Wildlife Species

Wildlife Species

This chapter contains information on spe- considered. You are determining if the practice

cies featured in each of the sixteen regions. should be implemented, given the current habi-

There are three sections: birds, mammals and tat conditions, within the year. Also, it is impor-

other species. Species are listed alphabetically tant to realize the benefit of a practice may not

in each section. Each species has specific in- be realized anytime soon. For example, trees or

formation on habitat requirements, including shrubs planted for mast may not bear fruit for

diet, water, and cover. Key wildlife manage- several years.

ment practices used in some regions also are

discussed. Wildlife management practices for

species vary from region to region, and not all Index to Wildlife Species

the Wildlife management practices listed for a

species will be applicable in all regions. Refer Birds

to charts within a particular region to determine American kestrel

which practices and foods are appropriate for American robin

that region. black-capped chickadee

The species descriptions contain all the in- black-throated sparrow

formation you need about a particular species blue-winged teal

for the WHEP contest. However, additional read- Brewer’s sparrow

ing and research can add depth to your under- broad-winged hawk

standing and help you give detail to your plans brown thrasher

and oral presentations. Field guides to North California quail

American birds and mammals are good sources California thrasher

for information and pictures of the species list- Canada goose

ed. There also are many good Web sites avail- common nighthawk

able for further study. crissal thrasher

The information in this section is the basis for dickcissel

the test at the National Invitational. It is critical dusky grouse

that participants have the background that mas- Eastern bluebird

tery of this section will provide. Without knowing European starling

specific details of each of the featured species, Gambel’s quail

it will be difficult, if not impossible, to succeed in grasshopper sparrow

the other portions of the test. great horned owl

Note: While fish or wildlife surveys are al- greater prairie-chicken

ways important for every species, they should greater sage-grouse

not be recommended if it is stated or the field hairy woodpecker

condition sheet indicates a survey has recently house finch

been completed. Refer to Fish or Wildlife Survey house sparrow

for more information. house wren

Another point to consider is the impact non- hummingbird

native invasive plants can have on our native ladder-backed woodpecker

wildlife populations. While not listed under the lark bunting

species descriptions, controlling non-native in- mallard

vasive vegetation should be an important con- mourning dove

sideration for all species in all regions. Refer to Northern bobwhite

Controlling Non-Native Invasive Vegetation for Northern flicker

more information. Northern goshawk

Remember, when assessing whether to rec- Northern harrier

ommend a WMP, current conditions should be Nuttall’s woodpecker



80 Wildlife Habitat Education Program

ovenbird desert cottontail

prothonotary warbler Eastern cottontail

red-eyed vireo Eastern fox squirrel

redhead Eastern gray squirrel

red-tailed hawk elk

red-winged blackbird mink

ring-necked pheasant mountain cottontail

rock dove mule deer

ruffed grouse Northern raccoon

sage thrasher pronghorn

scaled quail red squirrel

sharp-tailed grouse snowshoe hare

song sparrow white-tailed deer

spotted towhee

Western bluebird Other Species

Western kingbird bluegill

white-winged dove box turtle

wild turkey bullfrog

wood duck butterfly

yellow-rumped warbler cutthroat trout

largemouth bass

Mammals Pacific salmon

American beaver rainbow trout

American marten rough-skinned newt

big brown bat Western hognose snake

black bear

black-tailed prairie dog Note: For the identification portion of the

bobcat contest, refer to this list for the correct

common muskrat spelling and capitalization of each spe-

coyote cies.









Wildlife Habitat Education Program 81

Birds

American kestrel Tillage Management: will facilitate hunting prey

when waste grain is available

General information

American kestrels are found year-round American robin

throughout the U.S. Kestrels use Stages 2 and

3 for feeding, and Stages 4, 5 and 6 for roosting General information

and nesting. Kestrels use both natural and arti- American robins use a wide assortment of

ficial cavities for nesting. They eat small mam- vegetation types, from mowed grassy areas to

mals, other birds and insects. forested areas. In urban areas, robins use large

open areas and nearby trees and shrubs. Parks,

Habitat requirements golf courses and lawns in residential areas are

Diet: primarily insects and small mammals as- attractive to robins. They are found throughout

sociated with open areas North America, though they may migrate out of

Water: obtain necessary water from diet and do northern latitudes during winters with sustained

not need water for drinking cold and snow. Robins build a nest of grass and

Cover: nest in tree cavities and other sites in- mud on a tree or shrub limb, but will occasion-

cluding holes in cliffs, canyon walls and arti- ally nest on building ledges. Robins spend con-

ficial nest boxes siderable time on the ground feeding on earth-

worms, but also will perch on branches to eat

Wildlife management practices berries, fruit and insects.

Establish Field Buffers: to increase cover for

prey around row crop fields Habitat requirements

Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: where Diet: insects and worms in warm seasons; soft

necessary to provide increased early suc- mast from shrubs and trees in winter; sel-

cessional habitat for prey; Stages 2 and 3 dom use artificial feeders

should be interspersed with Stages 5 and 6 Water: require water daily in warm seasons; ob-

Forest Management Techniques: forest regen- tain water from low-lying areas, ponds, even

eration will provide open areas for hunting yard irrigation and rain-filled gutters

for a couple of years Cover: shrubs, evergreen trees, and deciduous

Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire, chain- trees used for nesting and escape; ever-

ing and herbicide applications are recom- green trees often used for early nests

mended to maintain Stage 4 and stimu-

late Stages 2 and 3; grazing management Wildlife management practices

should leave enough herbaceous canopy to Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire, disk-

support insects and small rodents; grazing ing, grazing and mowing can be used to set

management should maintain trees in ripar- back succession and improve structure for

ian areas robins

Nesting Structures: where adequate nesting Mowing: can be used to maintain suitable struc-

cavities are lacking; boxes can be placed ture for robins in urban areas

on fence posts in open areas Plant Shrubs: for soft mast; examples might

Plant Shrubs: in large open areas on idle lands include dogwoods, hollies, golden currant

for cover for hunting prey and winterberry

Plant Trees: for future perching sites and cavi- Plant Trees: both deciduous and evergreen;

ties for nesting where nesting sites may be limiting

Retain/Create Snags: for perches, nest cavities Water Developments for Wildlife: birdbaths and

and a food source (insects) pans of water can be provided in urban ar-





82 Wildlife Habitat Education Program

eas; do not place water in areas where cats

can catch the birds; cats should be removed

Black-throated sparrow

General information

Black-capped chickadee Black-throated sparrows are associated with

Stage 4, specifically, sparsely vegetated desert

General information scrub including mesquite cacti, chaparral and

Black-capped chickadees occur throughout juniper in the southwestern region of the U.S.

the upper two-thirds of the U.S. They are found Their diet is mainly seeds and insects. Black-

in Stages 4, 5 and 6, and nest in cavities in throated sparrows nest low to the ground in

dead or hollow trees. Black-capped chickadees small shrubs.

eat insects and spiders from the branches and

bark of trees and shrubs. They also will visit bird Habitat requirements

feeders. They are often seen on the edges of Diet: insects, seeds and green herbaceous veg-

forested areas. etation

Water: require water frequently during dry and

Habitat requirements cool seasons, especially when green herba-

Diet: ants, caterpillars and spiders from branch- ceous vegetation and insects are not avail-

es, leaves, and bark of trees and shrubs; able

also seeds from bird feeders and soft mast Cover: nests are made from small twigs, grass

from shrubs and stems placed in small shrubs near the

Water: obtain necessary water from snow and ground; shrubs and cacti are used for hiding

surface water cover

Cover: nest in cavities, usually in a dead or hol-

low tree; they can excavate a cavity only in Wildlife management practices

soft wood or rotted wood and will use wood- Manipulate Succession: mowing, chaining, roller

pecker holes, natural cavities and man- beating and/or prescribed fire can be used

made boxes; thick shrub and tree canopies to keep areas in Stage 4; grazing manage-

provide necessary cover ment regimes that promote desert shrub

vegetation beneficial for black-throated

Wildlife management practices sparrows may be used

Forest Management Techniques: timber stand Water Developments for Wildlife: can be benefi-

improvement practices can improve under- cial where water is limiting

story structure by increasing shrub cover

within a stand when canopy cover exceeds

80 percent

Blue-winged teal

Manipulate Succession: grazing management

should prevent livestock from degrading General information

shrub cover Blue-winged teal prefer calm water in asso-

Nesting Structures: can be used in areas where ciation with ephemeral wetlands, inland marsh-

nesting cavities are limiting es, lakes and ponds. They inhabit shorelines

Plant Shrubs: to provide additional Stage 4 in more than open water and primarily nest within

large areas of Stages 2 and 3 a few hundred feet of wetlands in the prairie pot-

Plant Trees: plant softwood trees in large areas hole region of the Northern Great Plains. Nests

of Stages 2 and 3 are found primarily in dense grassland cover.

Retain/Create Snags: trees may be killed where Hayfields will sometimes be used for nesting,

nesting cavities are limited to stimulate cre- assuming adequate grass stubble remains.

ation of additional cavities Blue-winged teal are surface feeders and pre-

fer to feed on mud flats or shallow water where

floating and shallowly submerged vegetation





Wildlife Habitat Education Program 83

is available, along with abundant small aquatic lumbia and in the Great Basin south to southern

animal life. Shallow wetlands with both emer- California and New Mexico. Their habitat con-

gent vegetation and open water are required for tains sagebrush in the Great Basin and alpine

brood habitat. During spring and fall migration, meadows in the Rocky Mountains. They are as-

shallow wetlands and flooded fields are used for sociated with Stage 4, but shrub-dominated ar-

loafing and feeding. These ducks are the first eas less than one-half acre are not usually used.

in North America to begin fall migration on their

way to Central and South America. Habitat requirements

Diet: a variety of insects and spiders from leaves

Habitat requirements and branches of shrubs; seeds of forbs and

Diet: aquatic vegetation, seeds and aquatic in- grasses

sects; feeding primarily confined to wetlands Water: necessary water is obtained from diet,

Water: relatively shallow wetlands required for but will use other water sources when avail-

brood rearing, feeding and loafing able

Cover: dense native grass cover used for nest- Cover: nest in dense sagebrush 20 inches to 30

ing; brood habitat consists of a mix of open inches high; amount and height of shrub is

water and emergent vegetation important for suitable habitat; shrubs also

used for hiding

Wildlife management practices

Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: for nesting Wildlife management practices

cover where suitable cover is lacking Manipulate Succession: grazing management

Leave Grain Unharvested: can be beneficial if regimes that promote shrub growth is ben-

flooded eficial

Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire, disking Plant Shrubs: in open areas for cover

and herbicide applications can be used to

keep wetlands and associated upland nest-

ing habitat in the desired structure; grazing Broad-winged hawk

management should prevent livestock ac-

cess to nesting vegetation adjacent to wet- General information

lands Broad-winged hawks use Stages 5 and 6

Plant/Manage Food Plots: planting native wet- of mixed upland hardwood forest (oaks, hicko-

land food plants and some agricultural crops ries, maples, beech) and mixed coniferous-

can provide additional food resources dur- hardwoods. Broad-winged hawks are normally

ing migration and winter if the area is shal- solitary and inconspicuous. They hunt within the

lowly flooded when the ducks arrive forest near small openings in the canopy.

Tillage Management: delaying cropland tillage in

spring may allow nesting in standing stubble Habitat requirements

Water Control Structures: allow managers to Diet: rodents and other small mammals (such as

manipulate water levels to enhance habitat mice, chipmunks, squirrels, shrews, moles)

Water Developments for Wildlife: flooded fields but also snakes, lizards, caterpillars, grass-

provide important areas for teal during mi- hoppers, beetles, crickets, crawdads and

gration; constructing small dikes for tempo- some small birds

rary flooding provides shallow sheet water Water: obtain necessary water from diet

teal prefer for feeding and loafing Cover: nest among tall trees in Stage 6 with

openings and water nearby; will sometimes

Brewer’s sparrow nest in old crow, hawk or squirrel nests; they

hunt throughout the forest, especially where

small canopy gaps occur

General information

Brewer’s sparrows are found in the northern

Rocky Mountains of the Yukon and British Co-



84 Wildlife Habitat Education Program

Wildlife management practices used to maintain and rejuvenate Stage 4

Forest Management: timber stand improvement when habitat quality begins to decline; graz-

should encourage understory development ing management should exclude livestock

and enhance habitat for a variety of prey from riparian areas and other woody areas

species to allow shrubs and trees to regenerate

Manipulate Succession: grazing management Plant Shrubs: to promote Stage 4 and create

should exclude cattle from forested areas to additional cover for nesting/foraging

retain an understory that provides cover for

a variety of small prey mammals

Plant Shrubs: in areas where tree cover is lack-

California quail

ing such as large open fields

Plant Trees: to provide nest sites General information

Water Developments for Wildlife: will enhance Found most commonly in areas of chaparral,

habitat for a variety of prey species sagebrush scrub and grassland oak habitats.

California quail require shrubby cover for roost-

ing, escape cover, loafing and early succes-

Brown thrasher sional habitat for foraging. In general, Califor-

nia quail prefer habitat consisting of 50 percent

General information Stage 4, interspersed with 25 percent Stage 1,

Brown thrashers occur in the eastern two- and 25 percent Stages 2 and 3. Adult California

thirds of the country. They require Stages 3 quail eat mostly seeds, leaves and flowers from

and 4 and are normally found in shrub thickets, grasses, shrubs and trees. The diet of juveniles,

hedgerows, shelterbelts, young forests, forest however, consists largely of invertebrates.

edges and brushy riparian areas. Brown thrash-

ers forage primarily on the ground, using their Habitat requirements

beaks to turn over leaves and debris looking for Diet: about 70 percent of diet consists of seeds

food. More food is available when there is sub- and green foliage from legumes and grass-

stantial ground litter (leaves and debris). Nests es, particularly annual grasses; diet suppl-

are usually found in bushes or small trees 1 foot mented with soft mast and seeds from a va-

to 10 feet above the ground. riety of shrubs; juveniles less than 3 weeks

of age eat insects; by 12 weeks of age, diet

Habitat requirements is same as adults

Diet: invertebrates and plant seeds are main Water: obtain necessary water through diet

items in diet, but soft and hard mast are also except during periods of heat and drought

eaten when drinking water is required

Water: water requirements are not known Cover: require cover near feeding areas or habi-

Cover: dense shrubs interspersed with some tat quality declines dramatically; shrubby

trees are used for nesting and escape cover; cover used for roosting, escape cover and

will use areas that have only shrubs; need a loafing; nest on the ground in thick grass

minimum of 2.5 acres of suitable habitat to and forbs

support a breeding population

Wildlife management practices

Wildlife management practices Decrease Harvest: may be necessary when sur-

Forest Management: forest regeneration will im- veys show a decline in the local population

prove vegetation structure for nesting and Establish Field Buffers: to increase usable space

foraging and stimulate additional Stage 4; around row crop fields

timber stand improvement in Stages 5 and Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: in areas

6 can improve habitat by stimulating under- that lack adequate nesting habitat and food

story development sources

Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire, chain- Leave Grain Unharvested: grain is eaten when

ing and/or herbicide applications can be available



Wildlife Habitat Education Program 85

Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire, disking, Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire and

herbicide application, mowing, chaining, chaining can convert Stage 6 into Stages 4

roller beating and grazing management can and 5, but it may take a few years before

be used to maintain Stage 4 interspersed habitat is suitable; grazing management

with Stages 1, 2 and 3; prescribed fire is should prevent livestock from damaging ri-

particularly important to create Stages 1, 2 parian scrub habitat

and 3 for feeding areas; grazing manage- Plant Shrubs: in areas where Stages 4 and 5 are

ment should prevent livestock from destroy- lacking

ing cover near water areas

Plant/Manage Food Plots: grain will be eaten by

quail when available Canada goose

Plant Shrubs: native shrubs should be estab-

lished where woody cover is lacking General information

Plant Trees: species such as oaks may be plant- The breeding range of the Canada goose ex-

ed in areas lacking woody cover tends across the northern half of the U.S. across

Tillage Management: delayed tillage of cropland Canada and Alaska. Although an increasing

in spring may allow nesting if residual stand- number of Canada geese choose to winter in

ing cover is available Canada, the majority fly south to southern areas

Water Developments for Wildlife: guzzlers, of the U.S. and Mexico. Many southern areas of

catchment ponds, windmills, and spring de- the U.S. have year-round resident populations

velopments can be beneficial to quail when of Canada geese. Canada geese nest and rear

or where water is limiting young in or near Stage 2 wetlands interspersed

with some Stage 3 wetlands. Riparian areas and

wetlands containing 20 percent tall emergent

California thrasher aquatic vegetation and 80 percent open water

are usually preferred areas for Canada geese.

General information

California thrashers are found in Stages 4 Habitat requirements

and 5 chaparral habitat in the Mediterranean Diet: variety of forbs and grasses, grains and

region. The shrub cover they use requires fire some aquatic insects

for maintenance, but thrashers are not typically Water: relatively open water wetlands, ponds

found in recently burned areas until desirable and lakes are used for brood rearing, feed-

shrub structure develops following fire. ing and loafing

Cover: nest in a variety of places such as mats

Habitat requirements of bulrushes, tops of muskrat houses, and

Diet: spiders, beetles, Jerusalem crickets and most of all, in relatively thick cover on is-

other insects may constitute more than 90 lands, usually within 200 feet of water’s edge

percent of diet during breeding season; dur-

ing the rest of the year, a variety of seeds and Wildlife management practices

hard and soft mast from shrubs are eaten Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: where for-

Water: exact water requirements are unknown, age for geese is lacking

but since California thrashers occur through- Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire sets

out arid regions, it is unlikely they require back succession in cattail-choked wetlands

open water; they will, however, drink from and stimulates lush green vegetation in up-

sources of open water when available lands where geese may feed; grazing man-

Cover: dense shrubby cover is required for nest- agement can maintain lush vegetation for

ing feeding

Nesting Structures: in some areas or regions,

Wildlife management practices elevated artificial nesting platforms may

Forest Management Techniques: forest regen- be established, preferably on islands and/

eration provides dense shrub cover



86 Wildlife Habitat Education Program

or peninsulas surrounded by open water, to

help increase nesting success

Crissal thrasher

Water Control Structures: can be used to ma-

nipulate water levels and maintain 80 per- General information

cent open water and 20 percent emergent Crissal thrashers are found in the southwest-

vegetation ern region of the U.S. south to Mexico. They pre-

Water Developments for Wildlife: can be used to fer dense, low scrubby vegetation such as des-

temporarily flood fields for feeding and rais- ert and foothill scrub and riparian brush. Crissal

ing broods thrashers nest in shrubs 2 feet to 8 feet above

Wildlife Damage Management: may be needed ground. Nest is constructed of twigs.

where Canada geese damage lawns, golf

courses and crop fields Habitat requirements

Diet: forage on the ground and eat a variety of

insects, spiders, seeds and soft mast

Common nighthawk Water: standing water is essential and needed

daily

General information Cover: thick shrub cover for nesting and loafing

Common nighthawks use bare ground

(Stage 1) for nesting, while Stages 2 and 3 are Wildlife management practices

used for foraging. Common nighthawks are Manipulate Succession: grazing management

found throughout the U.S. during the breeding is needed to ensure adequate lower her-

season, but migrate to South America during baceous and shrub layers are present to

winter. Common nighthawks are common visi- provide food and cover; this is particularly

tors to grasslands, open woodlands, cities, and important in riparian areas where bands of

towns. In cities and towns, they are often seen thick shrub vegetation are found adjacent to

flying over city parks and other open areas in drainage ways (arroyos); usually, dormant-

late evening and early morning. Common night- season grazing can result in more use of

hawks nest on the ground on gravel and bare woody vegetation; livestock water facilities

soil areas common in fields or on rooftops. They should be placed in upland areas to dis-

are nocturnal and feed “on-the-wing” on flying courage congregation of livestock and over-

insects. use in riparian areas

Plant Shrubs: in agricultural and riparian areas

Habitat requirements where needed

Diet: flying insects, including flying ants, mos- Water Developments for Wildlife: catchment

quitoes, moths and June bugs ponds, windmills, spring developments and

Water: obtain ample water from diet, but water guzzlers can benefit crissal thrashers

sources attract insects, which provide food

for nighthawks

Cover: riparian areas, ridge tops, flat rooftops, Dickcissel

and other places with numerous sand and

gravel areas are favorite nesting locations General information

Dickcissels occur primarily in native grass-

Wildlife management practices lands and savannah in the central one-third of

Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire, disking the U.S. Stages 2, 3 and 4 are used by disk-

and mowing can maintain early succession cissels for nesting. Dickcissels use agricultural

to forage for insects; disking and herbicide areas heavily during winter in Central America.

treatment can encourage bare areas for

nesting; leave areas with no vegetation for Habitat requirements

nesting Diet: insects and grass seeds are eaten year-

Mowing: can be used to maintain open areas in round; agricultural crops are eaten more

urban environments during migration and on wintering grounds



Wildlife Habitat Education Program 87

Water: water obtained from food and where early successional habitat is lim-

Cover: early successional habitat with a mixture iting

of grasses and forbs; grain fields frequented Forest Management Techniques: forest regener-

during winter ation will increase Stages 3 and 4 for forag-

ing near nesting and roosting areas; timber

Wildlife management practices: stand improvement can be used in stands

Delay Crop Harvest: delayed hay harvest in ar- not ready for regeneration to increase Stag-

eas with insufficient native grassland will al- es 3 and 4

low nests to hatch and hatchlings to leave Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire, chain-

nests prior to harvest ing and herbicide applications can maintain

Establish Field Buffers: to increase usable space Stages 3 and 4; grazing management should

around row crop fields prevent areas from being grazed mid-April

Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: where early through mid-June where dusky grouse nest

successional habitat is limiting; forb compo- Plant Shrubs: to provide soft mast and buds

nent is important where needed

Leave Grain Unharvested: will provide addition- Plant Trees: coniferous trees may be planted to

al food during migration provide a winter food source where needed

Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire and her-

bicide applications should be used to man-

age early successional habitat

Eastern bluebird

Tillage Management: may provide additional

food during migration General information

Bluebirds are found in early successional

habitat (Stages 2 and 3) interspersed with woods

Dusky grouse and shrubs (Stages 4, 5 and 6), which are used

for perching and nesting (where cavities are

General information available). Large open areas without intersper-

Dusky grouse (previously considered blue sion of hedgerows, fencerows and woodlots

grouse) occur predominantly in mountainous may not receive as much use by bluebirds as

areas in the western U.S. and Canada. They re- those areas with more structural diversity. Blue-

quire Stages 3 and 4 in the summer and Stages birds forage in open areas, but typically near

5 and 6 in the winter. Dusky grouse roost in for- trees, shrubs or a fence that provide perches.

est edges near shrub vegetation where they for-

age. Their nests are usually on the ground, often Habitat requirements

under shrubs or near fallen logs. Diet: insects, spiders and small amounts of soft

mast

Habitat requirements Water: obtain necessary water from diet but

Diet: soft mast, seeds, forbs and insects from may use other water sources when available

spring to fall; needles of coniferous trees Cover: nest in cavities of trees and fence posts;

may be eaten in winter old woodpecker cavities are especially im-

Water: obtain necessary water from dew and portant; readily nest in nesting boxes, which

diet have had a major impact in restoring blue-

Cover: nest on the ground near forest edges, of- bird populations in some areas

ten under shrubs or next to fallen logs

Wildlife management practices

Wildlife management practices Establish Field Buffers: to increase usable space

Decrease Harvest: may be necessary when sur- around row crop fields

veys show a decline in the local population Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: when less

Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: particularly than 75 percent of the area is composed of

for agricultural fields going out of production Stages 2 or 3





88 Wildlife Habitat Education Program

Forest Management Techniques: in large areas Habitat requirements

of Stage 6 where regeneration is needed, Diet: insects, soft mast, seeds, earthworms,

forest regeneration will create foraging habi- grain, human garbage, and even dog and

tat 1 year to 3 years postharvest; retaining cat food

some mature trees and snags may provide Water: require water during warm seasons

cavities for bluebirds Cover: nest in tree cavities, old buildings

Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire, disking,

herbicide application, mowing, chaining Wildlife management practices

and roller beating can be used to maintain Habitat management: to attract or benefit star-

and rejuvenate areas of Stages 2 through 4 lings should not occur in any situation.

when habitat quality begins to decline; graz- Wildlife Damage Management: exclusion prac-

ing management should prevent livestock tices to prevent access to buildings and

from damaging trees and shrubs planted to other areas where they are not wanted;

benefit bluebirds food, water and cover available to starlings

Mowing: can be used to maintain open areas in around buildings should be removed; vari-

urban environments ous harassment practices may be effective;

Nesting Structures: should be erected where a trap and euthanasia are appropriate to re-

scarcity of natural cavities may be limiting duce starling populations

the population; nest boxes should be ap-

proximately 5 feet high with an entrance hole

1½ inches in diameter; nest boxes should be Gambel’s quail

placed no closer than 80 yards apart to limit

territorial fighting among males General information

Plant Shrubs: where needed to provide perches; Gambel’s quail are found in arid regions of

hedgerows may be established across open Arizona, New Mexico, southern Colorado, Utah,

fields larger than four acres southern Nevada and California. Gambel’s quail

Plant Trees: to create potential nest sites where prefer Stages 2 and 3 interspersed with Stage

young trees are lacking 4, particularly brushy and thorny vegetation of

Retain/Create Snags: to provide potential nest southwestern deserts. Gambel’s quail are also

sites and perching sites in open areas found along the edge of agricultural fields, es-

pecially those adjacent to arroyos and irriga-

European starling tion ditches. Dense shrubs and cacti intermin-

gled with small open areas are also used. The

amount of late winter and early spring precipi-

General information tation largely determines the quality and quan-

European starlings are found throughout tity of spring food. In essence, more rain equals

North America. They were introduced to the more quail.

U.S. from Europe and are considered pests.

They commonly cause damage to crops and in

urban areas. They exclude native species from Habitat requirements

cavities and deplete food resources for native Diet: succulent green plants; seeds of forbs

wildlife. As a consequence, wildlife damage (especially legumes), grasses, shrubs and

management is necessary to reduce starling trees; saguaro, cholla and prickly pear cacti

populations and exclude them from areas where fruits; a variety of soft mast and insects

they are causing damage. Starlings prefer older Water: require water during warm seasons if

suburban and urban residential areas with large succulent green plants are not available for

trees and shrubs interspersed with open areas food; will usually not travel more than one-

but are also abundant in agricultural areas. Star- third mile for water

lings are cavity nesters and nest in large trees or Cover: nest in the thickest shrub and/or her-

old buildings. Starlings feed on the ground and baceous vegetation available; roost in tall

eat a variety of insects, seeds, grain and soft shrubs and trees such as mesquite, scrub

mast.

Wildlife Habitat Education Program 89

oak, desert hackberry, cholla, one-seed ju- Water: water requirements are unknown but

niper, littleleaf sumac, catclaw acacia and probably obtained through diet

various yuccas; shrubs provide important Cover: Stage 3 for escape and nesting cover;

cover for loafing during the day nest on the ground, usually in overhanging

native warm-season grasses

Wildlife management practices

Decrease Harvest: may be necessary when sur- Wildlife management practices

veys show a decline in the local population Delay Crop Harvest: delay mowing/harvesting

Leave Grain Unharvested: to provide additional hay in spring to ensure successful nesting

food resource in fall/winter Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: where qual-

Manipulate Succession: over much of the re- ity nesting habitat is limited

gion where Gambel’s quail are found, there Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire can en-

are few wildlife management practices con- hance habitat by rejuvenating grasslands,

sidered practical for improving food other controlling shrubs, and creating patches of

than proper livestock grazing management; bare ground; grazing management is crucial

grazing management is important to ensure to protect grassland habitat from livestock

enough residual herbaceous vegetation is

available for nesting cover

Plant/Manage Food Plots: grain plots can pro- Great horned owl

vide additional food and cover; best when

located next to high-quality cover General information

Plant Shrubs: in areas Stage 4 is lacking The great horned owl is found throughout

Water Developments for Wildlife: guzzlers, North America in a wide variety of vegetation

catchment ponds, windmills and spring de- types including open Stage 6, interspersed with

velopments can be beneficial where water areas of Stages 2, 3 and 4, including orchards,

is limiting farm woodlots and city parks. They also are oc-

casionally found in rocky canyons away from

forest cover. The great horned owl is nocturnal

Grasshopper sparrow and roosts during the day in trees or on shel-

tered rocky ledges.

General information

In the grasslands of the Great Plains, the Habitat requirements

grasshopper sparrow prefers open grasslands Diet: great horned owls forage at night; the diet

with some shrubs (Stage 4) and bare ground is extremely varied but commonly includes

(Stage 1) interspersed throughout the area. Ar- small- to medium-sized mammals including

eas with greater than 35 percent shrubby cover rabbits, skunks, squirrels and others, as well

constitute poor habitat for grasshopper spar- as reptiles, amphibians, large insects and

rows. Native bunchgrasses are important for fish

nesting structure. Water: water obtained from diet

Cover: nest in abandoned nests of hawks, crows

Habitat requirements or herons, and in large tree cavities, crotch-

Diet: primarily insects and seeds, but diet shifts es, stumps, caves and ledges

dramatically through the year; in spring and

summer (breeding season), grasshopper Wildlife management practices

sparrows rely heavily on insects, comprising Establish Field Buffers: to increase usable space

60 percent of the diet; not surprisingly, given around row crop fields

the bird’s name, grasshoppers can account Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: when less

for 30 percent to 40 percent of the diet dur- than 25 percent of the area is comprised of

ing this time; during fall and winter, diet shifts early successional habitat (Stages 2 through

to 70 percent seeds. 4)



90 Wildlife Habitat Education Program

Forest Management Techniques: forest regener- Decrease Harvest: may be necessary if popula-

ation in large areas of Stage 6 may provide tions are declining

additional cover for a variety of prey spe- Delay Crop Harvest: time crop harvest so nests

cies; timber stand improvement will encour- will not be disturbed

age understory development and enhance Establish Field Buffers: to increase usable space

habitat for a variety of prey species around row crop fields

Manipulate Succession: mowing, chaining, roller Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: needed

beating, controlled burning, disking, herbi- where large expanses of high-quality grass-

cide application and grazing should be used land are not available

to maintain and rejuvenate areas of Stages 2 Leave Grain Unharvested: unharvested grain

through 4 when habitat quality begins to de- and small annual food plots can provide a

cline for a number of prey species supplemental food source prairie-chickens;

Plant Shrubs: where needed to enhance habitat if high-quality grasslands with diverse forb

for rabbits and other prey communities are present, these practices

Plant Trees: where perching sites are limited are not necessary for survival

and where nesting cover does not exist Manipulate succession: fire is an essential as-

Retain/Create Snags: where perching sites are pect of prairie ecology and must be applied

limited to the landscape for long-term stability of

Tillage Management: will facilitate hunting prey prairie-chickens; prescribed burning ev-

when waste grain is available ery 3 years to 5 years improves plant vigor

Wildlife Damage Management: may be neces- and reduces excessive buildup of old veg-

sary where an owl is killing poultry etation in areas not grazed; chaining and

mowing can revert succession to Stage 3;

chainsawing can be used to remove trees;

Greater prairie-chicken grazing management should protect nesting

and winter cover; some areas should be left

General information ungrazed during the nesting season (May

Greater prairie-chicken require very large through June); grazing management should

tracts of native rangeland containing diverse ensure the entire prairie or grassland is not

grass and forb communities in Stages 2 and 3 uniform in structure or plant composition; ar-

that is free of tall vertical structures (including eas of dense nesting cover adjacent to forb

trees). They prefer flat to gently rolling terrain with and insect-rich areas are ideal

some cropland. Croplands are not necessary, Plant/Manage Food Plots: can provide supple-

but may furnish seasonal foods, especially in the mental food source when native foods are

northern part of the U.S. Less than 25 percent of lacking

the landscape should be composed of crops. Tillage Management: do not till grain stubble in

fall where croplands are adjacent to grass-

Habitat requirements lands

Diet: seeds, grains, insects and herbaceous Special: Prairie-chickens require sites with

greens; during the first few weeks after short vegetation that offer good visibility for

hatching, the young eat insects breeding displays. They gather on these

Water: water is obtained from diet sites in the spring, and males display in front

Cover: thick, tall grass cover is used for nest- of females to win a mate. These areas are

ing and winter cover; if not periodically dis- called “booming grounds.”

turbed, grasses often become too thick and

are less valuable for nesting cover

Greater sage-grouse

Wildlife management practices General information

All necessary food can be found in grass-

Very large tracts of sagebrush-dominated

lands. Management of grasslands as explained

rangeland (Stage 4). Within this vegetative com-

under “Cover” will supply ample food.



Wildlife Habitat Education Program 91

munity, a diverse stand of native grasses and ods of time. In general, it is recommended

forbs is critical to optimize habitat for greater to protect lek sites and the sagebrush within

sage-grouse. several miles of them



Habitat requirements Hairy woodpecker

Diet: in spring and summer, sage-grouse prefer

insects and green forbs; in late fall and win-

ter, they eat sagebrush General information

Water: water requirements are obtained through Stages 4, 5 and 6 provide primary habitat

diet, but sage-grouse will use free-standing for hairy woodpeckers. They forage on a variety

water if available of places such as tree trunks, stumps, snags,

Cover: nests on the ground, often under sage- downed logs and the ground. Where adequate

brush; sage-grouse use sagebrush adjacent cover exists, food is usually not a limiting factor.

to open meadows in the summer; sagebrush They will forage in Stage 3 if areas with mature

is critical for winter cover trees are nearby. They readily use wooded ur-

ban and riparian areas.

Wildlife management practices

It is critical to maintain sagebrush in areas Habitat requirements

grouse traditionally use in winter. Ranchers com- Diet: insects such as ants, beetle larvae, cater-

monly reducing the amount of sagebrush with pillars and adult beetles; diet is supplement-

herbicides, controlled burning, and mowing to ed with hard and soft mast

increase the amount of forage available for live- Water: obtained from diet

stock. For sage-grouse and other wildlife species Cover: cavity nesters; holes are excavated in

dependent on sagebrush, the location and extent mature and dying trees and snags; manage-

of such treatment should be considered carefully. ment efforts should focus on maintaining or

Any sagebrush treatment should be small in size creating areas with large mature and dying

and retain large areas of intact sagebrush. NO trees, especially in open areas; within wood-

treatment to reduce sagebrush should be con- ed areas, at least one large snag per acre

ducted in wintering or nesting areas. should be available

Decrease Harvest: may be necessary if popula-

tions are declining Wildlife management practices

Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: in limited Manipulate Succession: grazing management

areas where native grasses and forbs are should maintain trees in riparian areas; graz-

absent ing when woody vegetation is not growing

Manipulate Succession: grazing management rapidly (fall and winter) usually does less

should maintain adequate grass and forb damage to woody vegetation than at other

cover in nesting and brood-rearing habitat; times of the year

improper grazing can increase sagebrush Plant Trees: especially softwood deciduous

canopy to the point there is an inadequate trees where trees are lacking for potential

understory nesting cavities

Plant Shrubs: where there is not at least 15 per- Retain/Create Snags: for a food source and po-

cent sagebrush cover tential nest cavities

Water Developments for Wildlife: may be estab- Wildlife Damage Management: when woodpeck-

lished if no water source is available ers are causing damage to wooden structures

Special: Sage-grouse use open areas surround-

ed by sagebrush for courtship displays.

The same areas are used traditionally every

House finch

spring and are called “leks.” Factors such

as wet soils, or lack of soil (gravelly), often General information

maintain these open areas in plant succes- House finches are native to the western U.S.,

sion similar to Stages 2 or 3 for long peri- but are an introduced species in the eastern



92 Wildlife Habitat Education Program

U.S. Their current range is the entire U.S. They land (they are also called English sparrows) and

are found in a wide variety of urban, suburban, are found in throughout urban areas. House spar-

and agricultural areas that have trees (Stages 5 rows are also very common in and around agri-

and 6), shrubs (Stage 4), and some open areas cultural buildings. They are usually a nuisance,

(Stages 2 and 3). They are also found in can- and management objectives are often needed to

yons and semi-arid regions in the western part reduce the quality and quantity of available habi-

of the country. House finches nest in a variety tat. Wildlife damage management is often need-

of raised locations and make a nest from weed ed and commonly implemented. House sparrows

stems, small branches and leaves. Finches eat are cavity nesters and will frequently occupy

a variety of seeds, soft mast, and buds from buildings and houses to nest within the eaves or

both the ground and in trees. other areas with a cavity or opening. House spar-

rows feed on the ground and above the ground

Habitat requirements in woody vegetation for seeds, insects, and soft

Diet: soft mast, buds, and weed seeds; in the mast. House sparrows outcompete bluebirds for

warm season, house finches eat some in- cavity nesting space and compete with several

sects other native birds for food and space.

Water: free-standing water is needed daily in

the warm season Habitat requirements

Cover: nest 5 feet to 7 feet above the ground on Diet: variety of insects, soft mast, buds, forbs,

low branches of trees, branches of bushes, weed seeds and waste grain

in natural cavities, old holes excavated by Water: free-standing water is required daily in

woodpeckers, and any projection or ledge warm seasons

they can find on houses and buildings Cover: nest in natural cavities, low branches of

trees and bushes 5 feet to 7 feet above the

Wildlife management practices ground, and on any projection or ledge they

Artificial feeders: may be used to attract finches can find on buildings or other structures

in urban areas; millet and sunflower seeds

are favorites Wildlife management practices

Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: to provide House sparrow populations often grow to

forb seed in rural areas where early succes- levels where they cause wildlife damage or will

sional habitat is limited cause detrimental conditions for native wildlife

Manipulation of Succession: mowing (suburban by out competing native species for habitat re-

areas) and prescribed fire (rural areas) can quirements; therefore, wildlife damage manage-

maintain Stages 2 and 3 ment will most likely be necessary in almost all

Mowing: can be used to maintain open areas in situations, especially in suburban/urban and

urban environments agricultural areas. Habitat management to at-

Plant Shrubs: adjacent to open areas for nesting tract house sparrows should never occur.

and hiding cover Wildlife Damage Management: trap and eutha-

Plant Trees: in areas where trees are lacking nasia are often appropriate to reduce house

nesting cover sparrow populations; exclusion practices

Water Developments for Wildlife: birdbaths and may prevent house sparrows from access-

pans of water can be provided, or a low area in ing an area; remove food, water and cover

the yard can be filled with water; do not place available to house sparrows; various harass-

water in areas where cats can catch birds ment practices may be effective





House sparrow House wren

General information General information

House sparrows are found throughout the House wrens are found throughout the U.S.

U.S. They are an introduced species from Eng- during the breeding season, and migrate to the

Wildlife Habitat Education Program 93

deep southern U.S. during winter months. In Habitat requirements

urban settings, house wrens prefer older resi- Diet: nectar from flowers and insects found on

dential areas with large shrubs (Stage 4) and flowers

trees (Stages 5 and 6). Wrens also use forest- Water: necessary water obtained from diet

ed (Stages 5 and 6) and open areas (Stages 2 Cover: trees and shrubs for nesting; flowers for

and 3) at higher elevations, as well as stands feeding

of aspen (Stages 5 and 6). House wrens nest

in a variety of elevated cavities, as high as 30 Wildlife management practices

feet above the ground. They forage both on the Artificial Feeders: artificial feeders filled with

ground and above the ground. sugar-water (1 part sugar to 4 parts boiled

water) may be used where flowers are lim-

Habitat requirements ited; multiple feeders may reduce problems

Diet: spiders, grasshoppers, crickets, beetles, with territoriality; never give honey-water

caterpillars, ants, bees, ticks, earthworms to hummingbirds because honey ferments

and millipedes; artificial feeders are usually faster than sugar and quickly develops a

not used mold that can kill hummingbirds

Water: necessary water is obtained from the diet Plant Flowers: preferred flowers include pe-

Cover: nest in natural cavities in trees old build- tunias, gladiolus, nasturtiums, begonias,

ings and other structures morning glory, evening primrose, columbine

and cardinal flower

Wildlife management practices Plant Shrubs: flowering shrubs and vines that

Nesting Structures: nest boxes may be provid- provide nectar may be planted where nesting

ed where adequate nesting sites are lack- sites and food resources are limited; favorites

ing; boxes should be placed high on a tree include hibiscus, trumpet vine and lilac

trunk or under the eaves of a house; the hole Plant Trees: where potential nesting sites are

should be small to keep out house sparrows, limited; flowering dogwood and various fruit

starlings and other birds; for specifics on trees are favorites

nest box design and placement, visit your Rooftop / Balcony Gardens: can provide source

local Extension office of nectar if appropriate flowers are planted

Plant Shrubs: where lacking for cover while Note: Plant Flowers should not be recom-

feeding and for nesting mended to plant Rooftop / Balcony Gardens

Plant Trees: where trees are lacking for cover

and nesting

Ladder-backed woodpecker

Hummingbird General information

Ladder-backed woodpeckers are found in

General information wooded canyons, cottonwood groves, pine and

There are 18 species of hummingbirds found pine oak woodlands, desert scrub and desert

in North America. Other than a couple of excep- grasslands dominated by mesquite throughout

tions, hummingbirds migrate into Central and the southwestern U.S. south to British Hondu-

South America during the winter months. Hum- ras. They are associated with Stages 4, 5 and 6

mingbirds are found in Stages 2 through 6 rich in riparian and other areas with trees. In the Hot

in flowering plants. In urban settings, they pre- Desert and Prairie Brushland regions, they use

fer areas with large trees and nearby flowering areas with large mesquite, palo verde, agave,

plants. A hummingbird’s nest is a small cup built cholla cactus and yuccas.

of lichens and other vegetation. Hummingbirds

require high energy foods. Nectar is high in sug- Habitat requirements

ars that supply needed energy. Insects are an Diet: insects including ants, beetle larvae, cat-

important source of protein. erpillars and cotton worms found on small

trees, shrubs and various cacti

94 Wildlife Habitat Education Program

Water: necessary water obtained from diet Wildlife management practices

Cover: nest in holes excavated in trees, shrubs, Delay Crop Harvest: delaying hay harvest until

and stalks of agave and yucca cactus after nesting is complete is beneficial

Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: often nec-

Wildlife management practices essary where native prairie and grassland

Forest Management Techniques: timber stand has been converted to non-native species

improvement can improve the structure of Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire is a criti-

developing woodlands and provide snags cal for maintaining native prairie habitat for

for cavities and food resources this and many other grassland birds; graz-

Manipulate Succession: grazing management ing management for livestock should pro-

should maintain vigor of existing trees and vide adequate nesting habitat

willows; in riparian areas, grazing in spring

and summer when herbaceous vegetation is

actively growing results in less use of woody

Mallard

vegetation than at other times of year; graz-

ing management in dry regions often in- General information

cludes development of livestock watering The mallard has one of the most extensive

facilities in upland areas to discourage over- breeding ranges of any duck in North America,

use of riparian areas extending across the northern one-third of the

Plant Shrubs: in riparian areas shrubs are lack- U.S., and up to the Bering Sea. As migratory wa-

ing terfowl, they winter south of Canada, throughout

Plant Trees: for cover and a future food source the U.S. and south to Central America. Mallards

where trees or shrubs are lacking are dabbling ducks that nest in tall grasses and

Retain/Create Snags: for nesting sites forbs or in shrubby cover. They need open water

Wildlife Damage Management: when wood- (Stage 2 of wetland succession) with associated

peckers are causing damage to wooden emergent aquatic vegetation (Stage 3) to raise

structures young. Mallards prefer to spend the winter in

wetlands that contain all 4 wetland stages, in-

cluding Stage 1 (open water) and Stage 4 (har-

Lark bunting vested grain crops). In addition, riparian areas

with open water may be used. These birds feed

General information at or near the surface of the water by filtering

Lark buntings prefer short grass prairies food items such as invertebrates, seeds and

during the breeding season, though they are other plant material. Dabbling ducks are often

also found in mixed grass prairies. They nest seen tipping upside down in the water to reach

on the ground, primarily in native prairie. Lark food at the bottom of a wetland. Unlike diving

buntings migrate into the southern Great Plains ducks, they feed in much shallower water and

and Mexico during winter where they frequent do not dive to obtain food.

grasslands, deserts, shrublands and cultivated

fields. Habitat requirements

Diet: aquatic plants, insects and other inver-

Habitat requirements tebrates, hard mast (especially acorns),

Diet: insects are the primary item in the diet, but grains and other seed are primary compo-

seeds, soft mast and grain are consumed as nents in the diet; ducklings eat mostly aquat-

well, especially during the winter ic insects; most food is associated with wet-

Water: necessary water is obtained from food lands, but mallards will readily dry-feed in

Cover: adequate grass cover is necessary, par- agricultural fields during winter

ticularly during the nesting season Water: see cover requirements below

Cover: nest in grass and forb vegetation (some-

times they nest under shrubs) preferably





Wildlife Habitat Education Program 95

within one-half mile of a wetland that pro-

vides open water with some adjacent emer-

Mourning dove

gent aquatic vegetation; brooding cover

is open water with considerable emergent General information

aquatic vegetation for protection from pred- Mourning doves may be found throughout

ators; ideally, wetlands have a minimum of much of the lower 48 states. They prefer Stages

50 percent open water and 10 percent to 2 and 3 for feeding with some shrubs and trees

20 percent emergent vegetation; in winter- nearby for nesting and roosting. Nests are made

ing areas, mallards rest on open water bod- of twigs and placed on branches of shrubs or

ies, such as streams, rivers and warm-water trees. Nests are also placed on the ground.

sloughs Mourning doves often use agricultural areas for

feeding on a variety of grass and forb seeds.

They also forage on waste grain from crop-

Wildlife management practices land and livestock feedlots. Small areas of bare

Delay Crop Harvest: (in some regions) hay and ground are beneficial for doves to obtain grit

crop harvest adjacent to wetlands should be (small gravel) to help in digesting food. Mourn-

conducted after nesting season ing doves prefer shorelines without vegetation

Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: (in some when drinking.

regions) where nesting cover is limiting

Leave Grain Unharvested: to provide a winter

food source Habitat requirements

Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire is rec- Diet: a variety of grass and forb seeds, as well

ommended to rejuvenate dense vegetation as several agricultural grains; small areas of

in nesting areas and to increase or maintain bare ground are beneficial for obtaining grit

proper water and vegetation interspersion (small gravel) to help digest food

in wetlands; grazing management should Water: free-standing water required daily

provide areas with tall, healthy, herbaceous Cover: shrubs and trees are used for nesting

vegetation that are not disturbed during the and loafing

nesting season

Nesting Structures: (in some regions) in areas Wildlife management practices

where there is high nest predation on mal- Delay Crop Harvest: (in some regions) in spring

lards, elevated nesting platforms can in- to avoid nest destruction

crease nest success Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: to provide

Plant/Manage Food Plots: shallowly flooded forb seeds for food

grain plots can provide beneficial food Leave Grain Unharvested: for a variety of small

source for migrating and wintering mallards grain crops such as wheat, barley, millet,

Tillage Management: eliminating fall tillage can milo or oats to provide additional food re-

provide waste grain in the winter source

Water Control Structures: should be used to Manipulate Succession: disking and herbicide

control water level in wetlands managed for applications will provide bare ground; pre-

mallards and other wildlife scribed burning will maintain Stage 3 and

Water Developments for Wildlife: shallow im- expose seed for feeding; chaining will re-

poundments and dugouts can be important duce shrub cover

for migrating and wintering mallards; flood- Plant/Manage Food Plots: in areas lacking grain

ing grain fields, planted food plots, and oak Plant Shrubs: for nesting and roosting in areas

woodlands in winter makes food more avail- where shrub/tree cover is limiting; fence

able and provides a feeding area with more rows, field borders and other idle land area

protection from predators are good sites

Plant Trees: for nesting and roosting in areas

where shrub/tree cover is absent; fence

rows, field borders, and other idle land area

are good sites



96 Wildlife Habitat Education Program

Retain/Create Snags: for perching/loafing sites Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: where suit-

in open areas able nesting and brood cover is limited

Tillage Management: tilling cropland may be de- Forest Management Techniques: forest regener-

layed in spring to allow nesting in standing ation will enhance habitat for a few years in

stubble; tillage may be eliminated in the fall stands ready for harvest

to allow wildlife access to waste grain Leave Grain Unharvested: to provide additional

Water Developments for Wildlife: where water food through fall and winter

is limited or absent, development of water Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire is the

sources is desirable; examples include dug- most important tool for quail management

outs, guzzlers and shallow impoundments and should be used if possible; burn small

areas in large expanses of Stages 3 and 4;

burning every 1 year to 2 years in Stages 5

Northern bobwhite and 6 forest may, over time, create a wood-

land or savannah; disking small areas in

General information large expanses of Stages 3 and 4 will en-

Bobwhites require Stages 2, 3 and 4, well courage annual forbs and grasses, but disk-

interspersed. Ideally, habitat is composed of ing should be avoided in native rangelands;

scattered patches of shrubby cover with a diver- fire will encourage similar plant communities

sity of native grasses and forbs. Native grasses, without soil disturbance and at a lower cost;

such as bluestems, are used for nesting cover, chaining small areas in large expanses of

while more recently disturbed sites rich in forbs Stage 4 vegetation may increase Stages 2

and insects are used for brood rearing. In some and 3; grazing management should keep

parts of the country, savannas provide excellent livestock from grazing food plots and should

habitat. Savannas have very few trees with an un- leave ample herbaceous vegetation for

derstory of grass, forbs and shrubs maintained cover and food; grazing management may

by frequent fire (2 years to 4 years). Savannahs revert or maintain Stage 3; grazing man-

may be pine (as in southeast mixed and outer agement should be used to discourage a

coastal plain forest) or oak (as in cross timbers uniform structure of plants across the land-

portion of the Great Plains and eastern decidu- scape; uniform clipping of vegetation by

ous forest). Some agricultural crops can provide cattle across large areas leaves no nesting

seasonal food for bobwhites, but they are not a cover and does not encourage annual forb

substitute for diverse native plant communities. production; cattle grazing in combination

with prescribed burning is an excellent quail

Habitat requirements management strategy that mimics historic

Diet: young quail eat insects; adult quail eat a natural disturbance events; grazing man-

variety of seeds, green vegetation (mostly agement should maintain dense shrub and

forbs), insects, small grains and hard mast herbaceous cover in some areas; however,

Water: necessary water is obtained through the up to one-third of an area can be grazed

diet more intensively to encourage annual forb

Cover: shrubs for escape and thermoregulatory production for brood habitat, assuming the

cover throughout the year; perennial native same areas are not repeatedly grazed the

grasses for nesting; native forbs for brood same way.

rearing Plant/Manage Food Plots: relatively small linear

food plots (one-fourth acre) may be estab-

lished adjacent to suitable cover where food

Wildlife management practices

may be limiting

Decrease Harvest: may be necessary if popula-

Plant Shrubs: where woody cover is scarce;

tions are declining in suitable habitat where

if shrub patches are within 50 yards to 75

hunting pressure has been excessive

yards of each other, additional shrub cover

Establish Field Buffers: to increase usable space

is not needed

around row crop fields





Wildlife Habitat Education Program 97

Plant Trees: in areas of the Gulf Coastal Plain, Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire will con-

longleaf pine may be planted in certain ar- sume the litter layer and facilitate foraging

eas to enhance bobwhite habitat on the ground

Tillage Management: eliminate fall tillage to pro- Mowing: can be used to maintain open areas in

vide waste grain urban environments

Plant Shrubs: several soft mast-bearing shrubs

can provide additional food resource

Northern flicker Plant Trees: in large expanses without trees

Retain/Create Snags: to provide possible nest-

General information ing cavities

Northern flickers occupy all of North Amer- Wildlife Damage Management: may be nec-

ica, and inhabit most of the U.S. year-round. essary to prevent damage from foraging,

Flickers use open areas in Stages 2 and 3 inter- drumming and excavating wooden build-

spersed with areas of Stages 5 and 6. Northern ings; exclusion practices to prevent access

flickers are often found in riparian and urban ar- to buildings; harassment to repel flickers

eas. They prefer older urban residential areas from an area

with large trees, golf courses and parks. Flickers Special: European starlings often take over

create cavities in trees for nesting and will oc- flicker cavities for their own nests. Appro-

casionally use nest boxes. Flickers eat insects, priate action should be taken to prevent

especially ants, as well as soft mast and seeds. starlings from occupying nesting cavities of

Flickers can become problematic in urban ar- flickers and other cavity-nesting wildlife.

eas where they may create holes in wood siding

on houses or damage ornamental trees. Wildlife

damage management may be necessary.

Northern goshawk

Habitat requirements

Diet: ants are a favorite food and make up about General information

50 percent of the diet; seeds, soft mast and Northern goshawks are found throughout

earthworms are also eaten; flickers are par- the northern, central and western regions of

tial to poison ivy fruit and may use artificial the US. They prefer dense, mature woodlands

feeders where they nest 20 feet to 80 feet above ground

Water: daily water requirements unknown; suf- on a large horizontal limb of a mature tree. Nests

ficient water is probably obtained from diet are often used for up to five consecutive years.

Cover: tree cavities are used for nesting; old As a raptor, goshawks are fierce predators,

mature trees that show signs of dying or rot- commonly eating large birds, squirrels, rabbits

ting are often used; softwood trees such as and hares. Goshawks perch while hunting and

yellow poplar, cottonwood and willow are descend on prey. They will pursue prey for quite

preferred; flickers will nest in posts, holes in a distance when necessary. Goshawks do not

banks, and holes in houses and structures prefer to be around human establishments.

where trees are unavailable

Habitat requirements

Wildlife management practices Diet: most small- and medium-sized birds and

Artificial feeders: may be used to attract flickers mammals

in urban areas; suet is preferred Water: obtain necessary water from diet

Forest Management Techniques: forest regener- Cover: Stages 5 and 6 forest; nest in mature trees

ation will provide more open area for a short

time; timber stand improvement can open Wildlife management practices

the structure of the forest; snags should be Forest Management Techniques: forest regen-

retained and may be created if needed with eration (single-tree selection only) and tim-

forest management techniques ber stand improvement practices will en-





98 Wildlife Habitat Education Program

hance conditions for prey; snags should be terranean zone. They are rarely found in conif-

retained during forest management tech- erous forests. Riparian areas can provide qual-

niques and may be created for perches ity habitat and are particularly important in the

Plant Trees: in large areas void of trees to even- southern portion of their range. While foraging

tually provide habitat for goshawks for insects, Nuttall’s woodpeckers most often

forage in oak, willow and cottonwood trees.

Northern harrier Habitat requirements

Diet: 80 percent insects and other invertebrates

General information and 20 percent plant material including

Northern harriers occur in the northern por- seeds and soft mast

tions of the Great Plains and throughout Canada Water: water requirements unknown

during the nesting season. They winter through- Cover: deciduous forest; cavities are excavated

out much of the country. Stages 2, 3 and 4 are in softwoods (willow, cottonwood)

preferred and may include wet meadows, grass-

lands, pasture and croplands. Harriers typically

hunt by flying low to the ground in search of Wildlife management practices

prey. Harriers nest on the ground in Stage 3. Forest Management Techniques: timber stand

improvement can promote desirable species

and create snags; existing snags should be

Habitat requirements retained when implementing forest manage-

Diet: small mammals, birds and reptiles ment techniques

Water: necessary water obtained from diet Nesting Structures: nest boxes will occasionally

Cover: cover requirements of early succession- be used

al prey (primarily small rodents) should be Plant Trees: to create Stages 5 and 6 in large

considered areas of open land

Wildlife Damage Management: may be needed

Wildlife management practices in residential areas

Delay Crop Harvest: in spring to avoid ground

nests

Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: where early Ovenbird

successional cover is limiting

Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire should General information

be used to rejuvenate and maintain early Ovenbirds frequent mature deciduous and

successional habitat; grazing management mixed forests throughout the eastern third of the

should maintain a diverse structure of veg- country. Ovenbirds require a well-developed

etation conducive to prey and the efficiency herbaceous understory for cover as they for-

of hunting for Northern harrier; chainsawing age and nest on the forest floor. They construct

can be used to remove trees and revert an a nest of grasses and forbs arched over in the

area to an earlier successional stage that is shape of a Dutch oven, hence the name. The

to be maintained in Stages 2 through 4 nest is usually well hidden in herbaceous veg-

Tillage Management: will facilitate hunting prey etation on the forest floor.

when waste grain is available

Habitat requirements:

Nuttall’s woodpecker Diet: insects and spiders

Water: usually obtain necessary water from diet

but will also use other water sources when

General information available

Nuttall’s woodpecker inhabits oak wood- Cover: mature forest with well-developed herba-

lands in particular but can be found in a variety ceous understory

of deciduous woodlands throughout the Medi-





Wildlife Habitat Education Program 99

Wildlife management practices Water Developments for Wildlife: shallow im-

Forest Management Techniques: timber stand poundments can be established in bottom-

improvement will encourage increased land hardwoods for habitat enhancement

groundcover important for nesting and for-

aging

Manipulate Succession: grazing management

Red-eyed vireo

should prevent livestock grazing in forested

areas General information

Plant Trees: in areas where less than 75 percent Red-eyed vireos occur in mature deciduous

of the area is in Stages 5 or 6 forest forests throughout eastern North America and

the upper Midwest. They are usually found for-

aging in the middle to upper layer of the forest

Prothonotary warbler canopy but often nest in the understory or mid-

story. The nest is usually placed on a horizontal

General information fork of a slender branch.

The prothonotary warbler nests in hard-

wood forests (Stage 6) near water, primarily in Habitat requirements

the southern U.S. They are most often found Diet: insects, spiders and soft mast

in forested wetlands such as cypress swamps Water: necessary water is obtained from diet

and other bottomland hardwoods. Prothonotary Cover: midstory and overstory of stage 6 mixed

warblers are cavity nesters, so large overma- deciduous forest

ture trees and standing dead trees are impor-

tant. Additionally, this warbler feeds primarily on Wildlife management practices

insects in the lower canopy or at ground level; Forest management techniques: single-tree

thus, a mature hardwood forest with complex and group-selection methods of forest re-

vertical structure provides the structure neces- generation are compatible with the habi-

sary for insect populations that prothonotary tat requirements of red-eyed vireos; timber

warblers require. Prothonotary warblers winter stand improvement may stimulate additional

in Central and South America. understory and midstory development and

provide enhanced nesting cover in relatively

Habitat requirements: open woods

Diet: insects such as ants, beetles, mayflies, Plant trees: in large open areas, trees may be

aquatic larvae and snails planted to provide future habitat

Water: necessary water is obtained through the

diet

Cover: forested wetlands and other mature bot- Redhead

tomland hardwood forests; dead standing

timber help ensure presence of cavities General information

Redheads range over the north-western and

Wildlife management practices central U.S. and Mexico. They winter in south-

Forest Management Techniques: timber stand ern areas of the U.S. into Mexico. Redheads are

improvement can stimulate vertical structure diving ducks that use Stage 2 wetlands for most

where absent activities. They may loaf in Stage 1 wetlands

Nesting Structures: nest boxes are readily used and usually nest in emergent aquatic vegetation

and will provide suitable nesting cover where associated with Stage 3 wetlands adjacent to

natural cavities are limiting Stage 2 wetlands. Nests are built out of emer-

Plant Trees: in open bottomlands where forest gent vegetation and are usually placed above

cover is lacking and natural regeneration is water or very near the shore in dense vegetation

not sufficient providing concealment.







100 Wildlife Habitat Education Program

Habitat requirements 4 and eat small mammals, birds and reptiles.

Diet: young redheads primarily eat aquatic in- Red-tailed hawks nest in trees and cliffs, and

vertebrates (mollusks, snails, crustaceans) often roost in solitary trees in grasslands/savan-

during late spring and early summer; during nas.

the rest of the year, redheads prefer aquatic

plants such as pondweeds, muskgrass, bul- Habitat requirements

rush seeds, wild celery, water lily seeds and Diet: small mammals, such as squirrels, rabbits,

coontail and mice, reptiles and other birds

Water: see cover requirements below Water: necessary water is obtained from diet

Cover: during spring and summer, dense emer- Cover: nests are usually built 30 feet to 90 feet

gent vegetation for nesting and wetlands above the ground, often in the fork of a tree

composed of 50 percent Stage 3 inter- branch; cliffs may be used for nest sites

spersed with 50 percent Stage 2 wetland; when trees are not present; small trees, elec-

during fall and winter, Stage 2 wetland; also tric poles and similar structures are used for

may use stage 1 wetland during migration perching

and winter

Wildlife management practices

Wildlife management practices Establish Field Buffers: to increase usable space

Manipulate Succession: use prescribed fire around row crop fields

every 3 years to 5 years to rejuvenate de- Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: where less

teriorated vegetation; grazing management than 75 percent of the area is in Stages 2 or

should maintain tall emergent aquatic veg- 3

etation adjacent to water; prolonged protec- Forest Management Techniques: forest regen-

tion of nesting areas from disturbances such eration in large expanses of stage 6 will pro-

as fire and grazing, can result in deterioration vide open habitat for a few years and facili-

of the vegetation; intense grazing of nesting tate hunting prey

areas every 3 years to 5 years (after nesting Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire, disking

season) can rejuvenate vegetation; usually and grazing management are recommend-

only one-third to one-half of the nesting area ed to rejuvenate and maintain Stage 3; pre-

should be treated during any one year scribed fire and chaining are recommended

Water Control Structures: should be installed if to rejuvenate and maintain small areas in

not present to promote growth of tall emer- large expanses of Stage 4

gent aquatic vegetation (Stage 3 wetland) Plant Shrubs: in large expanses of Stages 2 or

adjacent to Stage 2 wetlands with an abun- 3 where trees and shrubs are not present to

dance of floating and submerged aquatic create perching and nest sites and provide

vegetation (3 feet to 5 feet deep) habitat for prey

Water Developments for Wildlife: shallow im- Plant Trees: in large expanses of Stages 2 or 3

poundments may be constructed to tem- where trees and shrubs are not present to

porarily flood areas dominated by tall emer- create perching and nest sites

gent aquatic vegetation during the nesting Retain/Create Snags: in open areas to facilitate

season hunting

Tillage Management: will facilitate hunting prey

Red-tailed hawk when waste grain is available





General information Red-winged blackbird

Red-tailed hawks are found throughout the

country, in open areas (Stages 2 and 3 of plant General information

succession) interspersed with Stages 4, 5 and/ Red-winged blackbirds breed across the

or 6. They hunt by soaring over Stages 2, 3 and U.S. and throughout central Canada. They win-





Wildlife Habitat Education Program 101

ter across the U.S. and extreme southern Can- types but are most successful in the Midwest

ada. They prefer Stage 3 wetlands dominated where there is substantial agriculture inter-

by emergent aquatic vegetation. Red-winged spersed with Stages 2, 3 and 4.

blackbirds are often a pest in agricultural areas

where they damage crops. In such situations, Habitat requirements

wildlife damage management techniques may Diet: a wide variety of plant material including

be necessary. seeds, grains, grasses, leaves, fruits and

nuts; grains are used heavily in agricultural

Habitat requirements areas; insects constitute an important food

Diet: seeds of annual forbs in fall, winter and item for females during the breeding season

early spring; waste grain in late fall and win- and young pheasants during the first several

ter; insects associated with tall emergent weeks after hatching

aquatic vegetation such as cattails, bulrush- Water: necessary water is obtained in the diet

es and marsh grass in summer Cover: dense residual grass and forb cover for

Water: necessary water obtained from diet nesting and escape; shrubs and trees may

Cover: dense clumps of emergent aquatic or be used for roosting

other herbaceous vegetation for nesting;

nearby trees and shrubs are also used for Wildlife management practices

roosting and loafing Decrease Harvest: may be necessary if popula-

tions are declining in suitable habitat where

Wildlife management practices hunting pressure has been excessive

Manipulation of Succession: prescribed fire ev- Delay Crop Harvest: delay hay harvest to avoid

ery 3 years to 5 years will rejuvenate emer- nest destruction

gent aquatic vegetation; grazing manage- Establish Field Buffers: to increase usable space

ment should prevent livestock from entering around row crop fields

wetlands and maintain cattails, shrubs and Establish Native Grass and Forbs: where there

trees adjacent to within wetlands is not enough Stage 3 to provide adequate

Plant Shrubs: if no shrubs or trees are available cover for nesting and escape

adjacent to wetlands but not on the dam or dike Increase Harvest: where populations can sus-

Plant Trees: if no shrubs or trees are available tain additional harvest pressure for hunting

adjacent to wetlands, but not on the dam or recreation and/or where populations need to

dike be lowered

Water Control Structures: should be installed if Leave Grain Unharvested: to provide additional

none are present to maintain shallow water food source through winter

where emergent vegetation can grow Manipulate Succession: prescribed burning to

Water Developments for Wildlife: shallow im- rejuvenate dense decadent Stages 3 and 4;

poundments may be constructed to flood grazing management to protect grasslands

areas dominated by tall emergent aquatic from overgrazing; chainsawing and herbi-

vegetation cide applications to remove trees and revert

Wildlife Damage Management: population re- Stages 5 or 6 to Stages 3 or 4

duction, habitat modification and scare tac- Plant/Manage Food Plots: to provide additional

tics may be necessary where crop damage food source where food is limited

occurs Plant Shrubs: where roosting and escape cover

is limited in open and agricultural regions

Plant Trees: where roosting cover is limited in

Ring-necked pheasant open and agricultural areas

Tillage Management: to provide cover and waste

General information grain through fall and winter

Ring-necked pheasants are non-native Wildlife Damage Management Techniques: may

game birds introduced into North America from be necessary where pheasants (a non-

Asia. They exist in a wide variety of vegetation native species) compete with native grass-

land species for available habitat

102 Wildlife Habitat Education Program

Rock dove Ruffed grouse

General information General information

Rock doves (commonly called pigeons) Ruffed grouse occur in Stages 4, 5 and 6

are an introduced species found year-round cover across the more northern latitudes of

throughout urban and agricultural areas in the North America and down the Appalachian

U.S. They are considered pests because they range. Ruffed grouse are found in a variety of

are generally protected in urban areas where deciduous forest types, but are particularly

they develop dense populations and damage closely associated with aspen, especially young

buildings and other structures with accumu- stands with relatively dense structure.

lations of droppings. They also cause severe

problems in agricultural areas by contaminat- Habitat requirements

ing feed. Pigeons also can carry and spread Diet: diet varies somewhat with location, but

diseases including salmonella, encephalitis, primary items include buds, hard and soft

Newcastle disease and others to people and mast, insects and other invertebrates, and

livestock through their droppings. Droppings of leaves of forbs

rock doves may also contain histoplasmosis, a Water: necessary water obtained from diet

fungal disease that can cause respiratory prob- Cover: 6- to 20-year-old stands (Stage 5) are re-

lems in humans. Wildlife damage management quired for cover provided by the high stem

practices are often required to control over- density; mature stands (Stage 6, especially

abundant rock dove populations. Rock doves with a dense midstory) in close proximity to

like large buildings, parks and open areas. They young stands may be used for feeding on

create a shallow nest of sticks, leaves and other acorns and other hard mast; a variety of for-

vegetation, and nest above the ground and on est types and age classes are used for nest-

or around buildings. Rock doves primarily feed ing

on the ground on small grains, seeds, crumbs

and garbage.

Wildlife management practices

Decrease Harvest: may be necessary if popula-

Habitat requirements tions are declining in suitable habitat where

Diet: waste grain and weed seeds; in urban ar- hunting pressure has been excessive

eas, rock doves live mostly on human hand- Forest Management Techniques: forest regen-

outs eration within Stage 6 forest will stimulate re-

Water: free-standing water is required frequent- generation that will provide optimum cover

ly during warm seasons within 6 years; timber stand improvement

Cover: barn lofts, window ledges, roof tops, practices can be used to stimulate desirable

bridges and a variety of other structures structure and stem density within Stages 5

and 6 and enable crowns of desirable trees

Wildlife management practices to grow and produce additional mast

Wildlife Damage Management: shooting, toxi- Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire can

cants and trapping are recommended di- be used to maintain and rejuvenate areas

rect control techniques; exclusion practices of Stage 4 and improve brooding cover in

prevent access to livestock feed; food, wa- Stages 5 and 6; grazing management is crit-

ter and desirable cover should be removed ical to avoid grazing in Stages 5 and 6 and

when possible and when it does not impact protect trees and shrubs planted for grouse

desirable wildlife species; harassment prac- Plant Shrubs: where additional soft mast is

tices may be effective; habitat management needed and to develop thickets and woody

to attract rock doves should never occur cover in fields and other areas where Stages

4 and 5 cover is lacking

Plant Trees: where Stages 5 and 6 represent

less than 75 percent of the area considered,



Wildlife Habitat Education Program 103

and where Stages 5 and 6 forest contain few sects are also readily consumed and are

or no mast-producing trees critical for chick survival; green herbaceous

material, grain crops and soft mast of vari-

ous native plants are also consumed

Sage thrasher Water: necessary water may be obtained from

diet, however, free-standing water from

General information ponds, tanks and streams may increase sur-

Sage thrashers are found mostly in shrub- vival during drought years

dominated (Stage 4) valleys and plains of the Cover: brushy cover (shrubs or cacti) overhead

western U.S. They prefer sagebrush and gen- with an open structure at ground level is criti-

erally are dependent on large patches and cal, particularly for nesting; scattered patch-

expanses of sagebrush during the breeding es of shrub and cactus with a good cover of

season. Sage thrashers nest within sagebrush native warm-season grasses provide excel-

close to the ground. lent cover



Habitat requirements: Wildlife management practices

Diet: spiders, insects, crickets, caterpillars, bee- Decrease Harvest: may be necessary if popula-

tles and grasshoppers; some soft mast from tions are declining

deciduous shrubs also are eaten Establish Field Buffers: to provide cover around

Water: necessary water is obtained from the diet crop fields

Cover: sagebrush required for nesting and es- Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: where nest-

cape cover; nest constructed of twigs and ing and brood cover is lacking

grass Leave Grain Unharvested: to provide additional

food source through winter

Wildlife management practices Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire can in-

Manipulate Succession: chaining and roller crease herbaceous cover needed for food

beating can maintain low shrub growth and and cover; chaining, roller beating and dis-

keep succession in stage 4; grazing man- king can set succession back to more fa-

agement can encourage sagebrush vorable conditions if herbaceous food and

Plant shrubs: where shrub cover is less than 60 associated insects are limited; grazing man-

percent agement can maintain Stages 3 and 4

Plant Shrubs: where there is less than 60 per-

cent brushy cover

Tillage Management: to provide waste grain

Scaled quail Water Developments for Wildlife: guzzlers and

dugouts can provide supplemental water,

General information especially in drought years

Scaled quail are found in arid grasslands

with a shrub and cactus component in the south-

western U.S. The arid environment is character-

Sharp-tailed grouse

ized by sparse herbaceous cover in most years.

However, areas with abundant cover have high- General information

er scaled quail densities. Scaled quail will use Sharp-tailed grouse prefer Stage 3 inter-

grain crops if available, but they are not neces- spersed with Stages 2 and 4. Ideal habitat con-

sary if there is good native habitat. Proper graz- tains two-thirds grassland and one-third shrubs

ing management is an important component in and small trees. Cropland is not required but if

maintaining habitat for scaled quail. present, can supply important foods. A mix of

native grasslands, haylands, croplands, and ar-

eas of shrubs and trees provide good habitat for

Habitat requirements

sharp-tailed grouse.

Diet: varies depending on availability and sea-

son; seeds comprise a major portion; in-

104 Wildlife Habitat Education Program

Habitat requirements stubble heights of 6 inches or more is pre-

Diet: young grouse eat insects and small seeds; ferred

adults eat a variety of leaves, buds, seeds Special: Sharp-tailed grouse require bare or

and grains; buds of shrubs and small trees grassy ridges and natural rises that offer

are the most important food during winter good visibility for breeding displays. Grouse

Water: necessary water is obtained from diet gather on these sites in the spring where

Cover: nests are on the ground in grass or males dance in front of the females to attract

sparse shrub cover; thick shrubs and tall a mate. These areas are called “dancing

herbaceous vegetation needed for winter grounds.” Maintain areas of thick grass and

cover; tall dense vegetation associated with shrub cover within several miles of dancing

wetland edges is also used for winter cover grounds.



Wildlife management practices Song sparrow

Decrease Harvest: may be necessary if popula-

tions are declining

Delay Crop Harvest: to avoid disrupting nests

General information

Song sparrows inhabit all of America, but will

Establish Field Buffers: to increase usable space

migrate from extreme northern areas during the

around row crop fields

colder months of the year. Song sparrows oc-

Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: where

cupy shrubby areas interspersed with Stages 2,

high-quality native grassland habitat does

3, 5 and 6, especially along riparian areas. Song

not comprise at least 60 percent of the area

sparrows often nest along forest edges in a cup

considered

nest of grass and leaves on or near the ground.

Leave Grain Unharvested: to provide additional

Nest is often placed on the ground under a shrub

food source through winter

or in thick herbaceous cover and made of grass

Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire is rec-

and forbs. Song sparrows primarily feed on the

ommended to increase grassland vigor,

ground and eat seed, insects and fruit.

which will increase availability of insects

and seeds; grazing management should

maintain a diverse structure throughout the Habitat requirements

grassland; some dense grassland areas Diet: weed seeds, insects, soft mast

should be maintained to provide nesting Water: free-standing water is required frequent-

cover; more sparse areas containing forbs ly during the warm seasons

and insects should be adjacent to nesting Cover: thick shrubs and herbaceous cover for

areas for brood habitat; on sandy soils, both nesting, loafing, escape

of these conditions may be present together;

proper stocking rate is critical; delay graz- Wildlife management practices

ing and harvest on portions of grasslands Artificial Feeders: millets and sunflower seeds

to provide tall undisturbed cover during the are favorites

critical nesting season (May through June) Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: inter-

Plant/Manage Food Plots: annual food plots spersed with Stage 4 for cover and nesting

may be planted to provide winter food where Plant Shrubs: that provide soft mast where there

food sources are limited is little soft mast available

Plant Shrubs: small groups of shrubs may be Water Development for Wildlife: birdbaths and

planted in natural draws and idle land ar- pans of water can provide drinking water

eas where cover and winter food are lack-

ing; woody cover should not be planted on

upland sites that historically did not support Spotted towhee

woody cover

Tillage Management: grain stubble should be General information

left through winter to provide a food source; Spotted towhees are found through the Mid-

west and western U.S. in brushy cover (Stage



Wildlife Habitat Education Program 105

4) and where the structure of Stages 5 and 6 Habitat requirements

are favorable. Nests are placed on the ground Diet: insects, spiders and small amounts of soft

amongst the shrub cover. Towhees primarily for- mast

age on the ground, where they primarily search Water: obtain necessary water from diet but

for invertebrates. may use other water sources when available

Cover: nest in cavities of trees and fence posts;

Habitat requirements old woodpecker cavities are especially im-

Diet: ants, beetles, caterpillars, grasshoppers; portant; readily nest in nesting boxes, which

also various forb seed and green foliage of have had a major impact in restoring blue-

forbs, grasses and shrubs bird populations in some areas

Water: necessary water is obtained from the

diet Wildlife management practices

Cover: shrubs loafing, foraging, nesting and es- Establish Field Buffers: to increase usable space

cape around row crop fields

Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: when less

Wildlife management practices than 75 percent of the area is composed of

Forest Management Techniques: forest regen- Stages 2 or 3

eration will create brushy young forest cover Forest Management Techniques: in large areas

favorable for foraging, nesting and cover of Stage 6 where regeneration is needed,

for 5 years to 10 years; timber stand im- forest regeneration will create foraging habi-

provement can stimulate brushy understory tat 1 year to 3 years postharvest; retaining

growth within Stages 5 and 6 some mature trees and snags may provide

Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire within cavities for bluebirds

small areas (40 acres maximum, 10 acres to Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire, disking,

20 acres preferred) of old Stage 4 vegeta- herbicide application, mowing, chaining

tion will promote resprouting shrubs; chain- and roller beating can be used to maintain

ing, roller beating or mowing small areas in and rejuvenate areas of Stages 2 through 4

old decadent stands of Stage 4 vegetation when habitat quality begins to decline; graz-

will also promote resprouting shrubs; graz- ing management should prevent livestock

ing management should leave adequate from damaging trees and shrubs planted to

herbaceous vegetation needed for food benefit bluebirds

Plant Shrubs: in large areas of Stages 2 and 3 to Mowing: can be used to maintain open areas in

provide Stage 4 for nesting and cover urban environments

Nesting Structures: should be erected where a

scarcity of natural cavities may be limiting

Western bluebird the population; nest boxes should be ap-

proximately 5 feet high with an entrance hole

General information 1½ inches in diameter; nest boxes should be

Bluebirds are found in early successional placed no closer than 80 yards apart to limit

habitat (Stages 2 and 3) interspersed with woods territorial fighting among males

and shrubs (Stages 4, 5 and 6), which are used Plant Shrubs: where needed to provide perches;

for perching and nesting (where cavities are hedgerows may be established across open

available). Large open areas without intersper- fields larger than four acres

sion of hedgerows, fencerows and woodlots Plant Trees: to create potential nest sites where

may not receive as much use by bluebirds as young trees are lacking

those areas with more structural diversity. Blue- Retain/Create Snags: to provide potential nest

birds forage in open areas, but typically near sites and perching sites in open areas

trees, shrubs or a fence that provide perches.









106 Wildlife Habitat Education Program

Western kingbird Water: free-standing water is required daily

Cover: tall shrubs and trees for nesting and

loafing; nests are made of twigs placed on

General information branches of shrubs or trees; nests may also

Western kingbirds inhabit early succession- be placed on the ground

al habitat including grasslands, pastures, culti-

vated fields, desert shrub areas, savannahs and

urban areas. Scattered trees and/or shrubs are Wildlife management practices

used for nesting cover, and human activity often Delay Crop Harvest: delayed crop harvest in the

improves habitat because trees and structures spring may allow more successful nests

provide potential nest sites. Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: where ad-

ditional forb cover is needed for food

Leave Grain Unharvested: will provide addition-

Habitat requirements al food from a variety of small grain crops

Diet: more than 90 percent of their diet is com- such as millets, grain sorghum, wheat and

prised of insects; soft mast from various oats

plants is occasionally eaten Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire will en-

Water: water requirements unknown hance feeding areas, maintain Stage 3 and

Cover: trees and shrubs for nesting and perch- set back Stages 4 and 5; disking and herbi-

ing; nests may also be placed on buildings, cide applications will provide bare ground;

windmills, utility poles and antennas; native grazing management can maintain Stages 2

grass/forb cover for foraging and 3

Plant/Manage Food Plots: where additional

Wildlife management practices food, specifically grain, is needed

Establish Field Buffers: to increase prey around Plant Shrubs: in large areas of Stages 2 and 3

crop fields where there are few trees or shrubs for nest-

Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: in areas ing and loafing; may be planted along field

with less than 50 percent Stages 2 and 3 borders, along fencerows or other idle area

Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire and Retain/Create Snags: where needed to create

mowing can maintain Stages 2 and 3; graz- perching sites

ing management should protect trees and Tillage Management: delayed cropland tillage in

shrubs and not overgraze Stages 2 and 3 the spring will allow standing stubble to be

Plant Shrubs: in large areas without sufficient used for nesting; eliminate tillage in the fall

nesting cover to allow access to waste grain

Retain/Create Snags: to provide perching sites Water Developments for Wildlife: where water is

limited or absent; dugouts, guzzlers or wind-

White-winged dove mills can provide free-standing water





General information Wild turkey

White-winged doves use agriculture and

open areas for feeding and shrubs and trees for General information

nesting and loafing. They are also found in ur- Wild turkeys use a wide variety of vegetation

ban areas and riparian areas. types across the U.S. They are very adaptable

and are limited only by tree cover for roosting

Habitat requirements and by snow depth and persistence for ob-

Diet: a variety of grass and forb seeds, waste taining food. Optimum habitat contains an in-

grain from cropland and livestock feedlots; terspersion of brushy cover for nesting, native

small areas of bare ground are beneficial for forbs and grasses for brooding, and hard- and

obtaining grit (small gravel) to help digest soft-mast producing trees and shrubs for roost-

food ing and food availability.





Wildlife Habitat Education Program 107

Habitat requirements ing and grazing management can be used

Diet: various hard mast including acorns and to maintain and rejuvenate Stages 2 to 4

beechnuts; soft mast including blackberries when habitat quality begins to decline; graz-

and black cherry; insects and other inverte- ing management should prevent livestock

brates including spiders and snails; miscel- from degrading habitat by overgrazing and

laneous seeds; leaves from forbs and grass- damaging planted trees and shrubs

es; grain from a variety of agricultural crops; Plant/Manage Food Plots: where grain crops

chufa tubers and quality forages such as clovers are lack-

Water: obtain water from diet but will use free- ing to provide a supplemental food source

standing water when available and additional areas for brood rearing

Cover: mature forest, regenerating forest, brushy Plant Shrubs: where additional soft mast or

areas and old-fields with rank cover for nest- brushy cover is needed

ing; nest is a shallow depression on the Plant Trees: where additional hard mast produc-

ground lined with leaves and/or grass and is tion, especially acorns, is needed and where

usually well concealed amongst vegetation roosting sites are limited

or against some object (such as a tree, log Tillage Management: eliminate tillage in the fall

or brush); mature forest, Stages 2 and 3 forb to provide additional waste grain during win-

cover, and grain fields for feeding; trees or ter, especially when adjacent to Stages 4

tall shrubs for roosting through 6

Water Developments for Wildlife: can be useful

Wildlife management practices when there is little or no free-standing water

Decrease Harvest: may be necessary if popula- available

tions are declining in suitable habitat where Wildlife Damage Management: may be neces-

hunting pressure has been excessive sary in rare instances when wild turkeys are

Establish Field Buffers: to increase usable space depredating crops

around row crop fields

Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: where less Wood duck

than one-quarter of the area is composed of

Stages 2 and 3

Forest Management Techniques: forest regener-

General information

Wood ducks are primarily found along rivers

ation methods can enhance nesting habitat,

and large creeks within bottomland hardwood

provide additional brood cover, soft mast,

forests, Stage 3 wetlands and swamps with

and miscellaneous seed for 2 years to 3

emergent woody vegetation adjacent to Stage 2

years after harvest; timber stand improve-

wetlands, and shallowly flooded Stages 5 and 6

ment practices can improve the structure of

hardwood forest. Wood ducks nest within cavi-

the understory for nesting and brood rear-

ties. Usually, nest sites are within or adjacent

ing, increase production of soft mast and

to flooded timber; however, wood ducks have

miscellaneous seed, and enable the crowns

been known to nest up to one mile from water.

of desired trees to grow and produce addi-

Cavity availability is critical for a sustainable

tional mast

population. Thus, artificial cavities are readily

Increase Harvest: where populations can sus-

used by wood ducks and have been, most likely,

tain additional harvest pressure for hunting

the number one reason for the increase in wood

recreation and/or where populations need to

duck populations during the past 50 years.

be lowered

Leave Grain Unharvested: (especially corn and

grain sorghum) to provide a high-energy Habitat requirements

food source during fall and winter; espe- Diet: acorns are the primary diet item in fall and

cially important during years of poor acorn winter; other hard mast, various miscella-

production neous seeds and soft mast, as well as waste

Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire, disking, grain (especially corn) also are eaten; in-

herbicide application, chaining, roller beat- sects and other invertebrates are most im-



108 Wildlife Habitat Education Program

portant for wood duck chicks and hens prior Water Control Structures: should be installed in

to and during the nesting season existing dikes if there are none present

Water: obtain water through diet and drink free- Water Developments for Wildlife: specifically,

standing water regularly; see cover require- shallow impoundments should be created

ments below where topography allows, to create feeding

Cover: Stage 3 wetlands and swamps; shallowly and nesting space for wood ducks

flooded bottomland hardwoods; nest in tree

cavities in stage 6 hardwoods and artificial

cavities

Yellow-rumped warbler

Wildlife management practices

Forest Management Techniques: timber stand General information

improvement in bottomland hardwoods that Yellow-rumped warblers breed throughout

can be flooded can lead to larger crowns of southern Canada, the western U.S., the Great

favored trees and increased mast produc- Lakes region and the northeastern U.S. They

tion; woody stem density should increase winter throughout the southern U.S. They are

following TSI and improve cover in those found in coniferous or mixed forest and use

stands that can be flooded brushy thickets in winter. Yellow-rumped war-

Leave Grain Unharvested: (especially corn) to blers eat insects gleaned from the branches

provide high-energy food source for wood and bark of trees and shrubs.

ducks during fall and winter; this is espe-

cially important in fields that can be flooded Habitat requirements

and those adjacent to a water source used Diet: ants, caterpillars and beetles

by wood ducks Water: necessary water obtained from diet, but

Manipulate Succession: grazing management free-standing water is used when available

should prevent livestock from damaging Cover: coniferous or mixed forest during nesting

trees and shrubs planted for wood ducks season; occasionally nest in shrubs; nest is

Nesting Structures: nest boxes should be erect- made of twigs, bark strippings and weed

ed where suitable habitat exists or where stems and placed on small branches 5 feet

planned; nest boxes for wood ducks should to 50 feet above the ground; brushy thick-

be at least 100 yards apart and should not ets are used for feeding, loafing and escape

be placed within sight of each other if pos- during winter

sible

Plant/Manage Food Plots: shallowly flooded Wildlife management practices

grain plots can provide an important source Forest Management Techniques: timber stand

of energy in fall/winter, especially during improvement can improve forest structure

years of poor mast production for nesting and feeding

Plant Shrubs: where there is a lack of emergent Manipulate Succession: grazing management

woody vegetation in open areas that can be should not allow livestock to damage shrub

flooded cover

Plant Trees: mast trees planted adjacent to or Plant Shrubs: where shrub cover is lacking in

within open areas suitable for flooding may winter range

provide future food and nesting cavities Plant Trees: where forest structure is limited dur-

Retain/Create Snags: to provide potential cavity ing the nesting season

nesting sites

Tillage Management: eliminate tillage in the fall

to provide additional waste grain during win-

ter, especially fields that can be shallowly

flooded







Wildlife Habitat Education Program 109

Mammals

American beaver Wildlife management practices

Decrease Harvest: may be necessary where an

increased beaver population is desired and

General information

trapping pressure has limited growth

Beavers occur throughout most of North

Increase Harvest: where populations can sus-

America. They are found in riparian areas in Stag-

tain additional trapping pressure for recre-

es 4 and 5 and in wetlands that have permanent

ation and/or where populations need to be

water with a variety of shrubs and trees adja-

lowered

cent to the water. Beavers build dams from tree

Manipulate Succession: grazing management

branches, shrubs and mud to form ponds that

should protect shrubs and trees along ripar-

stabilize water levels, slow water movement,and

ian areas; this may include developing live-

provide shelter beneath the ice in winter. Bea-

stock watering facilities in upland areas to

vers also build lodges from sticks and mud and

discourage congregation in riparian areas

dig burrows in banks of streams and rivers. Bea-

Plant Shrubs: where beavers are desired, but

vers eat the inner bark of shrubs and trees and

not present, deciduous shrubs may be

store cuttings in caches (piles of branches) for

planted along riparian areas where there are

use during winter. The ecological benefits pro-

few trees to make the area more attractive to

vided by beavers cannot be overstated. Bea-

beavers

vers are responsible for creating habitat for a

Plant Trees: where beavers are desired but not

plethora of birds, mammals, reptiles, amphib-

present, deciduous trees may be planted

ians, fishes and invertebrates. Without beavers,

along riparian areas where there are few

the distribution and abundance many freshwa-

trees to make the area more attractive to

ter wetland-associated species would decline

beavers

dramatically. Unfortunately, beavers were once

Water Control Structures: a Clemson Beaver

such a valuable fur resource that trapping led

Pond Leveler can be installed in beaver

to their extinction in many parts of their former

dams to maintain water levels

range. Today, beavers have rebounded with

Wildlife Damage Management: should be imple-

help from wildlife agency regulations and a lack

mented where beavers are causing prob-

of a viable fur market. In some areas, beavers

lems for landowners such as flooding timber,

have become a nuisance as they cut down

crops, roads and other areas

trees, dam ditches and streams in undesirable

places. This causes cropland flooding, desta-

bilization of road edges, and damaged timber American marten

when stands are flooded for extended periods.

When beavers construct dams in places that

General information

cause problems, removal of the beaver is usu-

Martens are found primarily in mature co-

ally the best solution. If the dam is destroyed

niferous or deciduous-coniferous forest of the

and the beavers remain, they will build the dam

upper Great Lakes, Rocky Mountains, and the

again.

mountains of the Pacific region and New Eng-

land. Martens are carnivorous. They give birth

Habitat requirements and raise young in dens of hollow trees, stumps

Diet: primarily bark from shrubs and trees; also or rock crevices.

some forbs and grasses

Water: prefer slow-moving or still water at least

Habitat requirements

5 feet deep (to allow movement under water)

Diet: primarily voles, snowshoe hares, ruffed

with a constant level

grouse, and squirrels; will also opportunisti-

Cover: bottomland riparian areas that can be

cally eat eggs, amphibians, soft mast and

dammed to provide still water with sufficient

carrion

depth

110 Wildlife Habitat Education Program

Water: necessary water obtained from diet Water: free-standing water is required daily

Cover: mature conifer forests, but also mixed when they are active

hardwood forests; dens in hollow logs, Cover: buildings and hollow trees are often used

stump holes and rock crevices for daytime roosts; bat houses may also be

used for daytime roosting; caves, mines and

Wildlife management practices buildings are used for hibernation

Decrease Harvest: may be necessary when

trapping pressure is limiting population Wildlife management practices

Forest Management Techniques: timber stand Manipulate Succession: to maintain more than

improvement can diversify understory struc- 50 percent open areas for foraging

ture and composition and increase abun- Nesting Structures: may provide additional roost

dance of prey; snags should be retained for sites

prey Plant Trees: where few trees are present to pro-

Increase Harvest: where populations can sus- mote future old trees that may provide roost

tain additional trapping pressure sites

Plant Trees: where additional forest cover is Retain/Create Snags: to provide roost sites; only

needed in areas where they pose no danger to hu-

man structures or health when they fall

Water Developments for Wildlife: where available

Big brown bat open water is not available, small ponds and

shallow impoundments may be construct-

General information ed for drinking and to attract insects; water

Big brown bats are one of 46 bat species in developments should be constructed with

North America. They inhabit nearly all of the U.S., nothing above the water (such as fencing or

except for south Florida and south-central Tex- bracing) so bats have an unobstructed flight

as, and use a variety of vegetation types, from path

farmland to mature deciduous forest. Big brown Wildlife Damage Management: may be neces-

bats are common in urban areas, including cit- sary when roosting or hibernating in areas

ies, parks and suburban neighborhoods. They occupied by humans

frequently use buildings and houses for daytime

summer roosts and sometimes as winter hiber-

nacula, but most hibernate in caves. Big brown Black bear

bats are insectivores. Lactating females will eat

their weight in insects daily. Males and females General information

may roost individually or in small numbers, but Black bears primarily use mature decidu-

males and females usually roost separately. ous or mixed deciduous/coniferous forest inter-

Females may roost together in a maternal col- spersed with early successional openings con-

ony when pups are born and nursing. Females taining soft mast. Young regenerating stands,

usually give birth to one or two pups, often in a shrub thickets with dense brushy cover, and

hollow tree or attic. Big brown bats, as with all riparian corridors are also used. They are gen-

other bat species, are nocturnal and are the only erally secretive and avoid human contact; how-

mammals capable of flying. Big brown bats will ever, black bears are highly adaptable and may

drink “on-the-wing” by dipping their lower jaw occur in and around human dwellings and be-

into a water source. Big brown bats hibernate in come problematic, especially if food is available.

the winter in northern latitudes, therefore, do not Black bears are primarily nocturnal, but may be

actively feed during winter months, but instead seen anytime during the day. They hibernate in

rely on stored fat reserves. winter (even in warm climates like Florida and

Louisiana) and have large home ranges (sev-

Habitat requirements eral square miles) that vary based on sex, age

Diet: night-flying insects, especially beetles and/or time of year (breeding season, fall for-

aging areas, denning habitat). In general, adult



Wildlife Habitat Education Program 111

male home ranges (up to 50 square miles) are methods, creates dense escape and loaf-

much larger than female home ranges. Solitary ing cover for bears; an abundance of soft

females and females with cubs have consider- mast (pokeweed, blackberry, huckleberry,

ably smaller (15 square miles) home ranges. blueberry) is usually available in recently

Black bears are omnivorous, however more regenerated stands; timber stand improve-

than 90 percent of their diet consists of vegeta- ment practices can lead to increased hard

tive matter. Liberalizing or restricting females in mast production if quality trees are retained

the harvest influences population growth. Regu- in the stand, and can stimulate groundcover,

lation of bear population densities is influenced which usually increases soft mast produc-

by public tolerance toward bear/human con- tion

flicts, property damage, livestock and agricul- Increase Harvest: where populations can sus-

tural damage, and the desire to see bears. tain additional hunting pressure for recre-

ation and/or where populations need to be

Habitat requirements lowered

Diet: spring food sources are typically scarce Leave Grain Unharvested: strips of corn, grain

and consist of early developing plants such sorghum or soybeans should be left stand-

as skunk cabbage, squaw root, grasses and ing, especially where adjacent to escape

insects; occasionally, small to medium-sized cover, to provide food close to cover

mammals such as deer fawns and young Manipulate Succession: Prescribed fire can

livestock (calves and lambs) are preyed stimulate groundcover and soft mast and

upon; during summer and early fall, a variety maintain Stages 3 and 4

of soft mast such as blackberry, blueberry, Plant/Manage Food Plots: where available food

serviceberry, black cherry and pokeweed may be limiting, forage and grain plots may

are important; during late fall, acorns, beech- be planted to provide additional nutrition

nuts, hickory nuts and other hard mast, as Plant Shrubs: crabapple, high-bush blueberry,

well as field corn and soybeans, help bears hawthorn, wild plum and elderberry can be

prepare for hibernation; when natural foods planted within forest openings where soft

are scarce, bears may wander near human mast is lacking; this can also help maintain

residences and feed on bird seed, dog/cat Stage 4

food and other food scraps Plant Trees: apple, pear, cherry, persimmon and

Water: free-standing water is used for drink- dogwood are suitable choices to provide

ing; spring seeps and other shallow water additional soft mast

sources are used to cool off and get away Tillage Management: eliminate tillage in the fall

from biting insects; water is seldom a lim- to provide additional waste grain during win-

iting factor since black bears have such a ter, especially when adjacent to Stages 4

large home range through 6

Cover: mature hardwood or mixed hardwood/ Wildlife Damage Management Techniques: may

conifer forests for foraging; brushy areas be needed if bear-human conflicts occur in

and young regenerating forest for loafing agricultural or urban settings

and escape; early successional openings

primarily for foraging, usually for soft mast;

rock crevices, excavations, hollow trees,

Black-tailed prairie dog

dense mountain laurel/rhododendron thick-

ets for hibernation General information

The black-tailed prairie dog is the most

widely distributed of the North American prairie

Wildlife management practices dogs. They live in densely populated colonies

Decrease Harvest: may be necessary when ad- (20 to 35 per acre) among subterranean bur-

ditional bears are desired and hunting pres- rows within grassland (Stages 2 or 3) or sparse

sure may be limiting growth shrubland (Stage 4) communities. Some areas

Forest Management Techniques: forest regen- of colonies will be bare ground (Stage 1) where

eration, especially clearcut and shelterwood



112 Wildlife Habitat Education Program

there is a high prairie dog density. They often Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire, grazing

establish colonies near intermittent streams, management, chaining/roller beating and

water impoundments, homestead sites, corrals mowing can set back succession to a suit-

and windmills. They do not tolerate tall vegeta- able grass/forb community

tion well and avoid brush and timbered areas. Wildlife Damage Management: registered con-

In tall and mixed-grass rangelands, prairie dogs trol techniques, such as toxicants (toxic

have a difficult time establishing a colony un- baits), fumigants and shooting can be used

less large grazing animals (bison or livestock) to reduce populations where damage is oc-

have closely grazed the vegetation (livestock curring to agricultural interests

grazing management). Heavily grazed or tram-

pled areas are often selected by prairie dogs.

Periodic disturbance is required to maintain Bobcat

suitable conditions for prairie dogs, particularly

in high rainfall areas where succession moves General information

past Stage 3. Prairie dogs occupied up to 700 Bobcats occur throughout the U.S., except

million acres of western grasslands in the early for some areas in the northern midwestern

1900s. In Texas, the largest prairie dog colony states where intensive agriculture occurs or in

on record measured nearly 25,000 square miles. areas lacking rugged or rocky mountainous ter-

Since 1900, prairie dog populations have been rain or extensive bogs and swamps. Bobcats

reduced by as much as 98 percent in some ar- are carnivorous predators and are seldom ac-

eas and eliminated in others. Today, only about tive during the day. Bobcats have been found to

2 million acres of prairie dog colonies remain in be a significant cause of mortality to pronghorn

North America. Colonies must be linked to other and wild turkeys but are not considered a major

adjacent colonies (generally less than 1 mile) as source of mortality for deer. They are classified

colonies periodically move or disappear only to as a furbearer game species in many states.

be repopulated by nearby colonies. Therefore,

multiple adjacent colonies are critical for long- Habitat requirements

term population persistence. While prairie dogs Diet: rabbits, rodents, opossums, raccoons,

can cause substantial damage to agriculture, skunks, pronghorns, deer, snakes and many

prairie dogs are a keystone species on native bird species including wild turkeys, ruffed

range and part of a healthy range system. The grouse, Northern bobwhite, domestic poul-

loss of prairie dog colonies affects many other try and other livestock

plant and animal species. Water: water requirements are not well known,

free-standing water is used

Habitat requirements Cover: dense cover, rocky outcrops and ledg-

Diet: green grasses and forbs es, hollow logs and other sheltered spots

Water: necessary water is obtained from diet for denning; foraging occurs where prey is

Cover: open spaces of Stage 3 with relatively most numerous

short vegetation; burrows provide escape

cover Wildlife management practices

Decrease Harvest: may be necessary when ad-

Wildlife management practices ditional bobcats are desired and hunting or

Decrease Harvest: on native range where shoot- trapping efforts may be limiting growth

ing or other population reduction methods Forest Management Techniques: forest regener-

have reduced prairie dog colonies to the ation will provide increased dense cover for

point where they are approaching unsus- additional prey; timber stand improvement

tainable levels can provide enhanced understory develop-

Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: to provide ment that can lead to increased prey popu-

forage where limited lations; down woody debris (logs) can pro-

Increase Harvest: where populations can with- vide denning sites

stand increased hunting for recreation

Wildlife Habitat Education Program 113

Increase Harvest: where populations can sus- Wildlife management practices

tain additional hunting/trapping pressure for Decrease Harvest: where trapping efforts have

recreation and/or where populations need to reduced population below desirable levels

be lowered Increase Harvest: where populations can sus-

Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire, chain- tain additional trapping and/or where popu-

ing and herbicide application are recom- lations need to be lowered

mended to maintain and rejuvenate Stage Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire is rec-

4 when habitat quality begins to decline for ommended to rejuvenate old, decadent

desired prey; grazing management should wetland vegetation; grazing management

prevent overgrazing in Stages 4 through 6 should restrict livestock from riparian areas

that would degrade habitat quality for rab- and other wetlands; this may require de-

bits, rodents and other prey velopment of livestock watering facilities in

Plant Shrubs: in areas where additional Stage 4 uplands to discourage congregation in and

is needed to attract prey and provide secu- overuse of riparian areas

rity cover Water Control Structures: are necessary to con-

Wildlife Damage Management: may be neces- trol water levels so that approximately 80

sary if poultry or other livestock depredation percent of the wetland has water less than

is a problem two feet deep so cattails and bulrushes can

grow

Common muskrat Water Developments for Wildlife: small impound-

ments can be built in low-lying areas to pro-

vide additional wetland habitat

General information Wildlife Damage Management: may be neces-

Muskrats are found throughout the U.S., es- sary to ameliorate damage to dikes in ag-

pecially in shallow marches with abundant cat- ricultural areas and waterfowl management

tails. They are mainly nocturnal and need water areas; populations can be reduced by man-

at least 4 feet deep or flowing water that allows aging against preferred habitat conditions

free movement under ice during winter. During or by additional harvest

summer, they prefer water 1 foot to 2 feet deep,

with about 20 percent of the wetland open wa-

ter free of emergent aquatic vegetation. Musk- Coyote

rats build lodges of cattails or other herbaceous

vegetation, but do not use sticks or limbs. They General information

sometimes nest in a bank burrow along a wa- Coyotes are found throughout the continen-

terway. Burrowing and denning activities can tal U.S. and have even been observed in large

cause problems in flooded agricultural areas, cities and urban areas. Grasslands, shrubland

such as rice fields, and waterfowl management and farmland provide optimal habitat for coy-

areas. otes, but they also use Stages 5 and 6. Coyotes

den in a variety of places, including brush-cov-

Habitat requirements ered slopes, steep banks, rock ledges, thick-

Diet: roots, tubers and green shoots of emer- ets and hollow logs. Coyotes are most active

gent aquatic vegetation such as cattails and at night, during early morning and around sun-

bulrushes set, but they may be active throughout the day.

Water: necessary water obtained from diet Coyotes live in packs, alone or in mated pairs,

Cover: primarily Stage 2 wetlands; den in lodg- depending on the time of year. Coyotes have

es built from cattails and bulrushes, which an extremely varied diet that fluctuates with the

are usually in dense patches of cattails and seasons.

bulrushes; loaf on floating logs or tops of

lodges Habitat requirements

Diet: rodents, rabbits and other small mammals,

insects, birds, eggs, deer, carrion and soft



114 Wildlife Habitat Education Program

mast; livestock and wild ungulates (deer,

elk, pronghorn) are usually represented in

Desert cottontail

coyote stomachs as carrion; however, in

some cases, coyotes prey heavily on deer General information

and pronghorn fawns, limiting reproductive Desert cottontails can be found in wood-

success lands, grasslands, creosote brush and desert

Water: requirements are not well documented; areas from California to Texas and from northern

necessary water is probably obtained in diet Montana to Mexico. In the Hot Desert region,

Cover: grasslands, shrublands, regenerating desert cottontails use thick shrub cover inter-

forest, mature forest; crevices and burrows spersed with open areas. Riparian and urban

along river banks, rock ledges, brushpiles areas also are used. Because cottontails do not

and holes under stumps or abandoned travel far, shelter and food must be close togeth-

buildings are used as den sites for raising er.

pups

Habitat requirements

Wildlife management practices Diet: a variety of forbs and grasses spring

Decrease Harvest: may be necessary when ad- through fall; in winter, bark and twigs of

ditional coyotes are desired and hunting or shrubs are important; buds, grain, seeds

trapping efforts may be limiting growth; real- and soft mast are also eaten when available

istically, because of a high reproduction rate Water: necessary water obtained from diet

and extreme survival abilities, this practice Cover: grassland, shrub vegetation and ground

would most likely never be recommended burrows for hiding and nesting cover

for coyotes

Establish Field Buffers: to increase usable space Wildlife management practices

around row crop fields Decrease Harvest: may be necessary when ad-

Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: where ad- ditional rabbits are desired and hunting and/

ditional high-quality early successional habi- or trapping efforts are limiting growth

tat is needed for prey Establish Field Buffers: to increase usable space

Forest Management Techniques: forest regen- around row crop fields

eration and timber stand improvement can Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: where high-

enhance conditions for increased prey quality early successional habitat is limiting

Increase Harvest: where populations can sus- Forest Management Techniques: (Mediterra-

tain additional hunting/trapping pressure for nean Region only) forest regeneration, espe-

recreation and/or where populations need to cially clearcutting, provides optimal brushy

be lowered cover for a few years

Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire, disk- Increase Harvest: where populations can sus-

ing, chaining and herbicide applications are tain additional hunting/trapping pressure for

recommended to maintain Stage 3; graz- recreation and/or where populations need to

ing management should maintain adequate be lowered

cover for prey Leave Grain Unharvested: to provide additional

Plant Shrubs: in areas where additional Stage 4 food

is needed to attract prey and provide secu- Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire is rec-

rity cover ommended to maintain Stage 3; prescribed

Wildlife Damage Management: may be neces- fire and chaining can revert Stage 4 back to

sary where livestock depredation is a prob- Stage 3; burning is not recommended in the

lem Hot Desert region unless sufficient precipita-

tion is available; grazing management can

maintain Stages 2 and 3

Plant/Manage Food Plots: where rainfall is suffi-

cient, forage plots may be planted adjacent

to shrub cover



Wildlife Habitat Education Program 115

Plant Shrubs: in areas with insufficient Stage 4 recreation and/or where populations need to

Tillage Management: cropland tillage may be be lowered

delayed in spring to allow use of standing Leave Grain Unharvested: to provide additional

stubble for cover; tillage may be eliminated food, especially corn

in the fall to allow access to waste grain Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire, disk-

Wildlife Damage Management: where there is ing, chaining, and herbicide applications

damage to ornamental and garden plants are recommended to maintain or rejuvenate

Stages 3 and 4; in areas dominated by mes-

quite, root plowing combined with seeding

Eastern cottontail grasses and legumes help maintain Stage 3;

grazing management should keep livestock

General information out of food plots and leave ample amounts

Eastern cottontails occur in the eastern half of herbaceous vegetation in other areas

of the country. They prefer brushy cover inter- used by cottontails for food and cover

spersed with Stage 3. Eastern cottontails are Mowing: can be used to maintain open areas in

also found in suburban areas, parks, golf cours- urban environments

es and stream corridors. Eastern cottontails rep- Plant/Manage Food Plots: where additional for-

resent prey for the majority of carnivorous pred- age or grain is needed; one one-quarter-

ators within its range. They are prolific breeders, acre plot per 10 acres to 15 acres should be

however, as female may have 7 litters per year, sufficient

with 3 to 6 young per litter. This is required to Plant Shrubs: in large areas of Stages 2 and 3

perpetuate populations as 70 percent to 80 per- and in agricultural areas with few shrubs;

cent of all rabbits die each year. field borders, fence rows and other idle land

areas are good places to plant; this is also

Habitat requirements appropriate for open areas in urban settings

Diet: forbs and grasses (Stages 2 and 3), Tillage Management: cropland tillage may be

browse, and soft mast from spring through delayed in spring to allow use of standing

fall; in winter, bark of shrubs and trees, as stubble for cover; tillage may be eliminated

well as buds, grain and browse in the fall to allow access to waste grain

Water: necessary water obtained from diet Wildlife Damage Management: may be neces-

Cover: shrub cover, brushpiles, native perennial sary to control damage to ornamental/land-

warm-season grasses and forbs (Stage 3) scaping and garden plants

for loafing and escape cover; burrows are

also used for denning and escape

Eastern fox squirrel

Wildlife management practices General information

Decrease Harvest: may be necessary when ad-

The Eastern fox squirrel is found in the east-

ditional rabbits are desired and hunting and/

ern half of the U.S., except for areas of New Eng-

or trapping efforts are limiting growth; low

land. Eastern fox squirrels use Stage 6 forest in-

rabbit populations are almost always a result

terspersed small openings (Stages 2 and 3), as

of inadequate habitat, not harvest levels

well as oak and pine woodlands and savannas.

Establish Field Buffers: to increase usable space

Riparian areas are important in the Midwest. Fox

around row crop fields

squirrels also may use urban areas where there

Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: where high-

are lots of trees. Fox squirrels spend much time

quality early successional habitat is limiting

foraging on the ground. They build a leaf nest,

Forest Management Techniques: forest regener-

usually in the crotch of the main trunk of a tree

ation, especially clearcutting, provides opti-

more than 30 feet above the ground, but will

mal brushy cover for a few years

regularly use natural cavities in trees, especially

Increase Harvest: where populations can sus-

in winter.

tain additional hunting/trapping pressure for





116 Wildlife Habitat Education Program

Habitat requirements Water Developments for Wildlife: in urban areas,

Diet: a variety of hard mast, acorns, seeds, tree a pool or pan of water may be used if water

buds and flowers, mushrooms, soft mast, is not available

eggs and corn Wildlife Damage Management: exclusion from

Water: necessary water is generally obtained buildings or removal may be necessary if

through diet, but free-standing water may be damage is occurring

needed in late summer

Cover: Stage 6 hardwood and pine forest, wood-

land and savannas; nest in tree cavities or

Eastern gray squirrel

build a nest of twigs and leaves; where den

sites are scarce, may use nest boxes General information

The Eastern gray squirrel lives primarily in

Stage 6 deciduous forests and woodlands. They

Wildlife management practices also forage along the edge of crop fields, espe-

Artificial Feeders: in urban areas, corn or sun-

cially harvested cornfields. These squirrels have

flower seeds spilled from feeders onto the

adapted to parks and other urban areas where

ground may be eaten

mature trees are available. Eastern gray squir-

Decrease Harvest: may be necessary when ad-

rels forage both in trees and on the ground. They

ditional fox squirrels are desired and hunting

den in cavities of mature trees and also build

pressure is limiting growth

nests generally 30 feet or more above ground.

Forest Management Techniques: timber stand

Eastern gray squirrels will use nest boxes, but

improvement can encourage larger crowns

they are not necessary since nests are built in

of mast-producing trees and enable oaks,

the absence of cavities; thus, available cavities

hickories, beech and others to produce more

are not a limiting factor for population growth.

mast; can also increase soft mast availability

and provide snags for potential den sites

Increase Harvest: where populations can sus- Habitat requirements

tain additional hunting pressure for recre- Diet: a variety of hard and soft mast, miscella-

ation and/or where populations need to be neous seeds, grains, bark, buds and mush-

lowered rooms; they may also eat eggs

Leave Grain Unharvested: (corn fields) so squir- Water: necessary water is generally obtained

rels can glean waste grain from the field; es- through diet, but free-standing water is also

pecially important during years of poor mast used

production Cover: Stage 6 forest and woodlands; suburban

Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire, disking and urban areas with mature trees; den in

and herbicide applications can be used to tree cavities and also build nests of leaves

maintain Stages 3 and 4 adjacent to wooded and twigs

areas used by fox squirrels; grazing man-

agement should prevent livestock from dam- Wildlife management practices

aging riparian areas, protect trees planted Decrease Harvest: may be necessary when ad-

for fox squirrels, and protect woods from ditional gray squirrels are desired, and hunt-

overgrazing ing pressure is limiting growth

Nesting Structures: 3 to 4 cavities per acre are Forest Management Techniques: timber stand

desirable; where cavities are limiting, nest improvement can encourage larger crowns

boxes of mast-producing trees and enable oaks,

may be beneficial hickories, beech and others to produce more

Plant Trees: in large areas of Stages 2, 3 and 4; mast; can also increase soft mast availability

along fence rows, adjacent to streams and and provide snags for potential den sites

grain fields, and other idle land areas are Increase Harvest: where populations can sus-

suitable sites tain additional hunting pressure for recre-

Tillage Management: eliminate tilling corn fields ation and/or where populations need to be

in the fall to provide additional food lowered



Wildlife Habitat Education Program 117

Manipulate Succession: grazing management Forest Management Techniques: forest regen-

should protect trees and shrubs planted for eration, especially clearcutting, will provide

squirrels and protect woods from overgrazing additional forage for a few years; timber

Plant Shrubs: shrubs can be planted across stand improvement can improve forage

large fields and in “odd areas” of crop fields availability and stimulate improved under-

not planted to crops story/midstory cover

Plant Trees: plant mast trees where Stage 5 and Increase Harvest: where populations can sus-

6 represent less than 50 percent of the area tain additional hunting pressure for recre-

considered and where Stages 5 and 6 forest ation and/or where populations need to be

contain few or no mast-producing trees lowered; where populations need to be low-

Wildlife Damage Management: may be required if ered because of habitat considerations, har-

squirrels become a nuisance around houses vest should concentrate on females

Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire is rec-

ommended to maintain early successional

Elk cover and stimulate additional herbaceous

forage in Stage 4; grazing management

General information should leave ample forage available for elk;

Elk occur throughout the western U.S. and areas recently grazed by livestock are often

populations have recently re-established in favored by elk

some eastern states. They require a mix of Stag- Plant/Manage Food Plots: where and when nat-

es 2 and 3 for food, as well as Stages 5 and 6 for urally occurring food sources are limited,

cover. Elk form herds that may migrate to differ- food plots may provide additional nutrition,

ent areas and elevations depending on weather particularly during late summer and winter

and food resources. Elk are primarily grazers in some areas

and eat a variety of herbaceous vegetation, Plant Trees: where additional forest cover is

mainly grasses and forbs, but will eat browse as needed

well. For optimum elk habitat, 25 percent to 50 Water Developments for Wildlife: water develop-

percent of the landscape should be in Stages 2 ments such as dugouts may be useful if wa-

and 3, well interspersed with Stages 4 through ter is not available within one-half mile

6. Wildlife Damage Management: necessary when

elk begin to damage hay and crop fields, or

Habitat requirements when they become a nuisance in suburban

Diet: predominantly grasses and forbs but also areas; both lethal and nonlethal practices

browse, especially when palatable grass can be effective

and forbs are not available

Water: free-standing water used regularly in

summer; water should be within one-half

Mink

mile

Cover: Stage 2 and 3 for foraging; Stage 4 General information

through 6 for loafing and calving Mink are found in Alaska, Canada and

across most of the U.S. They are mainly noc-

turnal and prefer habitat associated with stream

Wildlife management practices banks, river banks and the shores of a variety

Decrease Harvest: may be necessary when

of wetlands. Mink are strictly carnivorous. Most

hunting pressure is limiting growth of elk

food is found in close association with dense

population where an increase is desired

vegetation along wetland edges and other ri-

Establish Field Buffers: provides additional for-

parian areas. Availability of den sites is consid-

age around crop fields

ered a key factor in how many mink use an area.

Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: provides

Areas with lots of trees and shrubs and limited

additional forage where early successional

livestock grazing near riparian areas usually

habitat is limiting

have more den sites. Mink can eat significant



118 Wildlife Habitat Education Program

numbers of upland nesting waterfowl or game Habitat requirements

birds, especially in areas where nesting habitat Diet: a variety of forbs, grasses, seeds and soft

is limited. mast in spring through fall; in winter, bark

and browse is most important; grains and

Habitat requirements alfalfa are eaten when available

Diet: rabbits, mice, muskrats, crayfish, snakes Water: necessary water is obtained from diet

and birds Cover: thick shrubs and burrows for nesting and

Water: closely associated with water; necessary cover

water probably obtained through diet

Cover: wetland edges, riparian areas, dens un- Wildlife management practices

der log jams and tree roots, old muskrat bur- Decease Harvest: may be necessary when ad-

rows and rock piles ditional rabbits are desired and hunting and/

or trapping efforts are limiting growth

Wildlife management practices Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: where

Decrease Harvest: may be necessary when needed in forest openings to provide forage

trapping pressure is limiting population Forest Management Techniques: forest regen-

Increase Harvest: where populations can sus- eration, especially clearcutting, will stimu-

tain additional trapping pressure, and when late forbs and grasses and provide Stage 4

mink have been identified limiting upland cover for a few years

nesting waterfowl or game birds Increase Harvest: where populations can sus-

Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire is rec- tain additional hunting/trapping pressure for

ommended to rejuvenate old decadent wet- recreation and/or where populations need to

land vegetation that can improve habitat for be lowered

prey; grazing management should prevent Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire and

livestock from damaging vegetation and chaining can be used to rejuvenate Stage

structure along banks of streams, rivers and 4 and encourage additional forbs and grass

other wetlands; this may include develop- interspersed with shrub cover; grazing man-

ment of livestock watering facilities in up- agement should maintain adequate forbs

lands to discourage congregation in and and grass for rabbits

overuse of riparian areas Plant/Manage Food Plots: where additional for-

Water Control Structures: are necessary to reg- age is needed

ulate water level and manipulate growth of Plant Shrubs: where shrub cover is lacking

emergent aquatic vegetation adjacent to an Wildlife Damage Management: may be neces-

impoundment sary to control damage to ornamental/land-

Water Developments for Wildlife: shallow im- scaping and garden plants

poundments can be developed to increase

available habitat where appropriate

Mule deer

Mountain cottontail General information

Mule deer inhabit the western U.S. There are

General information several subspecies of mule deer that occupy

Mountain cottontails occur in the mountain- unique vegetation types from Alaska to Mexico.

ous regions of the western U.S. They use thick Mule deer require a mixture of Stages 3 to 6 for

shrubs and burrows for nesting and cover, and food and cover. They are often found in ravines

eat a variety of forbs, grasses and browse. They and shrub cover. Mule deer are ruminants (ani-

do not travel far, so food and cover should be mals with a four-chambered stomach) and are

close together. adapted to eating higher quality forages and

browse than elk or cattle. Their diet varies with

the season and availability.





Wildlife Habitat Education Program 119

Habitat requirements food plots may provide additional nutrition,

Diet: in spring, grasses and forbs; in sum- particularly during late summer and winter in

mer and fall, forbs, soft mast, grasses and some areas

browse; in winter, browse and grasses; in Plant Shrubs: where additional shrub cover and

deep snow, browse is predominant; grains browse is needed

and alfalfa are also eaten when available Plant Trees: where additional forest cover and

Water: free-standing water is required nearly browse is needed and appropriate

daily in dry regions and during summer; wa- Tillage Management: eliminate fall tillage of

ter should be available within one mile grain crop residue adjacent to cover to

Cover: tall shrubs, forest, rock outcrops and ra- make waste grain available as an additional

vines for loafing cover; in parts of the Inter- food source

mountain Region, 50 percent Stages 5 and 6 Water Developments for Wildlife: where water is

interspersed with Stages 3 and 4 is optimal limited or absent, dugouts and spring devel-

opments may be warranted

Wildlife management practices Wildlife Damage Management: to control over-

Decrease Harvest: if hunting pressure is limiting abundant deer damaging crops or orna-

population growth where an increase is de- mental shrubs

sired

Delay Crop Harvest: hay harvest may be de- Northern raccoon

layed so fawning sites are not disturbed

Establish Field Buffers: to increase forage avail-

ability (forbs) around row crop fields

General information

Raccoons are very common throughout most

Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: where early

of the U.S., except in certain parts of the Rocky

successional cover is limited and additional

Mountains, Nevada, Utah and Arizona. Rac-

grasses and forbs are needed for forage

coons are found in a variety of vegetation types

Forest Management Techniques: forest regener-

but are usually most abundant near riparian ar-

ation, especially clearcutting, can stimulate

eas and wetlands. They are also found in urban

herbaceous cover and provide additional

areas. Raccoons den in hollow trees, burrows

brushy cover for a few years; timber stand

under stumps or brushpiles, or in chimneys, at-

improvement can stimulate additional her-

tics and crawl spaces of houses and buildings.

baceous cover and browse in the understory

They are omnivorous and eat a wide variety of

Increase Harvest: where populations can sus-

foods. Raccoons can become pests in urban

tain additional hunting pressure for recre-

areas and in wetlands where waterfowl nesting

ation and/or where populations need to be

is important. Raccoons have also been identi-

lowered

fied as major predators on game bird nests and

Leave Grain Unharvested: to provide additional

young game birds. In such cases, wildlife dam-

food resource, especially near cover

age management or increased harvest may be

Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire and

necessary.

chaining are recommended to create and/

or maintain Stages 3 and 4; shrub cover

should not be set back severely in areas Habitat requirements

that typically receive deep snow if shrubs Diet: crayfish, birds, eggs, small mammals, in-

are the only available food in winter; grazing sects, lizards, snakes, worms, fish, carrion,

management should maintain herbaceous grains, seeds, hard and soft mast and foods

and shrub cover; livestock watering facilities prepared for human and pet consumption

may be necessary in uplands to discourage Water: require water frequently during warm

congregation in and overuse of riparian ar- seasons

eas Cover: riparian areas, bottomland hardwoods

Plant/Manage Food Plots: where and when nat- and along other wetlands; natural tree cavi-

urally occurring food sources are limited, ties are used for denning and daytime loaf-

ing; also dens in ground burrows under



120 Wildlife Habitat Education Program

stumps, brush and junk piles, old aban- Water Control Structures: to control water levels

doned buildings and rocky cliffs and ledges and provide water less than 2 feet deep and

stimulate emergent vegetation and enhance

Wildlife management practices habitat for prey

Decrease Harvest: if hunting pressure is limiting Water Developments for Wildlife: shallow im-

population growth where an increase is de- poundments can provide a water source

sired and additional wetland habitat

Establish Field Buffers: to increase usable space Wildlife Damage Management: may be neces-

for prey around row crop fields sary if raccoons invade garbage cans, oc-

Forest Management Techniques: forest regen- cupy residences or buildings, or prey upon

eration and timber stand improvement can poultry; exclusion is cost-effective; cultural

stimulate soft mast production and cover modification such as using wildlife-proof

for prey; relatively large snags with cavities trash cans is effective; trap and euthanize is

should be retained when implementing for- most effective for problem raccoons

est management

Increase Harvest: where populations can sus-

tain additional hunting or trapping pressure

Pronghorn

for recreation and/or where populations

need to be lowered for various reasons General information

Leave Grain Unharvested: especially cornfields Pronghorns are neither antelopes nor goats,

adjacent to bottomland hardwoods and ri- though they are often called one or the other.

parian areas Pronghorns are found in open grassland and

Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire is rec- sagebrush desert of the western U.S. An even

ommended to rejuvenate old decadent wet- proportion of native grass/forb and shrub cover

land vegetation; prescribed fire and disking is desirable.

can maintain Stages 2 and 3; prescribed

fire, herbicide applications and chaining are Habitat requirements

recommended to revert Stage 4 and Stage Diet: varies with season; grasses, forbs and cac-

5 to Stages 2 and 3; grazing management ti in spring and summer; primarily browse in

should prevent livestock from degrading ri- winter

parian areas and other wetlands; this may Water: free-standing water needed frequently

include development of livestock watering Cover: native grassland and desert sagebrush

facilities in uplands to discourage congre- with flat to rolling terrain that allows long-

gation in and overuse of riparian areas range visibility

Plant/Manage Food Plots: annual grain food

plots, especially corn Wildlife management practices

Plant Shrubs: where soft mast is lacking and Decrease Harvest: if hunting pressure is limiting

to provide corridors across large areas of population growth where an increase is de-

Stages 2 and 3 sired

Plant Trees: especially in riparian areas and Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: where her-

adjacent to wetlands where few trees are baceous vegetation is lacking in large ex-

present; maintain approximately 50 percent panses of Stage 4

deciduous forest cover; maintain forested ri- Increase Harvest: where populations can sus-

parian corridors tain additional hunting pressure for recre-

Retain/Create Snags: relatively large dead trees ation and/or where populations need to be

with cavities can provide denning sites lowered

Tillage Management: eliminate fall tillage of Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire and

grain crop residue adjacent to cover to chaining is recommended to rejuvenate

make waste grain available as an additional decadent Stage 4 and stimulate additional

food source herbaceous growth in large expanses of

Stage 4; grazing management should pre-



Wildlife Habitat Education Program 121

vent overgrazing and maintain adequate snags should be retained for possible cavi-

herbaceous cover; the key is using the ap- ties species and create an opportunity for

propriate stocking rate of livestock; fencing forest regeneration.

should be kept to a minimum and have a Increase Harvest: where populations can sus-

minimum of 16 inches between the ground tain additional hunting pressure for recre-

and bottom wire, which should be smooth; ation and/or where populations need to be

the top wire should not be more than 42 lowered

inches above ground; large blocks of range- Manipulate Succession: grazing management

land should be maintained within cropland should exclude livestock from Stages 5 and

areas; no more than 30 percent of a man- 6

agement area should be cropland Plant Trees: in areas without Stages 5 and 6

Plant/Manage Food Plots: in areas where there

is adequate rainfall, food plots can provide

high-quality forage such as alfalfa for in- Snowshoe hare

creased nutrition

Water Developments for Wildlife: where water is General information

limited or absent within two miles, develop- Snowshoe hares are found in the northern

ment of dugouts, windmills and spring de- U.S., the Rocky Mountains, the Sierra Nevada

velopments is warranted and the Appalachians. They are commonly

Wildlife Damage Management: may be neces- found in Stages 4 through 6 coniferous and de-

sary in areas where crop damage is occur- ciduous forest but prefer dense thickets, espe-

ring cially near low wet areas. They forage in recently

regenerated forest and forest openings. Snow-

shoe hares do not use dens, they use matted

Red squirrel down areas of grass instead.



General information Habitat requirements

Red squirrels occur in the Rocky Moun- Diet: forbs, grasses, soft mast in spring and

tains, Great Lakes and New England regions, summer; browse and bark in winter

and down the Appalachians. They are found Water: probably obtain necessary water through

primarily in boreal coniferous forest and mixed diet

deciduous-coniferous forest. Red squirrels den Cover: dense thickets and Stages 5 and 6 for-

in tree cavities but will make ball nests on large est with dense understory; seldom far from

tree limbs close to the trunk or in underground dense cover; forest openings and riparian

burrows if cavities are not available. areas; give birth under a shrub or fallen log



Habitat requirements Wildlife management practices

Diet: pine seeds, hard and soft mast, eggs and Decrease Harvest: if hunting pressure is limiting

mushrooms population growth where an increase is de-

Water: free-standing water required regularly sired

Cover: coniferous and mixed deciduous-conif- Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: in forest-

erous forest; nest in tree cavities and build ed openings where little early successional

nests of shredded bark, grass, leaves, twigs cover is available; should be well distributed

throughout the forest

Wildlife management practices Forest Management Techniques: forest regener-

Decrease Harvest: if hunting pressure is limiting ation will provide dense cover and increased

population growth where an increase is de- soft mast for several years after harvest; tim-

sired ber stand improvement can enhance under-

Forest Management Techniques: timber stand story development and soft mast production

improvement can improve species compo- in Stage 5 and Stage 6; retain snags to pro-

sition and help increase mast production; vide den locations



122 Wildlife Habitat Education Program

Increase Harvest: where populations can sus- Wildlife management practices

tain additional hunting pressure for recre- Decrease Harvest: if hunting pressure is limiting

ation population growth where an increase is de-

Manipulate Succession: grazing management sired

should exclude livestock from Stages 5 and Delay Crop Harvest: hay harvest may be de-

6 and not allow overgrazing in forest open- layed so fawning sites are not disturbed;

ings however, poor-quality hay will result; also, if

Plant Shrubs: to create thickets for additional fawns are found in a hayfield, it is probably

cover symptomatic of poor fawning cover on the

Plant Trees: to maintain at least 80 percent for- property

est cover Establish Field Buffers: to increase fawning cov-

Wildlife Damage Management: may be neces- er and forage availability (forbs) around row

sary where snowshoe hare populations eat crop fields

the bark of commercially valuable trees dur- Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: where

ing winter there is not at least 25 percent of the prop-

erty in high-quality early successional cover

White-tailed deer Forest Management Techniques: forest regen-

eration will provide increased browse, soft

mast production and dense escape cover;

General information timber stand improvement can provide in-

The white-tailed deer is the most important creased browse and soft mast production

game animal in North America. They occur and stimulate better cover in stands with a

throughout the U.S. and southern Canada, ex- poorly developed understory

cept for California and Nevada. They are ex- Increase Harvest: where populations can sus-

tremely adaptable and are found in a wide vari- tain additional harvest pressure for hunting

ety of areas including deciduous and coniferous recreation and/or where populations need

forests, tropical evergreen forest, dry grass- to be lowered because of overpopulation

lands and shrub desert. They are adaptable to and habitat degradation; in these cases, it

humans and exploit suburban areas very well. is important to concentrate the harvest on

Whitetails thrive in areas with fragmented habi- females

tat containing several well-interspersed vegeta- Leave Grain Unharvested: to provide additional

tion types. White-tailed deer are classified as food resource, especially near cover

browsers, but have distinct dietary preferences Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire is rec-

through the seasons. Where overabundant, they ommended to maintain Stages 2 through

can cause significant damage to ornamental 4 and to revert Stage 4 to Stage 3; also to

plantings and row crops and can be hazardous stimulate the understory for increased for-

for motor vehicles. age and soft mast in Stages 5 and 6 of East-

ern Deciduous Forest and Southeast Mixed

Habitat requirements Forest; mowing and chaining can also main-

Diet: forbs, browse, acorns, beechnuts, grains, tain Stages 3 and 4; in areas dominated

grasses and mushrooms; in the northern by mesquite, root plowing combined with

parts of the range, coniferous browse is very seeding grasses and legumes may be the

important in winter best way to maintain small areas in Stage 3;

Water: obtain most of their water from diet but grazing management should maintain forbs,

will drink free-standing water when available grasses, shrubs and trees available for food

Cover: dense woody vegetation as well as rela- and cover—this is particularly important in

tively tall early successional cover including riparian areas in the Great Plains Grassland

native grasses, forbs and shrubs Region

Plant/Manage Food Plots: where and when nat-

urally occurring food sources are limited,

food plots may provide additional nutrition,



Wildlife Habitat Education Program 123

particularly in late summer and winter of food source

most regions Water Developments for Wildlife: where lacking

Plant Shrubs: where needed to provide addi- (within one-half mile), dugouts and shallow

tional soft mast, brushy cover, and browse; impoundments can provide an external wa-

ravines, field borders, other idle land areas ter source for drinking

and across large areas of Stages 2 or 3 to Wildlife Damage Management Techniques:

provide travel corridors fencing, repellents and scare tactics may

Plant Trees: where appropriate, to maintain at be helpful to keep deer from ornamentals,

least 30 percent to 40 percent forest cover; gardens and some crops; reducing the pop-

and where mast producers are lacking, par- ulation through shooting is recommended

ticularly oaks when widespread overabundance is caus-

Tillage Management: eliminate fall tillage of ing crop depredation and increasing vehicle

grain crop residue adjacent to cover to collisions

make waste grain available as an additional









124 Wildlife Habitat Education Program

Other Species

Bluegill not at least 2 feet deep to discourage rooted

aquatic vegetation

Ponds: Fertilize/Lime: fertilize to promote phyto-

General information plankton growth when visibility is more than

The bluegill is one of the most abundant 18 inches below the water surface; add ag-

bream species. It thrives in a variety of condi- ricultural limestone to increase soil pH if total

tions, ranging from freshwater lakes, ponds alkalinity is below 20 ppm

and slow moving streams, to brackish waters of Ponds: Reduce Turbidity/Reseed Watershed: by

coastal areas. The bluegill’s native range is the reseeding the watershed where soil is erod-

eastern U.S. from southern Canada to Florida ing into the pond and causing muddy water

and Texas, but they have been successfully in- Ponds: Repair Spillway: if not functioning prop-

troduced throughout the U.S. erly

Ponds: Restock: if the population is too far out of

Habitat requirements balance to correct via seining or fishing or if

Diet: a variety of zooplankton (microscopic ani- undesirable species are present

mal life) during the first few months of life, Water Control Structures: should be installed

progressing to insects and their larvae, if none are present so water depth can be

eggs, earthworms, tadpoles, small minnows controlled

and crayfish

Cover: submerged rocks, woody debris and

aquatic vegetation where small fish (used Box turtle

for food) hide

Water: basic requirements include dissolved ox- General information

ygen (minimum of four parts per million); pH Found in forests and grasslands throughout

between 6.5 and 9.0; and water temperature most of the eastern and central portions of the

should reach at least 70 F during the sum- U.S. Box turtles are omnivores with a highly di-

mer (one foot below surface in the shade) verse diet.



Wildlife management practices Habitat requirements

Decrease Harvest: refer to wildlife management Diet: insects, soft mast, mushrooms, various

practices for specifics on fish harvest vegetation and carrion

Increase Harvest: refer to wildlife management Water: often found near water, but most likely

practices for specifics on fish harvest obtains necessary water from diet

Manipulate Succession: grazing management Cover: forests with a diverse understory and

should maintain thick herbaceous vegeta- early successional cover with native grass-

tion surrounding the pond and in the water- es and forbs; constructs nest in open areas

shed that drains into the pond; livestock wa- (Stages 2 and 3) that are warmer because of

tering facilities should be developed away increased sunlight

from pond or allow access to only a small

part of the pond Wildlife management practices

Ponds: Construction/Reconstruction: where no Establish Field Buffers: to increase usable space

pond is present and/or where an existing around row crop fields

pond needs extensive repair, especially to Establish Native Grass and Forbs: where early

the dike or dam, including significant tree successional cover is lacking

removal on the dike or dam Forest Management Techniques: forest regen-

Ponds: Deepen Edges: where pond edges are







Wildlife Habitat Education Program 125

eration and timber stand improvement can tering facilities should be developed away

increase herbaceous vegetation for forage from pond or allow access to only a small

Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire is rec- part of the pond

ommended to maintain a dense herbaceous Ponds: Repair Spillway: if the existing spillway is

understory; grazing management should not functioning properly

prevent livestock from forests and maintain Water Control Structures: should be installed

adequate herbaceous vegetation in open if none are present so water depth can be

areas managed as appropriate

Water Developments for Wildlife: where insuffi-

cient water source is present, water devel-

Bullfrog opments such as small ponds and shallow

impoundments can be provided

General information

The bullfrog’s native range extends from the

Atlantic Coast to eastern Colorado and eastern Butterfly

Mexico, and from southern Colorado to north-

eastern Mexico. Bullfrogs are not native west of General information

the Rocky Mountains but have been success- There are hundreds of butterfly species in

fully introduced in many areas. Bullfrogs inhabit America that occupy nearly every ecotype avail-

permanent bodies of standing or slow-moving able. In urban areas, butterflies are found in gar-

water. Bullfrog tadpoles require two years to dens, yards and parks planted with shrubs and

metamorphose. They prefer shorelines with flowers that attract butterflies. They often lay

dense vegetation (Stages 3 and 4 of wetland eggs on a specific kind of plant. They eat food

succession), adjacent to shallow open water in liquid form.

(Stage 2) dominated by floating and submerged

aquatic vegetation. All habitat requirements are Habitat requirements

often found in and around a single pond. Diet: usually sweet liquids such as nectar from

flowers; also eat leaves and twigs, forbs and

Habitat requirements grasses as caterpillars

Diet: insects, crayfish, other frogs, reptiles, Water: may collect on moist sand or mud around

snails, fish and occasionally small mammals water puddles where they extract minerals

and birds Cover: flowers, shrubs and trees (listed below)

Water: stable water levels are necessary for hi- where sheltered from the wind

bernation and egg development; water lev-

els should be maintained at a constant level Wildlife management practices

Cover: dense emergent aquatic and upland Artificial Feeders: can supplement food resourc-

herbaceous vegetation adjacent to water for es

hiding and foraging Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: where lack-

ing to provide food and cover

Wildlife management practices Plant Flowers: maintain specific plants on which

Decrease Harvest: if hunting pressure is limiting butterflies lay eggs such as dogbanes, milk-

population growth where an increase is de- weeds, asters, goldenrods, wintercress,

sired vetches, blackberries, sunflowers, ironweed

Increase Harvest: where populations can sus- and verbenas

tain additional harvest pressure for hunting Rooftop and Balcony Gardens: may attract but-

recreation terflies if the appropriate species are planted

Manipulate Succession: grazing management Plant Shrubs: that attract butterflies

should maintain thick herbaceous vegeta- Plant Trees: where needed to establish a wind-

tion surrounding the pond and in the water- break; fruit trees can also provide nectar

shed that drains into the pond; livestock wa- from flowers and fruit as a food source





126 Wildlife Habitat Education Program

Water Developments for Wildlife: birdbaths and Streams: Dams, Boulders Logs: gravel and

backyard ponds can provide water where cobble should be placed in streams to pro-

needed vide structure for insects and locations for

Note: Plant Flowers should not be recom- spawning; structures should not change

mended to plant Rooftop / Balcony Gardens currents, which could increase bank ero-

sion; boulders and logs may be placed in

the stream or lake to provide cover for trout

Cutthroat trout while hunting, as well as cover for prey spe-

cies. If there are overhanging stream banks

General information that provide cover, this practice may not be

Cutthroat trout are native to the western needed.

U.S. They are found in diverse areas such as Streams: Remove Fish Barriers: because most

the Rocky Mountains, the valleys of the Great cutthroat trout populations are migratory,

Basin and the Pacific Ocean. They prefer rivers dams can impede their ability to return to

and streams with a gravel bottom, but several spawning grounds; installing fish ladders or

subspecies mate in lakes and ponds. Cutthroat removing dams will improve cutthroat trout’s

trout are carnivores, eating a variety of organ- ability to migrate

isms found in streams and lakes.



Habitat requirements

Largemouth bass

Diet: young eat algae and small crustaceans;

grown adults eat crustaceans, eggs, aquat- General information

ic insects, mollusks, amphibians (tadpoles) Largemouth bass are not really bass but

and other fish; may also eat terrestrial organ- members of the sunfish family. Largemouth bass

isms if they fall into stream but is not a major are an extremely popular freshwater sportfish in

part of their diet states where they are found. They can be found

Water: streams, lakes, and ponds where water in freshwater lakes, rivers, large streams, farm

does not rise above 70 F in summer; ide- ponds and brackish marshes.

ally streams should have a variety of riffles,

runs, and pools; basic requirements include Habitat requirements

dissolved oxygen (minimum 6 parts per mil- Diet: young bass eat insects and other inverte-

lion); pH range between 6.5 and 9.0 brates (worms, crayfish and zooplankton);

Cover: prefer streams with overhanging vegeta- adults eat small fish such as bluegill and

tion along the shore that provides shade and a variety of minnows, as well as tadpoles,

reducing water temperature and providing crayfish and even ducklings

terrestrial organisms for food; rocks, as well Cover: submerged rocks, woody debris and

as debris on the bottom of the river or lake, near aquatic vegetation where small fish

provide cover that will hide them from prey (prey) hide

Water: basic requirements include dissolved

Wildlife management practices oxygen (minimum of four parts per million);

Decrease Harvest: refer to wildlife management pH should range between 6.5 and 9.0; wa-

practices for specifics on fish harvest ter temperature should reach at least 70 F

Increase Harvest: refer to wildlife management during summer (one foot below surface in

practices for specifics on fish harvest shade)

Manipulate Succession: grazing management

should maintain thick vegetation on banks Wildlife management practices

and shores; livestock watering facilities Decrease Harvest: refer to the wildlife manage-

should be developed away from streams, ment practices for specifics on fish harvest

rivers, lakes or ponds; fencing along the ri- Increase Harvest: refer to the wildlife manage-

parian area or lakeside may also be neces- ment practices for specifics on fish harvest

sary



Wildlife Habitat Education Program 127

Manipulate Succession: grazing management Cover: young salmon require cover for shade

should maintain thick herbaceous vegeta- and protection from predators.

tion surrounding the pond and in the water-

shed that drains into the pond; livestock wa- Wildlife management practices

tering facilities should be developed away Streams: Dams, Boulders Logs: low dams, boul-

from ponds or allow access to only a small ders or logs can be used to create pools

part of the pond that provide areas for resting and hiding in

Ponds: Construction/Reconstruction: where no streams and rivers that have considerably

stream or pond is present and/or where an more riffles than pools

existing pond needs extensive repair, espe- Streams: Remove Fish Barriers: culverts or

cially to the dike or dam, including signifi- large dams that prevent fish from migrating

cant tree removal on the dike or dam upstream to spawning areas should be re-

Ponds: Deepen Edges: where pond edges are moved or replaced; these are a major threat

not at least two feet deep to discourage root- to salmon populations

ed aquatic vegetation

Ponds: Fertilize/Lime: fertilize to promote phyto-

plankton growth when visibility is more than

18 inches below the water surface; add ag- Rainbow trout

ricultural limestone to increase soil pH if total

alkalinity is below 20 ppm General information

Ponds: Reduce Turbidity: by reseeding the wa- Rainbow trout are native to the U.S. west of

tershed where soil is eroding into the pond the Rocky Mountains. However, they have been

and causing muddy water introduced throughout the U.S. as a sport fish.

Ponds: Repair Spillway: if not functioning properly Rainbow trout are cool- to cold-water fish that do

Ponds: Restock: if the population is too far out of best in freshwater systems below 70 F. They can

balance to correct via seining or fishing or if thrive in both rivers and lakes. Rainbow trout are

undesirable species are present carnivorous and spawn in areas with a rocky

Water Control Structures: should be installed river or lake bottom. A water flow that reduces

if none are present so water depth can be sedimentation of the river floor will increase

controlled spawning. A healthy riparian system provides

rainbow trout with shade. They are responsible

Pacific salmon for driving many native species into extinction or

endangerment in places where they have been

introduced. Thus, increased harvest may be

General information required in some streams to control their abun-

Pacific salmon spend part of their lives in dance in river systems and protect native spe-

cold streams and rivers in the Pacific Northwest cies.

and another part of their life cycle in the open

ocean.

Habitat requirements

Diet: fish, aquatic insects, crustaceans and mol-

Habitat requirements lusks; may also eat terrestrial organisms that

Diet: in fresh water, young salmon feed primarily fall into the water, but this is not common

on aquatic insects, other invertebrates, and Water: streams, lakes and ponds where the

smaller fish water does not rise above 70 F in summer;

Water: basic requirements include dissolved ideally stream should have 50 percent riffles

oxygen (seven parts per million or greater); and 50 percent pools; basic requirements

pH range between 5.5 to 8.5; water temper- include dissolved oxygen (minimum of six

ature should range between 33 F and 65 F parts per million); pH should range between

with optimum 55 F to 60 F; water tempera- 6.5 and 9.0

ture should not exceed 70 F at any time (one

foot below surface, in the shade)



128 Wildlife Habitat Education Program

Cover: rocks, as well as debris on the bottom tory, dams can impede their ability to return

of the river or lake, provide cover for hiding to spawning grounds; installing fish lad-

from prey or fishermen ders or removing dams will improve rainbow

trout’s ability to migrate

Wildlife management practices Water Control Structures: should be installed

Decrease Harvest: refer to wildlife management if none are present so water depth can be

practices for specifics on fish harvest controlled

Increase Harvest: refer to wildlife management

practices for specifics on fish harvest; man-

agers have begun reducing rainbow trout

Rough-skinned newt

populations to minimize predation on or

competition for resources with native fish General information

species; increasing the harvest can reduce The adult rough-skinned newt prefers moist

the rainbow trout population coniferous and hardwood forests in Stages 5 and

Manipulate Succession: grazing management 6, but also can be found in open valleys, Stages

should maintain thick vegetation on banks 3 and 4. Newts require permanent water, such

and shores; livestock watering facilities as ponds or slow-moving streams, for courtship,

should be developed away from streams, breeding, egg-laying and larvae development.

rivers, lakes or ponds; fencing along the ri- Eggs are laid singly on aquatic vegetation or

parian area or lakeside may also be neces- submerged twigs. Aquatic larvae transform in

sary late summer or over winter and transform the fol-

Ponds: Construction/Reconstruction: where no lowing summer. Adult rough-skinned newts are

pond or stream is present and/or where an generally terrestrial, often seen crawling over

existing pond needs extensive repair, espe- land in the daytime and becoming aquatic when

cially to the dike or dam, including signifi- breeding. However, some populations hide in

cant tree removal on the dike or dam daylight and are active at night. Some adults are

Ponds: Deepen Edges: where pond edges are primarily aquatic. Newts are often seen moving

not at least two feet deep to discourage root- in large numbers to breeding sites during the

ed aquatic vegetation breeding season. Some newts spend the dry

Ponds: Fertilize/Lime: fertilize to promote phyto- summer in moist areas under woody debris,

plankton growth when visibility is more than rocks or animal burrows. Adults emerge to feed

18 inches below the water surface; add ag- after fall rains. In some populations, adults re-

ricultural limestone to increase soil pH if total main in ponds throughout summer and migrate

alkalinity is below 20 ppm back onto land in fall when the rain starts. Often,

Ponds: Reduce Turbidity: by reseeding the wa- they will form large aggregates of thousands of

tershed where soil is eroding into the pond newts in the water. Adult newts have rough or

and causing muddy water granular skin, which produces toxins that re-

Ponds: Repair Spillway: if not functioning prop- pel most predators. These newts may assume

erly a swaybacked defense pose with a coiled tail,

Ponds: Restock: if too few are present exposing the bright ventral surface to warn po-

Streams: Dams, Boulders Logs: gravel and tential predators. Toxin-resistant garter snakes

cobble should be placed in stream to pro- are the only known animals that prey on rough-

vide structure for insects and locations for skinned newts.

spawning; structures should not change

currents, which could increase bank ero- Habitat requirements

sion; boulders and logs may be placed in Diet: larvae feed on aquatic invertebrates; adults

the stream or lake to provide cover for trout eat amphibian eggs and larvae, aquatic and

while hunting, as well as cover for prey spe- terrestrial invertebrates, worms and slugs

cies Water: permanent water such as ponds and

Stream: Remove Fish Barriers: because most slow-moving streams for breeding and larval

native rainbow trout populations are migra- development



Wildlife Habitat Education Program 129

Cover: shallow water with aquatic vegetation or

submerged woody debris is needed for at-

Western hognose snake

tachment of eggs; soft logs, rocks and bark

are necessary for adult escape cover General information

Western hognose snakes prefer scrubby flat

or gently rolling prairies with sandy soil. Often

Wildlife management practices these sandy sites are characterized by sparse

Ponds: Construction/Reconstruction: where vegetation in most years (Stages 2 through

none are present 4). Hognose snakes mimic rattlesnakes when

Ponds: Reduce Turbidity: reseed watershed to threatened but are not dangerous. If their initial

establish herbaceous vegetation surround- threat does not work, they will sometimes fake

ing the pond and in the watershed that death by rolling over and exposing their under-

drains into the pond to reduce siltation; mud- sides. Western hognose snakes burrow into

dy water blocks sunlight needed to produce loose soil to find food and spend the winter.

aquatic vegetation, which is necessary for

oxygen production for gill-breathing larvae

Ponds: Repair Spillway: if not functioning prop- Habitat requirements

erly Diet: toads, reptiles, birds, mice and eggs

Streams: Dams, Boulders or Logs: add structure Cover: grasslands and shrubland

to streams to increase pools and decrease Water: necessary water obtained from diet

flow

Water Control Structures: should be installed Wildlife management practices

if none are present so water depth can be Establish Native Grasses and Forbs: where na-

controlled tive prairie has been converted to non-native

grasses

Manipulate Succession: prescribed fire and

chaining are recommended to reduce woody

vegetation where needed and maintain na-

tive short grass prairie; grazing manage-

ment should leave adequate herbaceous

cover for prey populations









130 Wildlife Habitat Education Program