Observational Methods
Observation is a research tool when it
“1. serves a formulated research purpose, (2) is planned deliberately, (3) is
recorded systematically, and (4) is subjected to checks and controls on validity and
reliability.” (Kidder quoted in Merriam, p. 88).
What can be observed? (closely from Merriam, p. 90)
1. the setting: the nature of the physical environment and the behaviors that such a setting might
encourage
2. the participants: Who is there, what roles are they playing, what brings these people together?
3. Activities and interactions: What is going on? Sequences of activity or patterns. How are people
interacting?
4. Frequency and duration: When did a situation begin? How long does it last? How typical of such
situations is the one being observed?
5. Subtle factors: Nonverbal communications, unplanned activities, what does not happen that was
supposed to happen?
Structured observations: Decide beforehand what you are going to be looking for.
Maybe have a list (perhaps coded) of behaviors. E.g., 1 = student asked question of
teacher 2= student asked question of student 3 = teacher asked question of student.
Combining a coded list with a classroom map can be fruitful. Then, each student is
located and their behavior recorded.
Field notes: more open-ended, descriptive approach. May be written after the day of
interactions, so are reflective as well as more objective description. Difficult to do while
teaching.
Advantages of structured observations Disadvantages
Simple There must be a decision about what to
observe
No outsider needed in many situations Need training to use a tool like Flanders
Interaction
Can be focused on a specific behavior
May be obtrusive or hard to fit into a
Can be efficient and easy to do teacher’s day
Can lead to quantifiable data May be subjective
Can help define patterns
Field notes (based on Hopkins, p. 60)
Advantages Disadvantages
Simple, no outsider needed Not specific, may need to supplement
with VT, etc.
Used regularly can be an ongoing record
Cannot record conversation
Can be a memory-aide
Can be highly subjective
Helps in relating incidents or seeking
patterns Initially time consuming as you are
learning skills and defining areas of
Good in case study interest.
Merriam, Sharan B. Case Study Research in Education: a qualitative approach.
SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass, 1988.
Hopkins, David. A Teacher’s Guide to Classroom Research, Philadelphia: Open
University Press, 1985.