Sexuality Research
Research Methods: Introduction
I. Our current knowledge about sexuality is based on relatively few studies
II. First task of researcher is to ask an explicit question
A. Next is designing a way to gather the relevant information – in sexuality research, most
commonly used methods are surveys, case studies & experimental research
1. Less common is direct observation; used more in sexual research clinics, but also in the
work of Masters & Johnson
B. Good researcher chooses method according to particular problem & population being
studied
III. Scientific method – research conducted in an atmosphere free from bias; since it is the most
objective way to establish new knowledge in any field
A. Must approach research without preconceived agendas to show what sexual behavior should be
B. Steps in the scientific method
1. Identifying a research question – based on personal interest/experience, on social
concerns or on the interests of those funding the research (govt. or industry)
2. Reviewing the literature – researchers learn what is already known about topic, think of
ways to conduct desired research & come up with new questions
3. Formulating an hypothesis (or 2 or more hypotheses)
4. Test with experiment
a. Operationalizing variables – specifying how they are going to be measured; some are
easy, some difficult; must state clearly how measure is to be made
b. Collecting data – survey research, case studies, experimental research, direct
observation
5. Analyzing data to test hypothesis – data analyzed to describe situations, to show that one
situation causes another or to show relationship between variables
C. Various forms of bias can be problematic – bias of researchers, research subjects (if all
subjects are college-educated —> probably biased
1. If some subjects are not really willing to participate or to be honest even if they agree to
participate, they will be biased (volunteer bias)
D. Can't study all humans so must study relatively small group of people from which results
may be generalized to the larger population
1. Generalization is the ability to conclude that the same results would be obtained outside
the study
2. It can occur only if all aspects of the scientific method are properly planned, carried out
& controlled as much as possible
Research Methods: Types of Studies
I. Survey research – surveys asking people about sexual attitudes & experiences; done orally in
face-to-face interviews or in written form as part of a questionnaire
A. Surveys are used when information from a large number of people is needed
B. The interview allows the interviewer to explain the purpose & value of the survey, to clarify
& explain the questions & to report answers clearly
C. Questionnaires are less expensive than interviews, which require many people to conduct them
1. Questionnaires filled out at convenience makes people feel more relaxed & reinforces
anonymity; privacy may also ensure more honest answering
2. Questionnaire eliminates subject's being influenced by interviewers facial expressions or
bodily gestures
II. Case studies – in depth studies of individuals or small, select groups of individuals; usually
followed over a period of months or years
A. Case studies provide a chance to look at specific behaviors or characteristics in great depth
B. Since they cover a relatively long period of time, one can investigate cause-&-effect
relationships in detail (sex offenders, people with sexual-response difficulties)
III. Experimental research – behavior studied under controlled conditions; match 2 groups&
compare them; groups are identical except for one important difference
A. The experimental group is subjected to a particular event or condition, whereas the control
group is not
B. Both groups are observed & the results are compared to determine whether the experimental
condition had an effect
IV. Direct observation – method in which subjects are watched in lab, class, natural setting or
workplace; accurate way to collect sexual info, especially if researcher controls setting
A. An example is the work of Masters & Johnson
B. Major drawback is required expenditure of time & money; also people may be reluctant to
perform sexual activity in lab where they are being observed
C. Some people question ethics of participating in observational research as researcher or as
subject
D. Must always ask whether sexual responses in such a setting mirror those in privacy of home
(normal environment)
Issues in Sexuality Research
I. Cooperation is a big problem in such studies; tough to get a large group of people who will stay
with project until it is over
A. With mail questionnaires, response rate is usually strategies to help people respond more fully & positively
B. Patterns of behavior differentiating for gender, race, culture & ethnicity, if possible
C. Questions of gender, orientation & identity; also relationship patterns
Early Sexuality Researchers
I. Attempts to study human sexual behavior systematically date back at least to the ancient Greeks
A. Physicians like Hippocrates & philosophers like Plato & Aristotle are forefathers of sexuality
research - made extensive observations
B. Rome – Greek physicians (Soranus, Galen) further advanced sexual knowledge
1. Their work prompted later Islamic scholars to address sexual questions
C. 19th century – new concerns about overpopulation & sexual psychology intensified efforts to
study sexuality
D. At turn of 20th century, sexuality investigations became a legitimate endeavor in its own right
II. Richard von Kraft-Ebing (1840 – 1902) – wrote during time when Victorian standards strongly
suppressed thinking about sexuality
A. Since he was a product of the time & a physician who worked mostly with sexually disturbed
people, his writings (1902) indicated that sexual activity is something to fear
B. He supported the double standard whereby men have sexual freedoms that women do not
C. Had a great influence on physicians as well as the public
1. Seemed to be biased & made some false assumptions, but his writings convinced some
physicians & researchers that the study of sexuality was legitimate
III. Henry Havelock Ellis (1859 – 1939), English psychologist & physician who studied sexuality;
grew up in fear of what he had been told about the danger of nocturnal emissions
A. Also concerned about his general ignorance of human sexuality
B. From 1896 – 1910, he published a 6 volume series (Studies in the Psychology of Sex), which
included the following beliefs:
C. Wrote about sexual behavior from anthropological, cultural, psychological & medical
viewpoints; findings are mostly from case studies & life histories
1. Approached sexual phenomena from experience or experiment & used personal
experiences for research purposes
D. Two aspects made his writing significant:
E. He influenced many of the attitudes about sexuality held in society; his ideas were
controversial & ahead of their time, particularly his support for sexuality education
IV. Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939) – psychological researcher; developed theories about human
development, personality & psychopathology that have influenced our thinking
A. According to Freud, to develop into a well-adjusted person, he said one had to progress
successfully through a number of psychosexual stages
B. Viewed sexuality & sexual pleasure as a central part of human life & felt that people
naturally sought to have as much pleasure & as little pain as possible
C. Indicated that sexual activity was natural & that procreation was secondary to pleasure;
cautioned against severe restrictions on sexual instincts
D. Important contribution – suggested that early childhood experiences had strong consequences
for adult functioning
20th Century Sexuality Researchers: Background
I. 19th century model of sexuality & sexual behavior was a medical one
II. Individuals who differed from accepted norms considered ill or, in scientific terms, deviant or
pathological; little known about sexual attitudes, behaviors & activities
A. Dearth of knowledge about sexuality from psychological, psychosocial & physiological
perspectives
B. Sexual attitude & behavior research lacked respectability; many institutions would not fund
or support it
III. 1930s – a number of things led to greater acceptance of human sexuality as a legitimate field
for research
A. Changes in public attitudes in U. S.
B. Desire for contraception (for child spacing & population control)
C. More open interest in the scope of sexual behavior
20th Century Sexuality Researchers: Scientific Literature – Kinsey
I. Alfred C. Kinsey: Establishing Scientific Sex Research – biologist & zoologist; joined Indiana
Univ. faculty in 1920; gained recognition early in career through his writings in biology
A. 1937 – became teacher of newly introduced course in marriage & sexuality education
1. As interest grew, he began to amass info concerning sexual activities & beliefs about
sexuality; his scientific background led him to gather facts & statistical data
B. Interviews covered 6 ways in which males & females achieve orgasm in our culture:
C. Focused on 9 major areas:
D. Collected data from only white males & females; represented rural & urban areas in each
state & range of ages, marital statuses, educational levels, occupations & religions
1. Sample contained disproportionately high number of better-educated people living in
cities; all subjects were volunteers
2. May be best known example of survey research related to sexuality, but sample is not
viewed as representative of U. S. population
a. Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948) – based on interviews with 5300 males
b. Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953) – based on interviews with 5900 females
E. Americans had little knowledge about sex behavior in our culture before him & his
conclusions generated much public reaction
1. Concluded that there was a relationship between sexual behaviors/attitudes on one hand &
education & socioeconomic factors on the other
2. In males, lower educational level correlated with higher premarital activity; for women,
findings were opposite (higher educational level, higher premarital activity)
3. Women who had premarital orgasm were more likely to experience marital orgasm
F. Since sample is a disproportionately large number of educated, urban, Protestant young people
with fewer, less-educated, rural, older persons, it did not represent the population, in general
1. Defended work by explaining that nature of sexual behavior made it hard to get answers
from large numbers of people, since too many refused
G. Despite limitations, work was hailed as the first large-scale study of sexual behavior; books
had large effect on subsequent research & society in general by opening up the subject
1. Despite criticism it evoked (some justified), generally acknowledged at the time for its
objectivity, scholarly approach & scope
II. Kinsey's findings on masturbation
A. Close to 92% of males in study stated that they had masturbated at some point in their lives;
highest incidence reported between 16 & 20 years of age
B. ~62% of females reported that they had masturbated
III. Nocturnal dreams about sex – dreams about sex experienced by both sexes
A. 70% of women had dreams about sex
1. ~90% of women reporting sexual dreams had heterosexual dreams about sex partners they
could not identify; ~37% of 45-year-old women had experienced dreams that led to orgasm
B. Highest incidence of nocturnal emissions reported by 71% of single males aged 21 – 25 years
IV. Heterosexual petting – defined as a deliberate attempt to effect erotic arousal through any
physical contact that does not involve intercourse
A. 88% of all males had engaged in petting or would engage in some form of petting before
marriage
B. Highest incidence of heterosexual petting in males occurred between 16 & 20 years of age
with tremendous variation in frequency
C. 40% of females in this study experienced heterosexual petting by 15 & between 69% & 95%
had such experience by age 18
1. Petting to the point of orgasm during late teens was reported by 23% of females
V. Premarital intercourse
A. 22% of all adolescent males had experienced intercourse; among college males, 67% had
experienced it
B. Nearly 50% of females reported premarital intercourse; ~2/3 of married females reported
sexual orgasm before marriage through any one of 5 techniques:
VI. Homosexual activity – homosexual incidence is highest in high school males
A. ~37% of all males had some homosexual experience between adolescence & old age
B. 25% of females aged 30 years & over had been erotically aroused by other females; 17% had
experienced sexual contact with other females
1. Female homosexual contact was greatest in college & graduate school groups
VII. Kinsey Institute is still operating as Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender &
Reproduction; located at Indiana University
20th Century Sexuality Researchers: Scientific Literature – William Masters & Virginia
Johnson: The Physiology of Sexual Response
I. Masters & Johnson – probably most widely known & cited of all sex-related data; first to observe
people's sexual behaviors in lab & identify physiological changes during arousal
A. Masters was gynecologist, Johnson, a psychologist, the directors of what was the Reproductive
Biology Research Foundation in St. Louis; now it is the Masters & Johnson Institute
1. 1966 – published data in Human Sexual Response & in 1970 Human Sexual Inadequacy
B. They realized prostitutes were not the best subjects for a study of normal sexual response;
informed university contacts & professionals that they needed volunteer study subjects
1. 1273 initially applied & they selected 694 (276 married couples, 106 unmarried women &
36 unmarried men); 98 of the single people had been married previously
II. Human Sexual Response – used direct observation, filming, instrument monitoring; recorded
changes in body physiology in general & genitals & reproductive organs in particular
A. Most of their findings related to physiological responses to sexual arousal that had never been
measured or documented
B. Whole cycle was called human sexual response; occurs in both sexes in 4 phases always in
order: excitement, plateau, orgasm & resolution
C. Research serves as the basis for modern therapy, education & counseling; cross-disciplinary
research & general info about sexual functioning
III. Human Sexual Inadequacy – study of sexual dysfunction; put relationship of physiology &
psychology of sexual response in sharper focus
A. Dealt with causes of sexual dysfunction, relationship of partners who experienced sexual
dysfunction & sexual interaction in general
B. Defined sexual dysfunction as inability to respond emotionally & physically to sexual
arousal; gave range of dysfunctions defining 6 basic types (3 for women; 3 for men)
IV. The group they studied was not representative of the overall American population – they were
better educated than average, had all been sexually active & were mainly white
A. Since they were measuring physiological responses, a true representation of the population
may not be as crucial
V. 1979 – M & J published Homosexuality in Perspective, a study of sexual response of
homosexuals, added much info to human sexuality literature
A. Data gathered by studying human sexual response cycles of 38 lesbian couples & 42 male
homosexual couples between 1957 & 1970
B. Homosexuals who had problems with their homosexuality were studied; some expressed
desire to function within lifestyle more effectively & some wanted to become heterosexual
20th Century Sexuality Researchers: Scientific Literature – Other Investigators
I. Robert Sorenson: Adolescent Sexuality in Contemporary America – 1973; reported data gathered
from ~400 adolescents 13 – 19 years old; first such study since Kinsey
A. Parental permission needed for participation since many of the subjects were minors; 40% of
adults refused permission & some teenagers refused; highlights difficulty of research
B. Showed dramatic rise in premarital coitus among American adolescents; 45% of girls & 60%
of boys had participated by age 19
C. Found teenagers were concerned with values, communication &emotional aspects of sexual
activity
D. Used good sampling procedures, but concerns were raised about the differences between the
teens who did & did not participate (since some [or their parents] refused to participate)
II. Marvin Zelnik & John Kantner: Sexual Behavior of Young Women (1971, 1976 & 1979); studied
sexual behavior of white & black American females aged from 15 – 19 years
A. Gathered info from several hundred women on sexual activity, contraceptive use, premarital
pregnancy & abortion using probability sampling techniques
B. In 1976 – 1 in 5 American women had experienced intercourse by 16 & 2/3 by 19; numbers
were higher than in the 1971 group
1. Also in 1976 - 1 in 10 young women reported at least 1 pregnancy by age 17 & 1 in 4 by 19
2. Black teenage women were more likely to become pregnant than white teenage women,
although the number of pregnant whites was climbing due to increasing sexual activity
C. 1980 – published combined results of 3 studies; incidence of premarital sex for women was
>30% in 1971, 43% in 1976 & 50% in 1979
1. Proportion of coital-experienced whites rose from 26% in 1971 to 38% in 1976 to 47% in
1979
2. Proportion of coital-experienced blacks rose from 54% in 1971 to 66% in both 1976 &
1979; blacks are more likely to initiate coitus 1 year earlier than whites
D. Contraceptive methods used in 1976 & 1979 differed as well
1. Use of IUD & pill declined by 41% in the 3 years; use of withdrawal & rhythm method
rose by 86%
2. 1976 – first methods used by teenagers who ever used contraception were in order of
frequency: condom, pill & withdrawal; 1979 –withdrawal, condom & pill
III. Alan Bell & Martin Weinberg: Homosexuality – studied sexual lives of homosexual men &
women in SF area; published findings in 1978; very comprehensive study of gay lifestyle
A. Homosexualities: A Study of Diversities Among Men & Women – 979 men & women in
sample were from divergent social, economic & occupational strata
B. Concluded that the term "homosexual" should really be homosexualities since they found that
distinct types of relationships exist among homosexuals; relationship categories follow:
C. Found that homosexual & heterosexual men were much alike, though homosexuals tended to
be lonelier & have less self-esteem
1. Lesbians were also like heterosexual women, though they also differed with respect to self-
esteem
D. Concluded that homosexuals who are adjusted to their lifestyle are "no more distressed
psychologically than are heterosexual men & women"
IV. Philip Blumstein & Pepper Schwartz: Relationships Among Couples – published American
Couples (1983); had info about trends in couples, married/cohabiting, hetero/homosexual
A. Distributed questionnaires to 11,000 couples recruited from ads in the media; 55% response
rate (4314 heterosexual couples; 1757 homosexual copies [969 gay males, 788 lesbians])
B. Both heterosexual & homosexual cohabiting couples seemed to have fewer difficulties in
relationships than married heterosexual copies
1. Hypothesized that this occurred because cohabitation is based more on equal participation
by both partners
V. National Health & Social Life Survey (NHSLS) – U. of Chicago; first comprehensive surveyof
adult sexual behavior since Kinsey; awarded grant in 1988 to study 20,000 people
A. Designed to assess incidence & prevalence of a broad range of sexual practices & attitudes in
US population; initiated in response to a lack of knowledge of sex practices after AIDS
1. After 2 years of planning, federal funds were withdrawn; in 1991, conservative members
of Congress were offended by using government funds to study sexual behavior
2. Passed legislation to eliminate federal funding for such studies
B. Findings – of married persons, 93.7% had had only one sex partner in the last year as
compared with 38% of those never married & not cohabiting
20th Century Sexuality Researchers: Scientific Literature – Popular Literature
I. Nancy Friday: What Do Women & Men Fantasize About? – didn't ask about behavior, but about
imaginations & fantasies – My Secret Garden (1973) & Forbidden Flowers (1975)
A. Compiled the many sexual fantasies shared by women; women wanted to share their
experiences & hear about those of others
B. Also collected similar info from men (>3000) describing fantasies about masturbation, sexual
techniques, sharing, voyeurism, exhibitionism
II. Morton Hunt: Urban Adult Sexual Behavior – funded by Playboy Foundation (early 1970s);
reported findings in book (Sexual Behavior in the 1970s – 1974)
A. 24 cities selected as representative of urban America; subjects randomly chosen from phone
directories in each city (2026 subjects – 1044 females; 982 males)
1. Met in small groups to discuss sex behavior; after discussion, completed questionnaire; 4
different forms used related to subject's marital status
B. Found wider variety of coital positions, longer foreplay & coital duration, more common
occurrence of premarital sexual encounters
III. Carol Tavris & Susan Sadd – The Redbook Report on Female Sexuality; focused on sex
practices of women; data from 60-item multiple choice questionnaire (October 1974 issue)
A. >100,000 female readers responded; results published in Sept. & Oct. 1975 issues; since they
were volunteers, probably unrepresentative of population, but sample size was noteworthy
B. Women who responded were active sexually & had frequently initiated sexual activity; almost
all had experienced oral-genital sexual behavior;1/3 involved in extramarital sex
IV. Shere Hite: Women's Sexuality, Men's Sexuality & Women and Love – from 1972 – 1076; Hite
mailed >100,000 60-item essay-type questionnaires to different women's groups
A. Also placed notices in magazines (Oui, Village Voice, Mademoiselle, Brides, Ms.) asking
women to send for questionnaires; small select group was biased sample
B. Reported they experienced orgasm more often from clitoral stimulation than from coitus;
achieved deep orgasm from masturbation; described general history of orgasm
C. Findings of great interest; even though a small part of the population was reached, large
numbers of women had a chance to express preferences & desires in sexual matters; not done
before
D. The Hite Report on Male's Sexuality (1981) – used same anecdotal analysis; views of 7200 men
1. Men preferred intercourse to masturbation or oral-genital sexual activity; generally
unaware that women could achieve orgasm by means other than intercourse
E. Published Women & Love: A Cultural Revolution in Progress (1987) – spent 7 years analyzing
surveys from 4500 women & concluded that women are fed up with men
1. Despite women's lib & sexual revolution, she reported that women remain oppressed, &
even abused, by men
2. 4 of 5 women in study said they still had to fight for rights within a relationship
V. Lorna & Philip Sarrel: Redbook Report on Sexual Relationships (1980) – sexuality questionnaire
to which 20,000 women & 6000 men responded
A. Mostly dealt with quality of relationships & interpersonal communication of couples – 60%
(men), 1/3 did not tell their parents about their sexual history at all
B. 84% said they never talked with health care provider about how to know when one is prepared
for sexual behavior
1. >2/3 had not discussed contraception, HIV & AIDS, condoms or STIs with health care
provider
2. Nearly 2/3 had spoken with partner about what they are comfortable doing sexually
Studies on Ethnic Differences in Sexual Attitudes & Behavior
I. National Survey of Family Growth (1997) – data indicating ethnic differences in proportion of
women 15 – 19 years old who have ever had sex
A. 55% of Hispanics, 49.5% of whites, 59.5% of blacks reported participating in sex
II. Upchurch, et al. (1998) – gender & ethnic differences in timing of first intercourse; ethnically
diverse sample of 877 LA County youths
A. Overall median age of first sexual intercourse of 16.9 years – black males had lowest median
(15.0) & Asian-American males had the highest (18.1)
B. After controlling for background characteristics, black males had rates of first sex about 3 – 5
times the rates of other groups
III. Quadagno et al. (1998) – indicated that previous investigators had reported ethnic differences in
expression of sexual decision-making & sexual behaviors in women
A. Examine ethnicity influence on who makes decisions on sexual activity timing & type
B. Concluded that ethnicity contributes to differences in sexual behaviors , but that other
variables are equally important
IV. Ford et al. (2001) – reported that sexual partners of white & black adolescents are likely to be
similar to them
Studies on the Use of Contraceptives
I. Studer & Thornton (1987) – adolescents with deep religious commitment were less likely to
participate in sex, but when they did they were less likely to use reliable contraception
II. Yarber (1986) – overall health habits were not related to whether young females sought
prescription contraception
III. Sack, Billingham & Howard (1985) – to predict contraceptive use, 7 independent variables
could be used
A. Age an individual started engaging in intercourse
B. Frequency of intercourse
C. Frequency of dating
D. Length of time partners knew each other
E. Number of partners
F. Anticipation or nonanticipation of intercourse
G. Number of close friends who were thought to use birth control
Research on Sexuality Education
I. Eisen, Zellman & McAlister (1990) - found that good sex ed programs help to delay onset of
sexual intercourse for teenagers
A. Students who were already sexually active & had participated in good sex ed programs were
more likely to have used an effective contraceptive at the most recent intercourse
B. Good sex ed programs increased consistent use of effective methods; they not only have
positive effects on sexual knowledge but also have important behavioral effects
II. Positive effect on behavior has been verified in many studies
A. Kirby & Coyle (1994) – education programs do not hasten the onset of sexual intercourse &
may increase contraceptive use in general and/or condoms in particular
B. Kirby (2001) – found that some sexuality/HIV ed programs can delay intercourse onset
1. They also reduce the number of partners, reduce intercourse frequency, increase
condom/contraceptive use & thus decrease sexual risk-taking
III. 89% of teenagers take a sex ed class by the time they finish high school
A. 46% of them say such classes fail to teach them how to discuss contraception & STIs with
their partners & do not address emotional consequences of sexual activity
B. Almost half of the students said they did not receive enough information in the classes
Future Challenges Related to Sexuality Research
I. Tiefer (1994) – emphasized 3 crises facing sexology
A. Media are inundating the public with sexual topics
B. Many people in academic circles still hesitate to accept sexuality research as being as
legitimate as other forms of research
C. There is a tendency for sexuality research to focus only on medical topics & not on the
comprehensive nature of people & society
II. Better research methods are needed to fit together the psychological, the biological & the
sociological aspects of sexuality research