Intercultural Communication
Greenland North Arctic
Ocean
Europe Asia
N. America
Pacific Atlantic
Ocean Pacific
Ocean Ocean
Africa
West East
S. America
Indian
Ocean
Australia
世界各国 South
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1. What is culture?
2. What and why is intercultural communication?
3. Possibility and availability of intercultural
communication
4. The different images of other cultures
5. The different attitudes towards globalization
Communicate by, with, and through Discourse
Objective culture （manmade） subjective culture （man hold）
• Architecture (historical sites – frozen history) • psychological aspects of
• Arts and literature （handicraft articles, sculptural arts， • believes, concepts and value system
paintings，opera，drama，music，literature，etc.
• way of thinking
• Clothing, food, shelter [housing] and transportation
• way of behaviors (manners & courtesies)
• production technology and its products
• attitude to Social usages/customs
• Social usages/customs
• verbal and non verbal understanding
• Economic system and political construction
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What is culture ?
Images of culture --- Metaphors (chapter 2, p.18-21)
• Culture is like an iceberg in the sea (visible and invisible)
• Culture is our software (operation system to run our body & the world)
• Culture is like the water a fish swims in (unnoticed & taken for granted)
• Culture is the story we tell bout ourselves (stereotyped way of identity )
• Culture is the grammar of our behavior (a meaning system hard to describe within a culture )
Why the cultures are so different?
• geography (location, materials, other resources )
• climate (weather, plants, food, shelters, closing, etc.)
• different ways of production, means of living
• different attitudes to the outside world phenomenon
Universal Equipment & its functions though different in size
bodies shape
tools color
food style
building taste
Universal needs different means
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Necessities and availabilities of communication--- global and ecological
• Business ~ ---- means of 1. Economical globalization
sharing human products 1. To share the resources
• exchange commodities （trade） 2. To exchange products
• exchange currencies （finance）
3. To share the markets
4. To share technology
• exchange technology （manpower）
• Politics ~ ---- means of • Cooperation rather than confliction
handling world resources • Environmental issues
• ownership system • Political and religious conflicts
• Cultural exchange
• production relationship
• Human heritages
• ideology （education）
• technology ~ ---- means of • Changing technology
achieving human activities • Peaceful use of high-tech (exploitive rather than detective)
• tools/machines/weapons • Telephone, radio, TV signals by satellite
• messages/pigeon（communication）
• Computer and Internet
• Convenient air travel
• horses/wagon/（transportation）
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Characteristics of cultures
• to be shared (ideas, ways of behaving, way of life )
• To be learned and repetitive (handed down from
generations to generations)
• Most part of a culture is hidden (unaware of and invisible)
• To be of guidance (like software of our minds)
• To be changing ( rapid in customs and behavior, slow in
basic patterns and values)
• to be of human (it is human who assigns meaning to it)
1. Initial anxiety Level Information Way of Knowing Interpretation
2. Arrival fascination
1 Awareness of superficial or very Tourism, textbook, TV and Unbelievable, exotic, bizarre
3. Initial culture shock visible cultural traits; stereotypes films, mess media; public and possibly entertaining
4. Surface adjustment opinion, propaganda
5. Mental isolation
6. Integration Acceptance 2 Awareness of significant and Cultural conflict situation: Unbelievable in a frustrating
7. Return anxiety subtle cultural traits quite international business, way; it seems irrational
8. Shock/Reintegration different from your own diplomatic occasions, studying
abroad, etc
3 Awareness of significant and Study about culture; Formal Understandable but only in a
subtle cultural traits quite study at school, thinking way
different from your own
4 Awareness of how a culture feels Getting into living the culture; Acceptable at an emotional
to someone who is a member of working abroad; cross-culture level, enjoyable as life
it marriage, experience
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Culture Shock
• Our expectation of what others will response
depends on the whole frame of value system.
• The meaning of what we hear, see and feel…
• The meaning of what we speak, show, and behave…
• We can always expect what others “will” probably
thinking about, though we have no idea what he or
she is thinking about exactly at the moment,
because we are in the same reference context in
which we have been brought up.
• The interesting this is: (grammar of culture) Objective:
• The home context we take for granted is too familiar • To increase student’s ICC awareness
to explain, like the air we are in. We can handle it • To improve students' understanding of their
automatically, but we are not even aware of its home cultures
existence. • To add new software (acquiring new cultural
• While we are put in a foreign context, we feel quite at skills )to the basic operation systems so as to
loss what to do, but become aware of its existence. make it more powerful, flexible and compatible.
• Dr. Kalervo Oberg first defined culture shock in the Three Main Points
1960's: • Why communication breaks down
• culture shock is initiated by "the anxiety that results • How YOU CAN speak to be fully understood
from losing familiar signs and symbols of social • How YOU CAN listen for accurate meaning
intercourse. These signs or cues include the • How YOUR behavior CAN be acceptable
thousand and one ways in which we orient ourselves
to the situations of daily life.
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WHAT ARE THE CAUSES for CULTURE SHOCK ?
New views of culture shock
• Being cut off from cultural signals and known patterns of
communica-tion, especially the subtle, indirect ways of
1.~ ~ could happen not only between main cultures, but also
expressing feelings. between
• Living or working over an extended period of time in a situation
subcultures
that is ambiguous.
• Having your values (which were previously considered
absolutes) brought into question.
2.~ ~ could happen synchronically，but also diachronically
• Being continually put into positions in which you are expected
to function with maximum skill and speed, but where the rules
3.Synchronic （ 共时）differences include the west vs. east,
have not been adequately explained. nations to
nations, SIGNS OF people to people at the same period of history
WHAT ARE THEand the CULTURE SHOCK?
• Homesickness （历时）differences could be defined in aspects of generation
4.Diachronic
• Withdrawal (ex: spending excessive amounts of time reading
gap, digital gap, and nationals) Chauvinistic
and avoiding contact with local sometimes, regional gap. So, it is also called “
future
excesses
shock ”.
• Stereotyping of host nationals
• Need for excessive amounts of sleep
• Marital stress
• Loss of ability to work effectively
• Compulsive eating or drinking
• Unexplainable fits of weeping
• Irritability
• Physical ailments (psychosomatic illness)
• Boredom
• Exaggerated cleanliness
• Family tension & conflict
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What are the images of culture?
Europe
India
Objective culture （manmade）
• Architecture (historical sites – frozen history)
• Arts and literature （handicraft articles, sculptural arts，
paintings，opera，drama，ballet，music，literature，etc.
• Clothing, food, shelter [housing] and transportation
• production technology and its products
• Social usages/customs
• Economic system and political construction
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What is the image of America in your mind?
Freedom
Open
Energetic
Rich
High-tech
Skyscraper
Silicon valley
Automobile
NBA
Football
Disney
Hollywood
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A foreigner’s images of China Old，mysterious, fascinating, pastoral, hardworking,
developing, and changing everyday …
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Images of Australia
Something you can see:
• geographical features
• natural resources
• architectural styles
• business manners
• way of living
• people and lifestyle
• working and leisure
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What you see is not really what it is. The
images you formed about a specific
culture are greatly influenced by your Music
Language
sub-consciousness which is like a hidden Food, building
part of an iceberg, though invisible and Literature & art
Behavior & curtsey
unaware of, dominating the size, shape Science & technology
and even the nature of what you have
seen above the sea.
Examples：
Sense of beauty Concept of time
& space; sense of
success; pattern of
communication; family
relationship; world outlook
Viewpoint of friendship;
social relationship; attitude to
the position and relationship
between each other according
to age, sex, class, occupation, and
kinship；attitudes to the social
control such as leadership, law,
regulations , value & beliefs，etc.
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generalization & overgeneralization （chapter 3, p.34）
Physically:
• essential strategies of cognition (limit of processing channel)
• effective way of existence (economy of time & energy)
• means of obtaining sense of security (away from being hurt)
Culturally:
• lack of information (unavailability to information, esp. those of invisibility)
• limited experience (no access to foreign culture)
• biased education (school, media, authoritative opinion, propaganda, ideology control)
• tangible profits (political, economical consideration)
E.g.：
American: friendly， but haughty and egomaniac Too broad, out-of-date, inaccurate;
The English: gentleman like，but conservative
Positive or negative judgments;
The French: romantic，enthusiastic，but over-self-respect
German: accurate，conscientious， but inflexible
Chinese: loyal，hardworking，but discreet and sophisticated
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avoiding overgeneralization Cultural shock and conflicts
Attention to Levels of culture: (p.38) could happen at all levels
• a national level (something political)
• a regional and ethnic level (something geographical and traditional)
• a religious level (something ideological)
• a language level (something linguistically)
• a gender level (something aesthetical and of value) gender gap
• a generation level (something historical and of inheritance ) generation gap
• a social class level (something educational and occupational) class gap
• an IT level (something technological) digital gap
Test your attitude --- how close you are willing to be?
• no contact is desirable
• work colleague 选劳模与选对象的差别：
• casual friend 理性与良知—— 情感与观念
• intimate friend 选美与选儿媳的差别：
• marriage partner 审美与愉悦—— 观念与价值
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Stereotypes and prejudices
People of the same culture , dialect, race,
Birds of a feather flock together （物以类聚， 人以群分） town, family, profession, hobbies,
school,
and opinions …
• we want to be close to people who are like us
• we are prone to like people who are in favor of us
• the same belief, religion, and language could easily bring people together and also easily
separate the others from them
• people with the same opinion are likely to go together
People go too far:
• Racism, Sexism, Ageism, Extremism, Extreme,
The forms of prejudices (p.42)
Nationalism, All kinds of discriminations
• Severe prejudice
• Symbolic prejudice (read textbook)
Describing actions which are the result of pretending to give
• Tokenism (very common in China) to those group in society who are often treated unfairly, in
advantage
order to give the appearance of fairness.
• Subtle prejudice
• Real likes and dislikes
• Preference for the familiar
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Attitudes of cultural superiority （p.46）
Americans: the biggest, the best, the newest, the richest，and the most powerful
Chinese: the highest civilization, the longest history, the most diligent people in the world
Spaniards: pride in being especially brave
The French: blindly believe that they are intellectually superior to everybody else
Germans: the best in matters of efficiency, method, and organization
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If we could see in a broader view or a different view:
1 2
3 5 4
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Questions??
1. Attitudes to local cultures
2. Attitudes to ―uncivilized‖ cultures
3. Attitudes to alienated cultures
4. Attitudes to traditions
5. Attitudes to modernization (western centered)
宽容、民主、共存、多元
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The codes we are using to communicate
Language codes (verbal system)
• different languages are different codes
• sub-codes: language used by various sub-cultures & in various situations (dialects, minorities)
• Languages used by different classes, social circles, occupations
• jargons, slang, argot/cant，(malicious words, double talk), pun, metaphors (language
communities)
Behavioral codes (nonverbal system)
Facial expressions (smiles? )
• body languages (closing, facial expressions, eyeball contact, gestures, touching, smell,
Hand gestures
paralinguistic features, etc.) see also: kinesics, proxemics, paralinguistics. Walking (kinesics?)
• situations (space, time, action, silence, etc.) Posture
Space usage (proxemics)
• Physical settings Touching
Eye contact
• Objects Olfaction (e.g. perfume)
Color symbolism
• Cultural elements
Artifacts (jewellery?)
Clothing
Hairstyles
Cosmetics
Time symbolism
Graphic symbols
Silence
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Context in communication
verbal context linguistics context（语言语境） vs. experimental context（经验语境）
Nunan (1993): non-verbal context
discourse that surrounds a objective context
Malinowski: context of utterance(话语语境), context of situation（情景语境）, context of culture
language unit and helps to • body languages
（文化语境）
determine its interpretation • situations
Halliday’s register theory (1964) : field of discourse(语篇场)，mode of discourse(语篇方式)，
• a phrase, a longer utterance • Physical settings
or a text which occurs before • Objects
of discourse(语篇基调)
tenor and/or after a word
subjective context
• Rhetorical & context of culture, intertextual context, intratexual context
Halliday(1985): grammatical
hints • status, positions,
胡壮麟(1994): 语言语境， 情景语境，文化语境 • relationship
• Prefix，Suffix and the other
lexical hints • purpose of talk
High context
Japanese Partner
refers to societies or groups where people have close connections over a long
Chinese Lover period of time. Many aspects of cultural behavior are not made explicit
Arabian Family because most members know what to do and what to think from years of
interaction with each other. Your family is probably an example of a high
Indian Friend
context environment.
European Colleague
American stranger Low context
refers to societies where people tend to have many connections but of shorter
duration or for some specific reason. In these societies, cultural behavior and
beliefs may need to be spelled out explicitly so that those coming into the
cultural environment know how to behave.
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Culture differences in context
---- hidden rules of cultural application
Anthropologist Edward T.• Hall’s theory of high- and low-context culture helps usand writers of
Low-context communicators think that the speakers better understand
the powerful effect culture has on communication. A key factor in his theory is context. This
messages are responsible for the success of communication.
relates to the framework, background, and surrounding circumstances in which communication or
• High-context communicators the problems facing low-context North
an event takes place. The following summary highlights expect listeners to take more responsibility
for interpreting from high-context cultures.
Americans when they interact with people the meaning of messages.
High-context cultures (including much of the Middle East, Asia, Africa, and South America) are
relational, collectivist, intuitive, and contemplative. This means that people in these cultures
Configuration of classroom atmosphere (silent culture)
emphasize interpersonal relationships. Developing trust is an important first step to any business
Election of model student/teacher/worker, etc.
transaction. According to Hall, these cultures are collectivist, preferring group harmony and
consensus to individual achievement. And people in these cultures are less governed by reason
Order of taking the floor
than by intuition or feelings. Words are not so important as context, which might include the
Evidence in person’s family
speaker’s tone of voice, facial expression, gestures, posture—and even the language: history
and status. A Japanese manager explained his culture’s communication style to an American: ―We
心有灵犀一点通
are a homogeneous people and don’t have to speak as much as you do here. When we say one
心领神会 旁敲侧击
word, we understand ten, but here you have to say ten to understand one.‖ High-context
Flowery 察言观色
communication tends to be more indirect and more formal. 心照不宣 language, humility, and
elaborate apologies are typical.
不言自明 心知肚明
大智若愚 审时度势
听话听声，锣鼓听音
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Low-context cultures (including North America and much of Western Europe) are logical, linear,
individualistic, and action-oriented. People from low-context cultures value logic, facts, and directness.
Solving a problem means lining up the facts and evaluating one after another. Decisions are based on
fact rather than intuition. Discussions end with actions. And communicators are expected to be
straightforward, concise, and efficient in telling what action is expected. To be absolutely clear, they
strive to use precise words and intend them to be taken literally. Explicit contracts conclude
negotiations. This is very different from communicators in high-context cultures who depend less on
language precision and legal documents. High-context business people may even distrust contracts
and be offended by the lack of trust they suggest.
Discussion: Do you believe Hall is correct in his assumptions? If so, what examples can
you give that demonstrate high- and low-context cultures? How would context help explain
instances of miscommunication between North Americans and Chinese? How could you
become a better international communicator?
Meeting people in the airport
Arrangement for the foreign expects
International business & management
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High Context (p56)
• Less verbally explicit communication, less written/formal information
• More internalized understandings of what is communicated
• Multiple cross-cutting ties and intersections with others
• Long term and close relationships （intimate friends，colleagues, lovers, and family members）
• Strong boundaries--who is accepted as belonging vs who is considered an "outsider"
• Knowledge is situational, relational.
• Decisions and activities focus around personal face-to-face relationships, often around a central
person who has authority
• Inner ring (of religions, beliefs, and interests)
Examples:
Small religious congregations, a party with friends, family gatherings, expensive gourmet
restaurants and neighborhood restaurants with a regular clientele, undergraduate on-campus
friendships, regular pick-up games, hosting a friend in your home overnight.
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Low Context
• Rule oriented, people play by external rules
• More knowledge is codified, public, external, and accessible.
• Sequencing, separation--of time, of space, of activities, of relationships
• More interpersonal connections of shorter duration
• Knowledge is more often transferable
• Task-centered. Decisions and activities focus around what needs to be done, division of
responsibilities.
Examples: Codes of etiquette (P66)
chain supermarket, a cafeteria, a – high context; contract—low context
large US airports, a • Grammar of behavior (banquets convenience store, sports where rules)are
clearly laid out, a motel.
• how to get help such as: public information, asking a way, solve dispute, find a
job, etc
While these terms are sometimes useful in describing some aspects of a culture, one can never
say a culture is "high" or "low" because societies all contain both modes. "High" and "low" are
• in low-context cultures: people turn to …
therefore less relevant as a description of a whole people, and more useful to describe and
• in high-context cultures: people turn to …
understand particular situations and environments.
• different way towards the same contract
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Starting to talk (P76)
• making contact (formal or informal )
• meeting foreigners
• making mistakes
• direct or indirect
• the concept of face
• expressing sincerity
• sense of silence
Inter-cultures:
Intra-culture: High Japan very high
• Old people vs. young people South Korea high to very high
• Larger organization vs. smaller organization Indonesia high
• Established company vs. entrepreneurial company Malaysia high
• Older industrial vs. newer industry (IT) China moderately high
Vietnam moderately high
• Status Thailand moderate
• Purposes Singapore moderate
• Setting Hong Kong moderate
• Relations Philippines moderate
• Levels of Cultures (age, gender, occupations,) Canada moderately low
United States low
Low Australia very low
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Limited and inflexible way of greeting a foreigner:
Where are you from? How long have you been in china? How do you like the city, food, or
Chinese people?
Social blunders (making mistakes)
Directness or indirectness
Accept, refuse, request, invite, defend, explain, complain, argue, debate, dispute, tell truth/ a lie…
Concept of indignity (face)
Saving Face, losing face: (compare a westerner and a Chinese p.88)
Sense of sincerity
Just show me! (Word alone or with action p.90 )
Meaning of silence How to tell when someone is saying “No”.
Silence means much more (Absence of communication or subtle way of expressing)
When a diplomat says “yes”, he means maybe.
Topics of embarrassment
When a diplomat says “maybe”, he means no.
What is inappropriate ? (concept of privacy; all depends on how close you want to/may/could be… )
When a diplomat says “no”, he’s no diplomat.
When a lady says “no”, she means maybe.
When a lady says “maybe”, she means yes.
When a lady says “yes”, she is no lady.
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Different styles of decision-making (westerners vs. Japanese )
Fundamentally concepts resisting against translation or comparisons:
1. Concept of vocational or professional identity (what does your father do?)
2. You-to-you vs. I-to-you approaches in negotiation
3. Bottom-up vs. top-down management
4. Deadline approach vs. thorough job
5. Welfare of Individuals vs. loyalty and commitment to society
How to handle these everyday stresses: (from Reader’s Choice: p81)
1. Occasion to spend money: birthday, wedding, anniversaries…
2. You have to appear in court because you had an automobile accident with another car.
3. You’ve had a fight with your neighbor and nothing was resolved.
4. A close friend is about to get married. In your mind, it will be a disaster.
5. You are worried about rising food prices.
6. You have won a big luxury car in a competition.
7. Every holiday there is a serious argument about whether to visit your parents or those of your spouse.
8. Your youngest child is leaving home and going into the world.
9. The pressures of modern day living have made you and your spouse irritable.
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The concept of face (p88)
• 讲面子 鲁迅先生所说：面子也就是所谓“脸”，
• 爱面子 “这‘脸’有一条界线，如果落到这线
• 要面子 的下面去了，即失了面子，也叫作‘丢
• 卖面子 脸’。不怕‘丢脸’，便是‘不要脸’。
• 丢面子 但倘使做了超出这线以上的事，就‘有
• 没面子 面子’，或曰‘露脸’。”
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示众文化：
给脸与丢脸
奖赏与惩戒
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Building relationships （p98）
Interpersonal relationship
Almost all cultures have the same relationships as the follows:
• Neighbors, friends, co-workers，relatives，partners，acquaintances…
• boss and labor；major and citizens; teachers and students；doctors and patients；
merchants and customers；master and servants; landlord and tenants;
• Husband and wife; parents and children; brothers and sisters;
But it is not true that everyone behaves in the same way towards them:
• Socially （of society, community and working circles）
• Occupationally (of economy, politics, and social ethics)
• Genetically （of family，and blood relationship）
Why is it different?
• Historical reason
• Economical reason people must find a best way to survive
• Cultural reason
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Friendship obligations (p100) 同窗好友
良师益友
What is true friendship？
结义金兰
• What do you expect of your friend?
红颜知己
• How long the term should be?
• Dependent or independent?
忘年之交
莫逆之交
What is good neighbor? (p98)
生死之交
刎颈之交
患难见真情，日久见人心
挚友良朋
但愿人长久，千里共婵娟
志同道合
为朋友愿两肋插刀
滴血盟友
愿爱情地久天长
邻居好，赛金宝
酒肉朋友
远亲不如近邻， 狐朋狗友
百万买宅，千万买邻 铁哥儿们
唯邻是卜 穷哥儿们
知音
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A question of love (p.106)
Attitude to love
• Appeal of romance is universal;
• Attitudes to romantic relationships are not always positive;
• Basis on similarities (age, educational level, economic status, family background, race and nationality )
Who is and what should be practical? (different expectations)
• Americans are practical about their dating relationship, but expect to marry sb. they truly love;
• Chinese are romantic about their love affairs but prefer to choose a marriage partner in a practical way;
Physical love
• what does a kiss mean?
• a hug/embrace in public
• is non-marriage sexual behavior encouraged or not
Family love
• maternal and parental love
• filial piety （孝道）as children’s love for parents
• loyalty and filialness conflict （大义灭亲 punish one's own relations in the cause of justice; place righteousness
above family loyalty;）
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The importance of connections (p108)
The way in which Chinese personalize their lives through connections (guanxi)
• Professional obligations vs. personal relationships
• Americans do use personal connections, but not to the same extent as in China
• Organizations and services should operate and provide according to the rules
Cultural elements of connection styles differ according to：
• urban areas vs. rural areas
• large organizations vs. small organizations
• technical and professional service vs. less-technical and non-professional services
• well-established standards vs. ill-organized behaviors
• priority on business benefits vs. priority on personal benefits
Social obligations (p110-111) !! Bank of receivables / reservoir of debts
• system of social debts and credits
• relationships on impersonal rules applied to everyone;
• dominating concept of social reciprocity in China (Chinese Internet)
Giving and receiving gifts (p112)
• a gift of appreciation
• a gift as a bribe
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