Disorders

Hematoma Cause

Epidural Hematoma Laceration of the middle meningeal artery

Subdural Hematoma Laceration of superior cerebral veins

Subarachnoid Hematoma Ruptured berry aneurysm





Suratentorial Tumor Cause

Meningeoma Slow growing tumor of the meninges (15% of gliomas)

Astrocytoma Typically benign tumor of astrocytes (20% of gliomas)

Germinoma Tumor of germinal cells (generally near the pineal/tectal regions)

Brain Abscesses Strep., Staph., or Pneumococci enter via sinusitis, mastoiditis, etc.

Colloid Cysts of 3rd Ventricle Ependymal tumor (2% of gliomas)

Oligodendrogliomas Slow benign tumor of oligodendrocytes (5% of gliomas)

Glioblastoma Multiforme Malignant, rapidly forming astrocytic tumor (55% of gliomas)

Histo: contains perivascular pseudorosettes and pseudopalisades





Infratentorial Tumor Cause

Pituitary Adenoma Remnants of Rathke's pouch (adenohypophysis precursor) present

Craniopharyngioma Remnants of Rathke's pouch (adenohypophysis precursor) present

Choriod Plexus Papilloma Benign tumor of choroid plexus; can cause hydrocephal. (2% of glio)

Cerebellar Astrocytoma Benign tumor of cerebellar astrocytes

Medulloblastoma Primitive neuroectodermal tumor (PNET)

Hemangioblastoma Tumor of blood vessels typically in the cerebellum (or retina)

Ependymoma Tumor of ependymal cells (5% of gliomas)

Schwannoma Tumor of Schwann cells from vestibular division of CN VIII

Brain Stem Glioma Tumor of glial cells in brainstem (usually benign astrocytoma)

Intraspinal Tumors Schwannoma > Meningioma > Glioma > Sarcoma …

Foster Kennedy Syndrome Anterior Fossa Meningioma





Meningitis Cause

Bacterial Meningitis Newborns: Streptococci, E. Coli, and Listeria; Infants: S. Pneumonia

Young Adults: N. Meningitidis; Adults: S. Pneumonia

Viral Meningitis Mumps, echovirus, coxackie virus, EBV, and herpes simplex type 2





Hydrocephalus Cause

Communicating Hydrocephalus Impaired CSF reabsorption (Usually due to arachnoid gran. defects)

Noncomm. Hydrocephalus Blockage within the normal ventricular / aqueductal pathway

Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus CSF not absorbed by arachnoid villi

Hydrocephalus Ex Vacuo Loss of cells in the caudate nucleus

Pseudotumor Cerebri Increased resistance to CSF outflow at arachnoid villi





Herniation Cause

Uncal Herniation Protrusion of the brain through the tentorial incisura

Tonsillar Herniation Protrusion of the brainstem/cerebellum through foramen magnum

Subfalcine Herniation Protrusion of one hemisphere of the brain below the falx cerebri





Congenital Malformation Cause

Spina Bifida Occulta Failure of the posterior neuropore to form

Meningocele Same as spina bifida but more severe

Meningomyelocele Same as meningocele except more severe

Cranium Bifidum Defect in occipital bone

Colobma Iridis Failure of the choroidal fissure (optic nerve fibers) to close

Anencephaly Failure of the anterior neuropore to close

Arnold-Chiari Malformation Congenital





Dandy-Walker Malformation Congential failure of Foramen of Luschka and Magendie to open





Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Prenatal exposure to alcohol

Holoprosencephaly Failure of midline cleavage of embryonic forebrain

Hydranecephaly Bilateral hemispheric infarction due to occluion of carotid arteries





Spinal Cord Injuries Effected Area

Poliomyelitis Ventral Horns

Tabes Dorsalis Dorsal Columns (especially Fasiculus Gracilis)





Brown Sequard Hemisection of left or right spinal cord





Anterior Spinal A. Occlusion Ventral 2/3 of Spinal Cord

Vitamin B12 Neuropathy Dorsal Columns and Lateral Ventral White Matter

Syringomyelia Ventral White Commissure and Ventral Horns

Multiple Sclerosis Random but primarily involving white matter of cervical levels

Friedrich's Ataxia Same as Vitamin B12 Neuropathy (aka Subacute Combined Degen.)

Guillan-Barre' Syndrome Motor fibers of ventral roots and peripheral nerves

Intervertebral Disc Herniation Generally occurs in L-4/L-5 regions or L-5/S-1 regions

Cauda Equina Syndrome Sensory loss in a saddle-shaped area (Gradual and Unilateral)

Conus Medullaris Syndrome Sensory loss in a saddle-shaped area (Sudden and Bilateral)





Deafness Cause

Conduction Deafness Interruption of passage of sound waves thru external or middle ear

Sensorineural Deafness Disease of the cochlea, cochlear nerve (acoustic neuroma), or

central auditory connections





Brainstem Syndromes Affected tracts and nuclei

Medial Medullary Syndrome Corticospinal tract, medial lemniscus, hypoglossal nucleus

Lateral Medullary Syndrome CN VIII Nu., ICP, Nu. Ambiguus, CN 9 & 10, STT, Spinal Nu. Of V

Medial Inferior Pontine Syndro. Corticospinal tract, medial lemniscus, CN 6

Lateral Inferior Pontine Syndro. CN 7, 8 (V/C) Nu., Spinal Nu. Of V, MCP, ICP, STT

MLF Syndrome MLF ipsilateral to CN III and contralateral to CN VI

Facial Colliculus Syndrome CN VII and/or CN VI Nu.

Dorsal Midbrain Syndrome Superior Colliculus, Pretectal Region, Cerebral Aqueduct





Paramedian Midbrain Syndro. CN III, Medial Lemniscus

Medial Midbrain Syndrome CN III, Corticospinal tract, Corticobulbar tract

Jugular Foramen Syndrome CN IX, CN X, CN XI





Locked In Syndrome Corticospinal and Corticobulbar tract bilaterally

Central Pontine Myelinosis Corticospinal and Corticobulbar tract

Top of the Basilar Syndrome



Subclavian Steal Syndrome

Visual Defects Cause

One-and-a-half Syndrome Bilateral lesions of the MLF and a unilateral lesion of CN 6

Argyll Robertson Pupil Syphilis and Diabetes

Horner's Syndrome Lesion of oculosympathetic pathway





Papilledema Increased ICP as a result of tumors, hematoma, or hydrocephalus





ANS Disorders Cause

Hirschprung's Disease Neural crest cells do not migrate to part of colon; peristalsis stops

Riley-Day Syndrome Autosomal recessive; Loss of neurons in ANS/sensory ganglia

Peptic Ulcer Disease Excessive production of HCl b/c of increased parasymp. Stimulation

Shy-Drager Syndrome Damage to preganglionic neurons of intermediolateral cell column

Botulism Toxin from the Clostridium Botulinum blocks release of Acetylcholine





Limbic Disorders Cause

Kluver-Bucy Syndrome Bilateral ablation of anterior temporal lobes, including amygdala

Amnestic Syndrome Bilateral infarction of the hippocampal formation

Wernicke's Encephalopathy Vitamin B1 deficiency damaging the mamillary nucleus, DM N. of the

Thalamus, periaqueductal gray, and pontine tegmentum

Strachan's Syndrome Vitamin B1 excess





Basal Ganglia Disorders Cause

Parkinson's Disease Degeneration of dopaminergic cells of the substantia nigra

Huntington's Disease Inherited autosomal dominant movement disorder of chromosome 4

Causes degeneration of cholinergic and GABAergic striatal neurons

Hemiballism Vascular lesion of subthalamic nucleus

Wilson's Disease Autosomal recessive disorder caused by defect in metabolism of Cu

Tardive Dyskinesia Patients are on antipsychotic medications





Language Disorders Cause

Broca's Aphasia Damage to Broca's Area (BA 44,45)

Wernicke's Aphasia Damage to Wernicke's Area (BA 22)

Conduction Aphasia Damage to Arcuate Fasiculus (Connects Wernicke's to Broca's)

Transcortical Motor Aphasia Damage to afferent fibers to Semantics

Transcortical Sensory Aphasia Damage to efferent fibers to Semantics

Global Aphasia Lesion of Perisylvian Area thus damaging Broca's and Wernicke's

Expressive Dysprosody Lesion to BA 44, 45 in non-dominant hemisphere

Receptive Dysprosody Lesion to BA 22 in non-dominant hemisphere





Other Disorders Cause

Korsakov's Syndrome Insufficient B1 (Thiamine) absorption damages Mammillary Bodies

Diabetes Inspidus Secondary to damage to posterior pituitary (lack of ADH)

SIADH Lung tumors produce excessive ADH (opposite of D. Insipidus)

Bell's Palsy Damage to peripheral nerve produces LMN symptoms on Face

Trigeminal Neuralgia Damage to a branch of the trigeminal nerve

Anterior Vermis Syndrome Atrophy of rostral vermis due to excess chronic EtOH consumption

Myasthenia Gravis Autoimmune disorder directed at Acetylcholine Receptors

Alzheimer's Disease Degeneration of cortical and cholinergic neurons in N. Basalis of M.





Lambert-Eaton Syndrome Presynaptic defect of acetylcholine release

Gerstmann's Syndrome Damage to the inferior parietal lobe of the dominant hemisphere

Characteristics





"Worst headache of my life", CSF will have RBCs in it





Characteristics

Benign, and more common in women (3:2)

Characteristically found in hemispheric white matter in posterior fossa of children

Cause noncomm. hydrocephalus b/c of aqueductal stenosis; causes Parinaud's syndr.

Frontal, temporal lobes and cerebellum; Results in cerebral edema and herniation

Found at F. of Monro thus causing increased ICP, positional headaches, sudden attack

Calcification and frontal lobe involvement; Cells look like fried eggs (perinuclear halo)

Most common primary brain tumor, this is commonly found in the frontal and temporal

lobes as well as basal ganglia; crosses midline via corpus callosum





Characteristics

Prolactinoma most common; May cause hypopituitarism, visual field defects

Congenital cystic tumor

Occurance: 4th V > LV > 3rd V; Most common tumor of children under 2 years

Contain pilocytic astrocytes and rosenthal fibers; most common pediatric brain tumor

Radiosensitive; common in posterior fossa of children; cause posterior vermis syndrome

Characterized by abundant capillary blood vessels and foamy cells

Benign, with ependymal tubulus and perivascular pseudorosettes

aka Acoustic Neuroma; Antoni A and B tissue and Verocay bodies

Causes CN palsies, and may cause the "locked-in" syndrome

Ependymoma represents 60% of intramedullary gliomas

Ipsilateral anosmia (loss of smell), optic atrophy, and contralateral papilledema





Characteristics

Fever, headache, nuchal rigidity (tightness in back of neck), Kernig's sign (pain while

extending knee), and CSF has decreased glucose but increased neutrophils and protein

Same as for bacterial meningitis except CSF has normal glucose levels





Characteristics

Malabsorption leads to accumulation of CSF in ventricles or subarachnoid space

Blockage leads to to accumulation of CSF in ventricles or subarachnoid space

Progressive dementia, ataxic gait, urinary incontinence (Wacky, Wobbly, and Wet)

Compensatory enlargement of ventricles due to loss of brain parenchyma

Found in obese young women; Papilledema without mass, deteriorating vision





Characteristics

Increased cranial pressure in both hemispheres

Increased pressure in the brainstem/cerebellum

Increased cranial pressure in one hemisphere





Characteristics

Usually occuring in sacrolumbar region, hair tuft associated with site of failed closure

Subarachnoid space herniates outward from the spinal column

Subarachnoid space and spinal cord herniate outward from the spinal column

Herniation of meninges, cerebellar tissue, and fourthe ventricle

Brain does not develop

Tectal plate is broken, cerebral aqueduct is thus occluded, and herniation of both the

cerebellar vermis and medulla into the vertebral canal

Enormous dilation of fourth ventricle, occipital meningocele, and agenesis of cerebellar

vermis and spelnium of corpus callosum

Microcephaly and congenital heart defects; most common cause of mental retardation

Most severe form of fetal alcohol syndrome, only one lateral ventricle and no corpus cal.

Hemispheres are replaced by hugely dilated ventricles





Characteristics

Same as Lower Motor Neuron lesions (areflexia, flaccid paralysis, fasiculations, etc.)

Syphilis; Irritative involvement of dorsal roots results in pain and paresthesias

Romberg sign (pt. stands w/ feet together and loses balance when eyes close)

Ipsilateral loss of touch below injury and loss of pain and temperature up two levels;

Contralateral loss of pain and temperature sensation below the lesion

Damages LCST, STT, Ventral Horns; Bilateral Horner's Syndrome, loss of bladder/bowel

Caused by megaloblastic anemia; Damages DSCT, LCST, and DC-ML tracts

Loss of pain and temperature on outer arms and falccid paralysis of hands

Plaques present damaging at random





LMN symptoms; upper cervical root (C4) involvement and respiratory paralysis common

Spinal root symptoms affecting a specific dermatome

Caused by a tumor of the terminal cord; Continence and sexual functioning intact

Caused by an intramedullary tumor; sexual and urinary incontinence severe





Characteristics

Caused by obstruction such as wax, otosclerosis(temporal bone degen.), or otitis media

aka Perceptive Deafness, this is caused by presbycusis (degenerative loss of the initial

segments of the organ of corti thus causing loss of high frequeny sounds)





Characteristics

Anterior Spinal A. occlusion; Injured tongue deviates toward injury (lick your wounds)

Posterior Inferior Cerebellar A. occlusion; Dissociated sensory loss

Paramedian branches of Basilar A. occlusion

Anterior Inferior Cerebellar A. occlusion

Internuclear Ophtalmoplegia often caused by Multiple Sclerosis

Caused by pontine glioma or vascular accident

Parinaud's Syndrome; Often the result of a pinealoma or geminoma and results in

noncommunicating hydrocephalus, paralysis of upward/downward gaze, pupil deficits

Benedikt Syndrome; Ipsilateral eye paralysis, contralateral loss of T/P/V sensation

Weber Syndrome; Ipsilateral eye paralysis, contralateral face weakness and spastic

Caused by poserior fossa tumor and results in loss of gag reflex, loss of P/T and taste

in tongue, and paralysis of palate, larynx, SCM, trapezius

Caused by lesion of the base of pons; Pt. Conscious and can move eyes only vertically

May become locked in syndrome; Spastic quadriparesis, bulbar palsy, mental changes

Rostral Basilar A. occlusion; optic ataxia, psychic paralysis, fixation of gaze (Balint's

syndrome), w/ or w/o vsisual anosognosia (Anton's syndrome)

Thrombosis of L Subclavian A. proximal to vertebral a.; transient weakness, vertigo

Characteristics

On attempted lateral gaze the only muscle that functions is the intact lateral rectus

Absence of miotic rxn to light (direct/consentual) but preservation of miotic rxn in near r.

Miosis (constricted pupil), ptosis (droopy eyelid), apparent enophthalmos (the impression

that the eye is sunk in), hemianhidrosis (no sweating on half of face)

Enlarged optic disk producing bilateral enlarged eye spots





Characteristics

Extreme dilation and hypertrophy of colon, fecal retention, absence of myenteric plexus

Jewish; Excessive sweating, unstable blood pressure, difficulty feeding, sensory loss

Stomach pain

Orthostatic hypertensio, anhidrosis, impotence, bladder atonicity

Paralysis of striated muscles, dry eyes, dry mouth, bowel obstruction





Characteristics

Visual agnosia, hyperphagia, docility, and hypersexuality

Anterograde Amnesia (inability to learn and retain new memories)

Ocular disturbances, ataxia, mental dysfunction





Spinal ataxia, optic atrophy, and nerve deafness





Characteristics

Bradykinesia, stooped posture; Presence of Lewy Bodies; Treated with L-Dopa

Glutamate Excitotoxicity: Glu is bound to NMDA receptors resulting in influx of Ca and

cell death; chorea, hypotonia, progressive dementia

Ballistic movements of one or both extremities

Chorea, rigidity, pyschosis, dementia; Copper deposition noted in the cornea

Repetitive choreic movement that affects the face and trunk





Characteristics

Patient understands speech but is unable to fluently speak or repeat phrases

Patient cannot understand speech but is able to fluently speak nonsensically; cant repeat

Patient understands speech and speaks fluently but cannot follow commands or repeat

Patient cannot understand speech or speak fluently but can repeat statements

Patient understands speech and can repeat statements but cannot speak fluently

Patient cannot understand speech, speak fluently, or repeat phrases

Patients can speak normally but can't express emotions or inflection in their speech

Patients can speak normally but can't understand the emotional content of heard speech





Chracteristics

Alcoholics; Ataxia, Mental Status Changes, and Opthalmoplegia

Excessive thirst and urination, increased plasma sodium and decreased urinary sodium

Decreased thirst and urination, decreased plasma sodium and increased urinary sodium

Hemiparesis of upper and lower face

Sharp shooting pain in a dermatomal pattern precipitated by cold weather or face touch

Ataxia of legs and trunk

Fatiguable Weakness of Skeletal Muscle, Dysarthria, Ptosis, and Respiratory Failure

Neurofibrillary tangles, senile plaques, amyloid substance, granulovascular degeneration,

and Hirano bodies; Associated with memory loss

Weakness in limb muscles that improves with use (unlike M. Gravis)

Right and left confusion, finger agnosia, dysgraphia, dyslexia, dyscalculia, and either

contralateral hemianopia or lower quadrantanopia

Structure Function

Choroid Plexus Secretion of CSF; Forms Blood-CSF barrier

Free Nerve Endings Mediate pain and temperature sensation in the epidermis

Meissner's Corpuscles Touch receptor found abutting the epidermis in the dermis

Merkel Discs Unencapsulated light touch receptor

Pacinian Corpuscles Pressure and vibration receptors found in the dermis





Vessel Supplies

Anterior Spinal Artery Anterior 2/3 of spinal cord and medulla

Opthalmic Artery Eye

Central Retinal Artery Retina

P Comm. Hypothalamus and ventral Thalamus

Anterior Choroidal Artery LGN, Globus Pallidus, and Posterior Limb of Internal Capsule

ACA Medial surface of the cerebral hemispheres

A Comm. Connects the ACAs in the Circle of Wilis

Medial Striate Arteries Anterior putamen, caudate, and internal capsule

MCA Lateral surfaces of the cerebral hemispheres

Lateral Striate Arteries Internal capsule, caudate, putamen, and globus pal.

PICA Medulla and inferior cerebellum

Pontine Arteries Base of pons

AICA Pons and lateral cerebellum

SCA Midbrain and superior cerebellum

PCA Midbrain, thalamus, LGN, MGN, and occipital lobe

Great Vein of Galen Drains the deep cerebral veins into the straight sinus

Superior Sagittal Sinus Drains the bridging veins and CSF (via arachnoid villi)

Middle Meningeal Artery Most of the dura, including its calvarial portion





Developmental Region Function

Alar Plate Gives rise to sensory neurons

Basal Plate Gives rise to motor neurons

Sulcus Limitans Separates the alar and basal plates

Rhombencephalon Develops into the Metencephalon and Myencephalon

Prosencephalon Develops into the Telencephalon and Diencephalon

Myencephalon Develops into the Medulla and Lower Fourth Ventricle

Metencephalon Develops into the Pons, Cerebellum, and Upper Fourth Ventricle

Mesencephalon Develops into the Midbrain and Cerebral Aqueduct

Diencephalon Develops into the Thalamus and Third Ventricle

Telencephalon Develops into the Cerebral Hemispheres and Lateral Ventricles

Anterior Neuropore Closure gives rise to the lamina terminalis

Posterior Neuropore Closure point of the caudal neural tube

Adenohypophysis Derived from mouth ectodermal region called Rathke's Pouch





Aggregates Characteristics

Lipofuscin Granules Accumulation of residual bodies derived from lysosomes

Melanin Black pigment found in substantia nigra and locus coeruleus; disappears with Parkinson's

Lewy Bodies Neuronal inclusions characteristic of Parkinson's

Negri Bodies Intracytoplasmic inclusions characteristic of Rabies found in pyamidal cells of hippocampus and Purkinje cells of the

Hirano Bodies intraneuronal, eosinophilic, rodlike inclusions found in the hippocampus of patients with Alzheimer's

Neurofibrillary Tangles Intracytoplasmic degenerated neurofilaments characteristic of Alzheimer's

Cowdry Inclusion Bodies Intranuclear inclusions found in neurons and glian in herpes simplex encephalitis

Hypothalamic Nuclei Secrete

Medial Preoptic Nucleus Gonadotropic releasing hormones

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus

Anterior Nucleus

Paraventricular Nucleus ADH (vasopressin), Oxytocin, Corticotropin Releasing Hormone

Supraoptic Nucleus ADH (vasopressin) and Oxytocin

Dorsomedial Nucleus

Ventromedial Nucleus

Arcuate Nucleus Factors to control hypothalamus

Mammillary Nucleus

Posterior Nucleus

Lateral Nucleus



Limbic Components Function

Orbitofrontal Cortex Mediates conscious perception of smell; connects with DM Nucleus of Thalamus, Septal Area, and Hypothalamic N

DM N. of Thalamus Plays a role in affective behavior and memory; connects with Orbitofrontal cortex, Prefrontal Cortex, and Hypothalam

Anterior N. of Thalamus Major link in the Papez Circuit; connects with the mamillary nucleus and cingulate gyrus

Septal Area Connects with the hippocampal formation via the fornix as well as with the hypothalamus via the medial forebrain bu

Limbic Lobe Consists of the subcallosal area, parahippocampal gyrus, cingulate gyrus, hippocampus, and amygdala

Hippocampal Formation Functions in learning, memory, and recognition of novelty; Recieves input from entorhinal cortex as well and consist

Dentate Gyrus Part of Hippocampal Formation; Recieves hippocampal input and projects to hippocampus and subiculum

Hippocampus Part of Hippocampal Formation; Contains pyramidal cells that project through the fornix to the septal area and hypo

Subiculum Part of Hippocampal Formation; Recieves input from hippocampus and projects through the fornix to the mamillary

Amygdaloid Complex Stimulation produces fear and sympathetic overacitivty; Lesions produce placidity and hypersexual behavior; Reciev

corticies, olfactory bulb and cortex, hypothalamus/septal area, and hippocampal formation; Output is through the str

septal area and to the DM nucleus of the thalamus





Chemical Function

Alpha Fetoprotein (AFP) Found in amniotic fluid and maternal serum it is indicative

of neural tube defects

Kinesin Mediates fast anterograde axonal transport along neural microtubules

Dynein Mediates fast retrograde axonal trasport along neural microtubules





Cell Origin

Neural Crest



Microglia Monocytes (Mesoderm)

Oligodendrocytes Neuroectoderm

Schwann Cells Neural Crest Cells

Astrocytes Neuroectoderm





Ependymal cells Neuroectoderm

Tanycytes Neuroectoderm

Characteristics

Infoldings of blood vessels of the pia mater, covered with ependymal cells

Connected via C fibers

Connected via A-beta fibers





Surrounded by adipose, connected via A-beta fibers





Characteristics

Branches off of the vertebral arteries

Infratentorial branch of the ICA that runs with the optic nerve

Courses though the optic disk to enter the retinal side of the choroid

Aneurysm results in third nerve palsy





Injury associated with leg/foot defects

Most common site of aneurysm in COW; aneurysm causes bitempral lower quadrantanopia

Penetrating arteries of the anterior cerebral artery

Injury causes deficits in language (Broca, Wernicke), motor (face, arms), and vision (FEF)

Penetrating arteries of the middle cerebral artery; Main blood supply of the internal capsule

Injury can affect nucleus ambiguus; Branches from the Vertebral Artery

Injury affects corticospinal fibers and CN IV root

Injury affects CN VII, spinal trigeminal tract of CN V

Supplies the SCP, deep cerebellar nuclei, and cochlear nucleus

Occlusion results in contralateral hemianopia with macular sparing

Formed from the confluence of the inferior sagittal and internal cerebral veins





Branch of the maxillary artery that enters the brain via the foramen spinosum





Characteristics









Failure to close results in ancephaly (failure of brain to develop)

Failure to close results in spina bifida









oeruleus; disappears with Parkinson's





ound in pyamidal cells of hippocampus and Purkinje cells of the cerebellum

n the hippocampus of patients with Alzheimer's

teristic of Alzheimer's

herpes simplex encephalitis

Other

Contains the sexually dimorphic nucleus which requires testosterone for functioning

Controls circadian rhythms and recieves input from retina

Controls temperature regulation via parasympathetic stimulation

Regulates water balance; Destruction results in diabetes insipidus





Savage behavior results when this nucleus is stimulated in animals

Stimulation of this nucleus inhibits the urge to eat; Damage results in obesity, savage behav.

For example, neurons here produce dopamine, which inhibits prolactin

Portion of the memory/emotional Papez branch of the Limbic System

Plays a role in thermal regulation

Stimulation of this nucleus induces urge to eat; Damage results in anorexia







th DM Nucleus of Thalamus, Septal Area, and Hypothalamic Nuclei

ects with Orbitofrontal cortex, Prefrontal Cortex, and Hypothalamic Nuclei

millary nucleus and cingulate gyrus

nix as well as with the hypothalamus via the medial forebrain bundle

yrus, cingulate gyrus, hippocampus, and amygdala

velty; Recieves input from entorhinal cortex as well and consists of the following three major parts:

pal input and projects to hippocampus and subiculum

cells that project through the fornix to the septal area and hypothalamus

hippocampus and projects through the fornix to the mamillary nuclei and anterior nuclei of thalamus

vty; Lesions produce placidity and hypersexual behavior; Recieves input from the sensory association

ptal area, and hippocampal formation; Output is through the stria terminalisto the hypothalamus and







Associated with

Spina Bifida (increased amts.) Down Syndrome (decreased amts.)





ural microtubules

Nerve trophic factors, neurorophic viruses (Herpes, Rabies, Polio, Tetanus)





Function / Characteristics

Gives rise to ganglion cells, schwann cells, chromaffin cells, melanocytes, odontoblasts,

AP septum of heart, and parafollicular cells

Immune response in CNS

Myelination of CNS

Myelination of PNS

Feet form glia limitans and envelope basement membrane of capillaries, forms glial scars,

buffers K conc., helps in reuptake of neurotransmitters

Cilliated cells that produce CSF

Modified ependymal cells that mediate cell transport btw. Ventricels and neuropil, regulate

the release of gonadotropic hormones from adenohy.