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Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects









Ronald G. Grifka, MD

Chief, Cardiology Division

Helen DeVos Children’s Hospital

Professor of Pediatrics

MSU College of Human Medicine

Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects

The Elephant…

Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects

The Elephant…

Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects



What I Will Not Discuss



• Hypertension

• FeNa

• GFR Calculations

• Lupus

Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects



Cardiac Hemodynamics

• Normal cardiac index = 3.5 L/min/m2

• Cardiac index = cardiac output/BSA

• For a newborn: 3.2 kg, 0.22 m2

• Cardiac output = 770 ml/min

• If HR = 140/min

• Each heart beat = 5.5 ml

• RBF = 20% of the CO

- RBF = 1.1 ml/heart beat

Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects



Cardiac Hemodynamics

• Low cardiac output state: CI = 2.0 L/min/m2

• For a newborn: 3.2 kg, 0.22 m2

• Cardiac output = 440 ml/min

• If HR = 170/min

• Each heart beat = 2.6 ml

• RBF = 20% of the CO

• RBF = 0.52 ml/heart beat

Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects



Types of Heart Failure

• Acute vs. Chronic

• New post-op, Myocarditis vs. Dilated CM, DMD, old post-op

• Right ventricle vs. Left ventricle

• TOF, Pulm HTN vs. Anomalous left cor art from PA, DCM

• High output vs. Low output

• Anemia, Hyperthyroid vs. DCM, Myocarditis

• Congenital vs. Acquired

• Mitochondrial disorder, DMD vs. Kawasaki disease, Myocarditis

Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects

5 Physiologies of Congenital Heart Defects

• Left to right shunts

• VSD, PDA, AV Canal, ASD

• Right to left shunts

• TOF, Pulmonary atresia

• Transposition physiology

• Obstructive / Regurgitant defects

• AS, PS, CoA, “HLHS”, MS, MR, AI

• Cardiomyopathy

• Dilated, Hypertrophic, Restrictive

Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects



Physiology #1 Left to Right Shunt



• VSD, AV Canal, PDA, ASD, Ao-PA Window,

Truncus arteriosus, Single V without PS

• Results in pulmonary overcirculation

• *RARELY causes heart failure (”CHF”), renal

failure

• Tx: Diuretics, ACE inhibitor, ± digoxin

• *Neonates - Truncus Arteriosus, Premie (PDA)

- Intestinal steal  NEC, Renal failure

Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects



Physiology #2 Right to Left Shunt



• Tetralogy of Fallot, Pulmonary atresia,

Single ventricle with PS

• Does not cause pulmonary overcirculation!

• Does not cause heart failure (”CHF”)

• Does cause: Cyanosis, Polycythemia, Bleeding

• Partial exchange transfusion if Hct > 62-65%

Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects



Physiology #3 Transposition Physiology

• Blue blood to the body, red blood to the lungs

• Not compatible with life as we know it!

• Profoundly cyanotic, hypoxic, acidotic, hypotensive

• Can cause multi-system organ damage if not

treated immediately

• Immediate treatment:

• PDA (PGE1 infusion)

• ASD (Balloon atrial septostomy)

Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects



Physiology #4 Obstructive/Regurgitant Defects

• Aortic stenosis/regurge, Pulmonary

stenosis, Coarctation of the aorta,

“HLHS”, Mitral stenosis or regurge

• CAN cause heart failure!

• CAN cause inadequate perfusion to:

• Coronaries (infarction)

• Intestines (NEC)

• Kidneys (ARF)

Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects



Physiology #5 Cardiomyopathy

• Dilated, Hypertrophic, Restrictive

• CAN cause heart failure!

• LHF: Inadequate organ perfusion, Pulm edema, SOB, Activity

• RHF: 1° or 2°, Hepato-splenomegally, systemic edema

• DCM: Diuresis, ACE inhibitor, Inotrope, ± Anti-arrhythmic

• HCM: NO: diuresis or inotrope (unless end stage)

YES: beta blocker, ± Anti-arrhythmic, AICD

• End stage Tx: LVAD (DCM), Heart transplant

Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects



Cardiac Related Renal Injury



• Acute insult

• Chronic insult

• An acute insult to a

chronic condition

Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects

Cardiac Related Renal Injury - Acute Insult

• Myocarditis

• Acute bacterial endocarditis

• CHD with acute decompensation (URI)

• Aortic stenosis, CoA, DCM

• Catheterization / IV Contrast

• Open heart surgery / CPB

• Heart transplant

• Rejection, meds, infection

• Trauma (hemorrhage, etc)

Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects

Cardiac Related Renal Injury - Chronic Insult

• (Systemic) Ventricular failure

• CHD, DCM natural history

• Post-op failure

• Myocarditis

• Transplant: Coronary vasculopathy,

rejection, meds, infection

• Cyanosis

• Repetitive embolic events

• Arrhythmia, thrombotic substrate

Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects



Peri-Operative Renal Insults

• Nephrotoxic antibiotics

• Furosemide, mannitol  Diuresis, but IVF not replaced

• Epi, Norepi, high dose Dopamine  Renal vasoconstriction

• Anesthetic agents  Hypotension

• Low cardiac output, low blood pressure

• Sepsis

• Pre-existing renal disease (cyanosis,  Hct, low cardiac output)

• Cardiopulmonary bypass

Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects



Cardiopulmonary Bypass - Positives



• Allows surgery in a bloodless field

• Arrests the heart, decreases MVO2

• Perfuses other organs during surgery

• Can adjust the blood flow, add medications

Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects

Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects



Cardiopulmonary Bypass – Negatives

• Fragments RBC’s

• Activates platelets

• Alters clotting factors

• Liberates vasoactive compounds

• Hypothermic insult (18-25° C)

• Metabolic acidosis

• Perfuses organs during surgery with

NON-PULSATILE flow

• P/O transfusions

Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects



Peri-Operative Treatment

• Phenoxybenzamine pre-op

• Increase renal blood flow

• Dopamine, fenoldapam, neseritide

• Intra-op, Post-op diuretics

• ± IVF replacement: colloid vs. crystalloid

• Increase BP

• But pressors  SVR,  HR , ?  CO

• Peritoneal dialysis

BenephitTM Infusion System

(FlowMedica, Inc., Fremont, CA)



FDA (510K) Cleared January 2004



Intrarenal infusion

-Dopamine, Fenoldopam

-Nesiritide (BNP)

Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects



Cyanotic Heart Disease

• Enlargement of the glomerular capillary tuft

• Mesangial hypercellularity

• Accumulation of eosinophilic material

• Capillary basement membrane thickening

• IgM deposits in the mesangium

• Fibrin in the glomerular capillary walls

• Clinically – GN: hematuria, proteinuria, HTN

Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects



Infective Endocarditis

• Kidneys normal to slightly enlarged

• Glomerular immune complex deposition

- C3, IgG. Occasionally IgM, IgA

• Treat SBE, renal function improves

• Advanced SBE disease

• Microabcesses

• Embolization, infarction

• May not recover renal function

Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects



Contrast Induced Nephropathy



• Well described entity in adults

• Adults have more pre-existing renal disease, HTN

• Rare in children following cardiac cath

• New contrast much safer

• IVF from anesthesiologist and catheter flushes

• Contrast given over several hour cath procedure

- Up to 12 ml/kg over 7 hr procedure

• Much IV fluids, foley

The Evolution of Contrast Media

Molecular Structure Era Examples Comment

COO–Na+/Meg+ Ionic monomer High Osmolality,

I I 1950s

Diatrizoate 5 – 8 blood

Iothalamate

CH3CONH R

I

R Nonionic monomer Low Osmolality,

I I 1980s Iopamidol 2 – 3 blood,

Iohexol improved

R R Ioversol hydrophilicity

I

R COO–Na+/Meg+

Ionic dimer Low Osmolality,

I II I 1980s Ioxaglate ~2 blood

R R R

I I

R R Nonionic dimer

1990s Iso-osmolality

I II I Iodixanol Osmolality = blood

(Iotrolan)

R R R

I I

Osmolalities of Contrast Media

* 320 mg I/mL

† 350 mg I/mL

(mOsm/kg H2O)





2500 ‡ 370 mg I/mL ‡

Osmolality









+

2000

1500

† † †

1000 ‡ ‡

† *

*

500 *

0









Iodixanol is a nonionic dimer, formulated with balanced levels of

Ca2+ and Na+, that is isosmolar with plasma at all iodine concentrations

Reduced nephron mass vulnerable to injury

Associated factors: diabetes, poor renal perfusion, others





Contrast enters renal vasculature

Endothelium-independent transient vasodilation (minutes)







Adenosine release from Endothelin Prostaglandin

macula densa release dysregulation

(tubulo-glomerular feedback)

Decreased Nitric Oxide Synthesis/Release





Sustained intrarenal vasoconstriction (hours)

Prolonged contrast transit time in kidneys Medullary hypoxia

Increased contrast exposure to renal tubular cells





Contrast direct cellular injury and death Ischemic injury and death

Catalytic iron-driven oxidative Stress, inflammation, other organ injury processes









McCullough PA, JACC 2008

Acute Kidney Injury

73 y/o with multiple myeloma, Cr 2.3 mg/dl, CrCl=23 ml/min, Cr rise 0.3 mg/dl









Nephrol Dial Transplant

(2004) 19: 1654–1655

One-Year Kaplan-Meier Survival Curves Stratified by CrCl Levels

after Primary Angioplasty in CADILLAC



100

CrCl >60

CrCl 50-60

90

CrCl 40-50

Survival (%)







CrCl 30-40

80



70



CrCl 20-30

60

CrCl 150 ml/hr

• Nephrology • Iso-osmolar contrast

consultation* •DM, ACS, other added risks *Plans should be made in case AKI

occurs and dialysis is required

• Consider hemofiltration • Low osmolar contrast

pre- and post-procedure •No other added risks † Potentially beneficial agents:

• Limit contrast volume N-Acetylcysteine

•0.5 mg/dL [> 44.2µmol/L])

Dialysis

9 (30%) 3 (10%) 0 (0%) P=0.002

Death

6 (20%) 3 (10%) 0 (0%) P=0.03

NS





50 47

42

P<0.001

40





30

%

20





10

3

0

Control Post- Pre/post- Marenzi G et al. Am J Med.

hemofiltration hemofiltration 2006 Feb;119(2):155-62.

group group

Anatomical Basis: The Coronary Sinus

69 y.o. with CRI, SCr. 2.9, CTO, 240cc dye









MCV

Sensor (Optical Reflectance)





• Delivery fiber shines monochromatic,

visible light into blood

Delivery



• Interactions between light and blood cells

Detection

results into back-scattering of photons,

which are captured by detection fiber

• Amount of scattered light is proportional

to optical density of blood (i.e. number of

blood cells per volume). Contrast Detection Signal [1]

• Signal drop registered when contrast

bolus passes by tip of sensor system







[1] Signal represents contrast presence in coronary sinus

In-Vivo Contrast Removal





• Successful device

deployment in CS

• Arterial injection of contrast

• Appropriate size & seal at

CS level

• Contrast recovery: 70%*





Source: CAN-12 CD1_IMG008 * Contrast recovery established by UV Spectrometry

Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects







This is not the end.

Nor is it the beginning of the end.

But perhaps, this is the end of the beginning.

Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects

Thank you, and looking toward the future in Grand Rapids….

Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects

Risk Factors for Acute Kidney

Injury in Congenital Heart Defects









Ronald G. Grifka, MD

Chief, Cardiology Division

Helen DeVos Children’s Hospital

Professor of Pediatrics

MSU College of Human Medicine



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