to the Northern Plains Tribes



Timelines Amerindian

American Indians Timeline

CHRONOLOGY AND TIMELINE FOR AMERICAN INDIAN HISTORY

Important Events in American Indian History

Clashes Between US Soldiers and Native Americans In the Wild West

Cronological list of engagements….

Encyclopedia of Indian Wars; Western Battles and Skirmiches 1850-1890

A Chronology of Indian War Battles…

Everyday Life Among the American Indians





Forgotten Fights; Little-Known Raids and Skirmishes on the Frontier, 1823 to 1890

This Day in North American Indian History

ref.





www.legendsofamerica.com/na-timeline.html

http://www.hanksville.org/daniel/timeline2.html

http://timelinesdb.com/listevents.php?subjid=486&dayinhist=0&date1=-

99999999999&date2=99999999999&words=&title=AmerIndian&fromrec=0

http://timelines.ws/countries/AMERIND_B.HTML

http://facstaff.uww.edu/guliga/uwec/american_indian_history_timeline.htm

http://www.bluecloud.org/43.html

http://americanhistory.about.com/library/timelines/bltimelineusnative.htm









http://www.3rd1000.com/history3/events/wyoming_indian_encounters.htm