communications

Communications

CHAPTER OVER VIEW



 One of the important human relations skills

supervisors need is the ability to

communicate effectively.

 The communication process occurs when

people send and receive information.

 The process begins when someone encodes a

message.

 The message is then transmitted either verbally or

nonverbally.

 The receiver decodes and interprets the message.

 The message is shaped and filtered by personal

experience, perceptions, and beliefs by both the

sender and the receiver.

 Effective communication depends on a

number of factors.

 The receiver can hear a message, or register

sound in the brain, but not listen.

 Listening occurs when the person who hears sounds

also pays attention and tries to understand.

 Effective communication is most likely to

occur

 when the parties communicate from the receivers

viewpoint, learn from feedback,

 use strategies for effective listening, and

 overcome barriers to communication.

 Barriers to communication include

 information overload,

 misunderstandings,

 perceptions and prejudices, and

 biases in paying attention to messages.

 Ways to avoid these barriers include

 encoding messages carefully and simply

 observing feedback,

 avoiding name-calling,

 being aware of inferences and prejudices, and

 phrasing messages to appeal to the receiver.

 Messages may be sent through a variety of

ways.

 Verbal messages may be oral or written.

 Oral messages can be

 face-to-face or

 use an electronic device such as a telephone or voice mail.

 Oral messages have the advantage of including the

additional information transmitted by

 tone of voice and

 phrasing of the message.

 Face-to-face and phone communications have the

additional advantage of

 immediate feedback and

 provide the opportunity to ask questions to clarify meaning.

 Verbal messages are also transmitted in written

form.

 Letters, memos, and reports take longer to encode and

transmit, but they have the advantage of leaving a record

for the file.

 This is important for taking disciplinary action and ordering

materials.

 Written communications also reduce the potential

misunderstanding of complex messages.

 Nonverbal messages include things like

 looks,

 gestures,

 body position,

 laughter.

 body position, and

 noises such as laughter

 The combination of verbal and nonverbal

messages provides a clearer message than

either type used separately.

 The effective managing of an organization

requires that communication flows in all

directions:

 upward,

 downward, and

 lateral.

 For supervisors, this means they will receive

information from all directions and be

responsible for sending messages in all

directions.

 For example, they will receive directions and orders from

their boss, and be responsible for sending information to

their boss.

 They will also receive messages from their employees,

and be responsible for informing and passing

information to employees.

 Coordination of the organization takes

cooperation among departments, which is

accomplished by lateral communication.

 Organizations have both formal and informal

channels of communication.

 Formal communication is work related.

 It usually follows the chain of command.

 Policies, procedures, and directives follow the formal

communication lines.



 Informal communication is directed toward

personal needs and interests.

 It is not necessarily work related.

 Informal communication includes gossip, rumors, and

personal information.

 It is transmitted by the organization’s grapevine.

The Process of Communication



 Key terms.

1. Communication: The process by which people

send and receive information.

– Information may include opinions, facts, or feelings.

• The intended audience should be receiving and

understanding the same message sent for communication

to take place.

 Sending does not assure receiving.

 Receiving does not assure the message is

the intended one.

 Talking or writing does not guarantee that

communication will occur.

2. Noise: Anything that can distort a message

by interfering with the communication

process.

 Includes distractions such as

 having a headache,

 feeling too cold or too hot,

 sitting in an uncomfortable chair;

 ambiguous words; and

 worn equipment to transmit message.

3. Feedback: The way the receiver of a

message responds to the message.

 Feedback may take the form of words or behavior.

 Failure to respond is also a feedback response.

 Communication is at the heart of the supervisor’s

job.

 Supervisors must communicate in order to work with

 their boss,

 employees, and

 other supervisors

 by

 sending and receiving ideas,

 giving instructions,

 submitting progress reports, and

 processing many kinds of information.

 The successful communication process

includes:

 The sender encodes, or thinks up and formulates the

message.

 The sender then transmits or sends the encoded

message by writing, speaking, or other personal contact.

 The intended audience receives the message.



 The message is decoded, or interpreted as intended.

 The sender encodes, or thinks up and formulates

the message.

 The sender wants someone to know or do something.

 For this to happen, the sender first decides what it is he or she

wants to pass along.

 These thoughts are translated into verbal and nonverbal

messages.

 The specific words, expressions, and gestures depend on the

sender’s knowledge and skills with the language and

knowledge and understanding of the situation that directs the

message.

 The encoding process may not be a recognized activity in all

communications.

 The sender then transmits or sends the

encoded message by writing, speaking, or

other personal contact.

 Transmitting the message may include either

written or spoken words or gestures.

 The intended audience receives the

message.

 The receiver can hear the words, read lips, read

the signing, hear the tone of voice, hear the

emphasis on specific words, and see facial

expressions and gestures.

 The message is decoded, or interpreted as

intended.

 The message will be interpreted by the receiver.

 Interpretation depends on what the receiver has

heard and previous experience, perceptions,

biases, and so forth.

Hearing and Listening



 The receiver must decode the message.

 Both the sender and the receiver have an active

role in communication.

 If the receiver is not active, communication is not

occurring.

 Hearing the message means that the brain is

registering sound.

 Listening, in contrast, means paying attention

to what is being said and trying to understand

the message fully.

Communicating Effectively



 Active Listening: Hearing what the speaker

is saying, seeking to understand the facts

and feelings the speaker is trying to convey,

and stating what the listener understands that

message to be.

 Effective communication is most likely to

occur when the parties

 communicate from the receiver’s viewpoint,

 learn from feedback,

 use strategies for effective listening, and

 overcome barriers to communications.

The Receiver’s Viewpoint



 Communicate from the receiver’s viewpoint.

 People do not share

 experiences,

 views,

 priorities, and

 interests

 Lack of shared experiences may lead to the

intended audience ignoring or misunder-

standing the message sent.

 If you want the receiver’s attention, interest,

and understanding, you must communicate

from his or her viewpoint.

 This means

 using a vocabulary the receiver will understand,

 referring to experiences shared with the receiver, and

 addressing the receiver’s interests.

 The supervisor should ask what the message

means

 to himself or herself, and

 to the employee.

 The supervisor should try to imagine the

message from the employee’s experience

and interest.

Learn from Feedback



 Feedback can help the supervisor

communicate effectively.

 When a message is sent, a certain kind of

response is usually expected.

 One type of response is what the receiver says or

facial expressions.

 Another type of response comes from employees’

behavior later on.

For Example



 When the supervisor says the lunch break is

between 11:00 and 1:00, the employee may

 respond “OK,”

 shake his head “yes,”

 look puzzled at getting two hours for a one-hour lunch

period, and

 return to the work station at 1:15.

 All of these are examples of possible feedback to

the supervisor’s lunch break definition.

 A supervisor can clarify the message, or

check for understanding, by asking

questions.

 For example, the supervisor might ask when the

employee is planning to take his or her lunch

period.

Use Strategies for Effective Listening



 Effective listening begins with the

commitment to listen carefully.

 Supervisors

 should avoid assuming a message will be boring

or irrelevant, and

 should listen carefully, trying to identify important

information and tune out distractions.

 When an employee complains often about

seemingly petty matters, the complaints may

hide a broader concern the employee has not

stated directly.

 If there is no time to listen when someone wants

to talk, a time should be scheduled later to

continue the conversation.

 The supervisor should be aware of the

context of the comments, and the urgency or

frustration an employee may display at the

time.

 The employee may feel that the supervisor is not

interested or is trying to put him or her off if the

talk is to be continued later.

 Later may be too late if the employee makes a

decision based on the comment.

 If the speaker uses words or phrases that stir

an emotional reaction,

 control the emotions and

 don’t let them interfere with the understanding.

 The best response is to listen and

acknowledge the emotions without agreeing

or disagreeing.

 Ask questions that look for the facts underlying an

emotional statement.

 A technique called active listening involves

not only hearing what the speaker is saying,

but also seeking to understand the facts and

feelings of the speaker.

 Active listening can help supervisors

 understand employees’ situations,

 get them to take responsibility, and

 gain their cooperation.

 To communicate effectively, the supervisor

must actively listen with genuine respect for

employees and believe in their ability to take

responsibility.

Be Prepared for Cultural Differences



 Effective communications with limited people who

have limited understanding of English may require

 sticking to simple and basic words,

 talking slowly and pronouncing words carefully,

 seeking feedback,

 learning about the communication styles used by people

from different cultures and trying to match them when

appropriate.

Barriers to Communication



 Communications may fail because

 the sender fails to encode the message properly,

 the transmission is poor, or

 the receiver misinterprets the message.

 Some communications barriers include:

 Information overload

 Misunderstandings

 Word choices

 Cultural differences

 Inferences vs. facts

 Perceptions and prejuices

 Biases in paying attention

Information overload



 People often respond to information overload by

tuning out the message.

 To avoid this possibility, supervisors should give

employees information only that will be useful to them.

 They should give information in an environment conducive

to communicating

 an environment that has minimum distractions.



 Also, supervisors should be sure the employee is paying

attention.

Misunderstandings



 To avoid misunderstandings, messages

should be simple.

 Supervisors should make sure that they

understand what they are going to say before

they create the message.

 When the supervisor is the receiver of a

message, he or she needs to be careful to

understand the true meaning of that

message, asking questions about unclear

points when necessary.

 The supervisor must also keep in mind that

sometimes the sender prefers that the

receiver not understand the message.

 The supervisor needs to recognize when people

have reason to be intentionally vague or

misleading.

 On those occasions, the supervisor should interpret

messages with particular care.

 One of the times messages may be vague is when

an organization is undergoing significant change.

 For example, the message may be that top management is

keeping communication lines open.

 They want to take into consideration all detail and everyone

will have a say.

 Unfortunately, the important decisions have already been

made.

 But to keep the organization functioning, the sender has

determined the message would be the best strategy for

orderly operation.

Word choices



 Make appropriate word choices when

encoding the message.

 Choose simple words and avoid words that could

be ambiguous.

 Avoid using words that attribute

characteristics to another person.

 Instead, describe specific behaviors and your own

feelings, such as,

 “That is the second time this week you’ve made that

mistake. I get annoyed when I have to explain the same

procedure more than once or twice.”

Cultural differences



 The supervisor must be familiar with the

communication styles of the various cultures

of people with whom he or she works.

 Text examples include:

 (1) The Japanese.

 In Japan, harmony is a key value. The Japanese say “yes

(hai, pronounced hi) as a way of signaling that they hear

what the speaker is saying.

 Americans generally say “yes” to mean they agree with the

speaker.

 (2) Women.

 Assertiveness in women is often viewed as aggressiveness

 so women tend to use a less assertive style of

communication than men do.

 They tend to speak less and use phrases such as “Don’t

you think?”

 Word choice is also a concern when dealing

with cultural differences.

 Supervisors must seek to understand the

communication style and meaning of their

employees to reap the benefits and to avoid

unnecessary conflict of a diverse work force.

Inferences versus Facts



 Inference: A conclusion drawn from the

facts available.

 It is an assumption made based on the facts on

hand.

 An inference may be true or false.

 Inferences often go beyond the actual data.

 That is, a decision may be made or the the

interpretation is generalized to a more complex

situation from a very small amount of factual

information

 Or the facts may be too skimpy to make a

specific inference.

 For example, because you know several people

with a specific habit or behavior does not mean

that all people have the behavior.

Perceptions and Prejudices



 Perceptions: The ways people see and

interpret reality.

 Perceptions are filters that keep some information

from getting in and make us supersensitive to

other information.

 Prejudices: Broad generalizations about a

category of people.

 Prejudices can have either a negative and positive

influence, and both interfere with the ability to

make sound decisions

 A positive prejudice may be called a halo effect.

 Based on experiences and values, the

sender and receiver of a message make

assump-tions about each other.

 When these perceptions are false, the message

may get distorted.

 Prejudices are broad generalizations about a

category of people.

 It is common, in our culture to attribute certain

characteristics to

 women,

 African-Americans,

 Asians,

 blue-collar workers, and

 many other groups.

 In order to overcome communication barriers

due to perceptions and prejudices, the

supervisor must be aware of the assumptions

made about people.

 Is the supervisor responding to what a person is

saying or to his assumptions about that person or

category of persons?

Biases in Paying Attention



 People have biases about the sender or

receiver of the message and about the

message itself.

 People tend to pay more attention to a message

that seems to serve their self-interest and to

ignore messages that contradict their viewpoint.

Nonverbal and Verbal Messages



 Verbal Message: A message that consists of

words.

 Verbal messages can be spoken or written.

 Nonverbal Message: A message conveyed without

using words.

 Nonverbal messages include such things as gestures,

facial expressions, body position, and leaving the

conversation.

 Many nonverbal messages are referred to as body

language.

Nonverbal messages



 The major types of nonverbal messages are:

 gestures,

 posture,

 tone of voice,

 facial expressions, and

 even silences.

 Nonverbal communications are culture-

specific.

 A look or gesture will give a specific kind of

message in one culture and an entirely different

message in another culture.

 They will also have different meanings or

interpretation depending on the gender of the

person.

 Looking down for a woman in the Anglo-American culture

may be interpreted as a sign of modesty;

 for a man, the behavior may be interpreted as a sign of

dishonesty or guilt.

 In another culture, looking down may show a sign of

respect.

 Failure to recognize different interpretations

of nonverbal communications can lead to

misunderstandings of supervisors or

employees, or both.

 A supervisor needs to send nonverbal signals

that communicate he or she is businesslike

and professional.

 This is done by

 the way you sit or stand,

 the use of gestures such as open-hand gestures,

and

 readily shaking hands to indicate enthusiasm and

interest.

 Dressing conservatively signals that the

supervisor commands respect and has self-

control.

Verbal messages



 Verbal messages are sent by speaking or by

writing.

 Supervisors usually depend on oral

communication.

 This type of communication gives the supervisor

the opportunity to send and receive many

nonverbal cues along with the verbal ones.

 Most oral communications occur face-to-face.

 They can also take place

 on the telephone,

 at meetings, and

 at formal presentations.

 Oral messages are best for sensitive issues.

 Sensitive discussions should be held in private to

give both parties a chance to air their feelings.

 When there is anger or hostility, face-to-face

communication allows for immediate feedback to

diffuse the anger or clarify misconceptions.

 Speaking before a group is a type of

communication that may be necessary, but

stressful, for the supervisor.

 The following steps can help the supervisor

prepare:

 (1) Learn about the audience.

 What are their values and interests and what do they

already know about the topic?

 If you are unaware of this information before the

presentation starts, spend the first few minutes talking with

the audience about their interests, expectations, and

knowledge base.

 (2) Start the presentation with a summary of the main

points or the objective of the meeting.

 If the presentation is formal or includes people from areas

outside the work unit, it may be useful to present a written

outline of main points or objectives on a flip chart.

 (3) Have a clear plan for what to say.

 Use note cards or an outline.

 Avoid having a script that is read to the audience.

 It is much more effective to speak naturally to a group.

 (4) Finally, practice the speech until it is easy to deliver.

 It is useful to get feedback, if possible, from a mirror, tape

recorder, video camera, or friend.

Written Communications



 Written communications are often used in

organizations.

 A written record may be useful to the organization and the

supervisor.

 A written record is also useful as a follow-up to an

important verbal message.

 For example, if you have agreed verbally to a purchase order,

customer request, delivery date, or disciplinary action, a

written message will reaffirm the agreement.

 Written messages are useful in

communicating complex messages.

 A disadvantage of a written message is that it

will take a relatively long time to prepare and

deliver.

 A supervisor may be required to submit

written reports.

 A report may be necessary

 to describe a department need or problem,

 to summanze a meeting,

 and to inform upper management about information

learned on a business trip or other tasks performed by a

supervisor.

 Reports should begin with a summary of the

contents.

 Charts may be used to summarize data and to

make a point through visual impact.

 For example, a line graph can be used to illustrate an

increase in productivity following the purchase of new

equipment

 Bulletin board messages can be used to reach a

large number of people.

 These messages can include the need-to-know-type

messages such as

 the overtime work schedule,

 safety advisories, and

 the nice-to-know-type messages

 the progress of a quality improvement team or

 the investigation of a new-equipment purchase.

 Bulletin boards can also be used to recognize

employees and work team successes.

 A problem today for many supervisors is

communicating in a workplace in which many

employees do not have adequate reading

skills, but are required to read work

instructions, procedures, and other

documentation.

 Some companies are teaching reading and

other skills to their employees.

 Supervisors must be aware of potential

problems when written information may not

be understood by all employees.

 Supervisors need to be sure all employees have

the information necessary to do a good job.

 Since people who have difficulty reading may be

embarrassed by the problem, they may try to hide

it.

 Supervisors need to be sensitive to the

feelings of employees while trying to assure

good quality and productivity of the

department.

 Downward Communication: Organizational

communication that involves sending a message to

someone at a lower level on the organizational

chart.

 The supervisor is receiving a downward communication

when he or she receives instructions or an evaluation from

the boss, or a message describing the company policy.

 The supervisor sends a downward communication when he

or she discusses a problem with or instructs an employee.

 Upward Communication: Communication

that involves sending a message to someone

at a higher level on the organizational chart.

 A supervisor receives an upward communication

when an employee asks a question or reports a

problem.

 To be well informed and to benefit from

employees’ creativity, the supervisor should

encourage upward communication.

 One way to do this is to listen well, applying the

strategies for effective listening.

 A suggestion box is a method used by some

organizations as a way for employees to send

messages up.

 Supervisors should be aware that suggestion boxes

can be problematic.

 Employees who make suggestions have expectations of

seeing their suggestions implemented.

 There must be resources devoted to the review and

implementation of suggestions and feedback to the

employees, or they will stop making suggestions.

 In some companies, for example General Motors

Corporation, suggestions have been rewarded with

a portion of the saving that results from the

suggestion.

 When teamwork is expected, rewarding individuals

for suggestions may undermine the team effort.

 Lateral Communication: Organizational

communication that involves sending a message to

a person at the same level on the organizational

chart.

 Supervisors send and receive lateral communication when

 they discuss their needs with coworkers in other departments,

 coordinate their group’s work with that of other supervisors,

and

 socialize with their peers at the company.

 Lateral communication is a way for new supervisors

to learn the methods and expectations of their job,

and to get help when problems arise.

 Why should a supervisor know about the

directions of communication?

 Awareness will help a supervisor be sure that he

or she is participating in communication in all

directions.

 All directions of communication are necessary to

keep all people informed and to keep work

coordinated.

 Changes in companies today include

reorganization and downsizing, which is

taking out layers of management.

 One of the reasons for these changes is to

increase flexibility and speed

communications.

 The supervisor who is used to sending a

message up the chain of command and

waiting for an answer will find in the new

reorganized company both faster

communications and the responsibility for

making more decisions formerly made at

higher levels.

 Formal Communication: Organizational

communication that is work-related and follows the

lines of the organization chart.

 Formal communications are directed toward

accomplishing the goals of the organization.

 Examples of formal communication from the supervisor to

the employee include

 discussions of performance to help employees do higher-

quality work,

 training on a new procedure that improves quality of service,

and

 the distribution of production schedules to work teams.

 Formal communications are often related to the

primary work of the organization and its employees.

 It includes

 policies and procedures,

 instructions and directions,

 requests for resources,

 work schedules,

 performance appraisals, and

 work summaries.

 These communications usually follow the

chain of command.

 However, much of the communication in an

organization is informal, such as personal

discussions.

 Informal Communication: Organizational

communication that is directed toward individuals’

needs and interests and does not necessarily follow

formal lines of communication.

 Informal communications include both topics

about work and personal interests.

 Work-related informal communications may

be an attempt to get necessary information

faster than the prescribed method.

 Much of the informal communication takes

the form of gossip and rumors.

 Gossip is small talk about people.

 People use gossip as a way to indicate

 what behavior is acceptable and

 what behavior is not acceptable.

 Rumors are what people say among

themselves to try to interpret and make sense

out of what is happening.

 When there is an absence of facts about what is

happening in an organization, especially during a

time of change, rumors are spread in an effort to

get at the facts.

 Rumors tend to circulate most during crises and

conflicts and are often false.

 Supervisors should not participate in the

spreading of gossip and rumors.

 As a member of management, the supervisor is

expected to know and report the facts about

company business.

 Guidelines for keeping rumors and gossip

under control include:

 Do not share any personal information about other

employees.

 Discuss matters concerning others only when they truly

need to know.

 Keep company information to yourself until the

organization makes an official announcement.

 Grapevine: The paths along which informal

communication travels.

 The grapevine is important to supervisors because

employees use it as a source of information.

 Thus, the supervisor must expect that employees

sometimes have information before the supervisor has

delivered it.

 Rumors spread by the grapevine and the information

may be incorrect especially in times of crisis or conflict.

 Managers usually have no control over the

grapevine.

 Steps the supervisor can take to ensure that some

of the messages in the grapevine are positive and in

line with the organization’s objectives include:

 a. Regularly use the tools of formal



communication to inform employees of the

organization’s version of events.

 b. Be open to discussion, becoming someone

employees will turn to when they want a rumoi

confirmed or denied.

 c. Use performance appraisal interviews as a

time to listen to employees as well as give their

information.

 d. Have a trusted employee act as a source of

information about the messages traveling thc

grapevine.

 e. When necessary, issue a formal response to a

rumor in order to clear the air.