Social Inequality
Chapter 10
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Social Stratification
Definition of social stratification: The layering of people
according to access to societal resources.
Key societal resources in the U.S. include access to education,
stable jobs, and bank loans. In a capitalist society, it is all about
money.
While stratification is found in all societies, its form varies. For
example, some societies stratify people according to their ethnicities,
so that one particular ethnic group is favored over the others.
The Southern Jim Crow system of “separate but equal” racial
segregation favored white people over people of color, giving
whites more access to key societal resources. This practice was
finally ended in 1964.
In the U.S. the most signification social stratification involves
stratification by social class. Social class is usually measured by a
combination of people’s income, education, and job status. 2
Two Basic Types of Stratification
Caste Systems Class Systems
Emphasis on ascribed status Emphasis on achieved status
Fixed, closed boundaries Open boundaries
Less mobility More mobility
More endogamy; exogamy is Less endogamy, a bit more
not generally permitted exogamous
Lots of status consistency Less status consistency
In caste systems people’s ascribed characteristics - their race, sex, or
ethnicity – place them in fixed locations for the rest of their lives.
In class systems there is more emphasis on achieved status, where a
person’s individual achievements may bring them upward mobility.
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Historical Context
Recall the Lenski typology discussed in Chapter Four.
Hunting and gathering societies are relatively less stratified
because there are so few social statuses and they have such a
simple social structure.
The emergence of agrarian societies led to huge stratification
systems. Slavery became a common feature of agrarian societies.
Agrarian society stratification is based mostly on the caste
system.
Industrial societies, while initially highly stratified, tend to see
reduced stratification over time because of their emphasis on
achieved status and the emerging values of freedom and equality.
Plus their new technologies reduce the need for labor-intensive
jobs. Industrial society stratification is based mostly on the
class system. 4
Historical Context
In the American 19th and 20th century, both caste and
class stratification systems operated, depending on the
category of people affected.
For racial minorities and women, a caste system operated in
many areas of the country. Racial minorities and women were
essentially segregated and forced into low paying jobs that
had little upward mobility. In effect, they experienced internal
colonization.
However, for white males a class system operated which
permitted them to achieve upward mobility based on hard
work and achievement.
It would not be until the 1960s that the last vestiges of
the caste system would be eradicated. Since the 1960s
minority groups have achieved more upward mobility.
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Four Basic Principles
1. Stratification is a characteristic of society and not just
individual differences. In other words it results from
the social structure and it affects everyone.
2. Stratification persists over generations. It is passed
on via family ties, where the infant inherits the social
location of their parents.
3. Stratification is universal, but extremely variable in
form.
4. Stratification involves not just inequality, but the
belief systems that legitimize this inequality.
6
Two key factors help maintain a
stratification system:
1. Ideology, specifically the dominant ideology.
2. Elite control of key societal resources.
Ideology refers to the set of assumptions people use to
understand and advocate how people should be treated.
Basically an ideology is a world view. Examples of
ideologies include individualism, democracy,
Christianity, communism, capitalism, racism, sexism,
etc.
There are many ideologies in complex societies such as ours,
but they are not equally powerful. Some are more powerful
than others.
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Dominant Ideology
The dominant ideology refers to the most powerful or mainstream
ideology in a society. Examples of dominant ideologies in the U.S.
include
Christianity (the dominant religious ideology),
individualism and freedom (the dominant social ideology),
democracy (the dominant political ideology) and
capitalism (the dominant economic ideology). This ideology is very
significant to the American stratification system.
Dominant ideologies tend to be taken-for-granted as common sense,
or “truth.”
Other competing ideologies tend to be dismissed or not even
considered. For example, Americans rarely even consider the
viability of democratic socialism – an alternative to capitalism.
Dominant ideologies do not stem from just anyone. They stem from
elites, who have the power to have their world views spread
throughout the society. Elites own the media, for example. 8
Dominant Ideology
Because the dominant ideology stems from elites (the
primary beneficiaries of the status quo), the dominant ideology
of a society always legitimizes the status quo.
It makes the current pecking orders of society appear
“natural” and appropriate. (Notice that elites are at the top of
this pecking order).
Because the dominant ideology is found throughout the
society, almost everyone learns it, and most people accept or
internalize the dominant ideology into their own world views.
For example, the dominant racial ideology of the 19th century was
racism. Consequently the vast majority of whites were racist, and
white Americans took it as common sense that people of color were
“inferiors.” It took a civil rights movement in the 1950s and 60s to
challenge and finally end this dominant ideology.
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Dominant Ideology
People are socialized into the dominant ideologies of
their culture at young ages, and most internalize these
world views into their own belief system.
Partly because we are a diverse society, the Americans
have long had conflicting dominant ideologies. We
learn to believe in equality, but we also learn to believe
in sexism and homophobia. We learn to believe in
cooperative, loving spiritualism (Christianity that
emphasizes the New Testament), but we also learn to
believe in competitive, self-interested materialism
(capitalism).
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Dominant Ideology in Caste Systems
In the old monarchies, the King owned nearly all the land,
and the peasant was “permitted” to farm this land for
subsistence. The King was all-powerful. Why did most
peasants accept this inequality?
The dominant ideology that justified this unequal
arrangement was divine nobility.
Peasants were told by the King and the official Church that
the King was divine. He was selected by God to be their
leader and this was unchangeable. A king was a king for
life, and a peasant was a peasant for live, and that was
God’s will. Any peasant who disagreed would go to Hell.
Those peasants who obeyed the King would go to Heaven.
Most peasants were religious. They accepted divine
nobility, and therefore accepted their lowly status. 11
Dominant Ideology in Class Systems
While the American class system is less stratified than the
old monarchies of Europe, nearly one in five Americans
lives in or near poverty. The capitalist system has not served
their interests, so why aren’t they organizing into a collective
movement for change?
One of the reasons is that the dominant ideology of
capitalism promotes the notion that anyone can dare to be
great if they try hard enough, so you just have to try harder.
We are told that meritocracy determines our personal
success, so again, we must try harder. Also, our economic
system emphasizes the myth that we live in a land of
equal opportunity, so those who fail must not be taking
advantage of these “equal” opportunities.
Finally, we are an individualistic society, so if we fail we
learn to blame ourselves rather than the system. 12
Summary
The dominant ideologies of capitalism, meritocracy,
and individualism function to point the blame not at
the system itself but at the individual for her own
failure to succeed.
Most poor people remain loyal to capitalism, despite its
failure to serve their interests, just as most peasants
remained loyal to their King, despite his failures.
Capitalism is a dominant ideology and it justifies
inequality by suggesting that the poor are lazy or have
failed to take advantage of opportunities. They have
only themselves to blame.
Dominant ideologies are very powerful in maintaining
the stratification system.
13
Elite control of key societal resources
The second reason why stratification systems tend to last a
long time is that they are maintained by the power of elites.
Elites have disproportionate influence over the laws, the
media, the education system, the religious system, the jobs
system, bank loans, and other key institutions.
These institutions have policies that favor elites over others.
Those who are the daughters and sons of the powerful can expect
easier access to the top schools and jobs, as the 43rd President’s
personal history reveals. Thus the system perpetuates itself across
generations.
During the feudal times in Europe, the King simply sent the
Sheriff to any offender who did not obey his wishes, so for the
few who did not accept the dominant ideology of divine nobility
there was plenty of armed force to assure the survivability of the
stratification system.
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Explanations for Stratification
The structural functional paradigm argues that
stratification systems are functional for society.
The Davis-Moore Thesis argues that industrial societies are
most productive under a system of meritocracy. Under this
type of inequality, the stratification system rewards good
performers (with high wages) and punishes poor performers
(with low wages).
Davis-Moore argue that some jobs need to pay more than
others – they are important jobs – so their high pay will attract
the best performers. These top performers will be more
innovative and this is functional for society.
Functionalists also argue that stratification promotes in-
group solidarity. Members of similar social classes tend
to identify with each other.
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Explanations for Stratification
Conflict theorists disagree with the Davis-Moore thesis
promoted by functionalists. They argue that people do not need
more money to do good work, because what makes people do
good work is pride and character, not money.
The Davis-Moore argument presumes people are selfish and
motivated only by money, while conflict theorists argue that
people are fundamentally good.
They ask, “who is to say what jobs are more functionally important than
others?” Everyone needs a garbage hauler, yet they are paid
relatively low wages.
They also ask, “is a sports athlete’s salary really reflective of meritocracy?”
Is a star football player really worth 20 times the salary of the
President? Do executives really deserve to make their million
dollar salaries? Are they really the best at their jobs?
Finally they ask, “what society has actually practiced a true meritocracy?”
About half of all wealth is inherited rather than earned
meritocratically in the U.S.. 16
Explanations for Stratification
Karl Marx argued that stratification is harmful to
society, not functional. It promotes social conflicts by
giving some people advantages over others, creating an
unfair system of rewards.
To Marx, the capitalist owners exploited the workers
with low wages and terrible working conditions. This
created the conflicts between the haves and the have-
nots.
Marx argued that capitalism and its inequality had to be
replaced by a system of democratic socialism that assured a
more harmonious and just distribution of wealth. Only with
equality would society be more harmonious. All
capitalist systems bring inequality and poverty.
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Explanations for Stratification
Functionalists criticize Marxists by arguing that a non-
stratified society is not feasible.
Some level of stratification is a fact of life in all societies.
They also criticize Marx for being wrong about
predicting a worker’s revolution.
However, Marxists respond that the strikes and union
movements of earlier times were a form of worker’s
revolution, and these strikes ultimately reformed the
harshest aspects of capitalist exploitation.
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Summary of the Conflict Theory Argument
1. Stratification promotes oppression and exploitation:
the haves gain at the expense of the have-nots.
2. Stratification promotes conflicts between the
different social classes, and these conflicts are harmful
to society.
3. Meritocracy is not necessary. We do not need a
financial rewards system for good behavior because
good behavior is a matter of personal character more
than anything else.
4. Equality assures fairness, and with fairness society
would be more harmonious.
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Max Weber’s Insights
Karl Marx emphasized economic matters as the basis of a
stratification system. Max Weber argued that there are
other dimensions to social stratification:
1. Social class – the economic dimensions that Marx wrote
about. Having wealth means having power.
2. Status – some jobs may be low paid, but they carry high
prestige and thus convey power. An example would be the job of
being a priest.
3. Power – This could be political or bureaucratic power.
Politicians have a special form of institutional power, as does any
mid-level manager in a bureaucracy. The “technocrat” may not
make much money, but they do have bureaucratic power.
In the former Soviet Union, bureaucratic officials were not
paid much money, but they had tremendous power to
influence society.
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Social Mobility
Social mobility refers to movement up or down the
stratification system, and this movement is caused by two
forces.
1. Exchange mobility. This is mobility due to the
individual’s own behaviors.
An example would be when someone works very hard on the job
and their boss notices it and rewards them with a promotion.
2. Structural mobility. This is mobility due to social
forces beyond the individual’s immediate control.
An example would be if a factory started up in a small town, then
plenty of new jobs would open up and it would offer lots of
structural opportunities for people. Similarly if the factory closed
shop, then it would lead to mass layoffs, regardless of how well
the workers perform on the job as individuals.
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Social Mobility
Americans are socialized to believe that most
mobility in the U.S. is exchange mobility but this is
not true.
The vast bulk of mobility in this society is due to
structural forces.
This also explains why Americans have enjoyed
more than a century of upward mobility. As long as
the American economy has grown to offer more and
better paying jobs, America has been a “land of
opportunity.”
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Industrial Society and Mobility
The industrial revolution initially led to the polarization of
social classes between the working/lower classes and the
middle/upper classes.
These were the conditions that Karl Marx studied when he wrote
about the evils of capitalism. This system was so rigid it was close to
a caste system.
However, a large middle class gradually emerged over time,
many jobs were upwardly mobile, and a distinct class system
emerged.
In the 1920s, the top 1% of the population owned 36% of the
nation’s wealth.
By the 1980s, the top 1% owned 23% of the nation’s wealth.
Today wealth is quickly becoming concentrated again. Business Week
notes that the top 1% now own 40% of the nation’s wealth, which is
more than the bottom 90% of all households combined. 23
Industrial Society and Mobility
1. Historically, most American mobility has been
structural and upward.
2. Most American mobility has been inter-generational
(across generations) more than intra-generational (within
a generation).
3. Since the 1980s, there has been more structural
downward mobility due to the forces of globalization.
Some have written of a middle class slide, referring to a
shrinking middle class since the 1970s. The only Americans
who are doing well are the top 20% of Americans. It appears
that this generation may be the first American generation that is
worse off than their parents. On the other hand, the economy
is hard to predict and the American economy has often
surprised people with its robustness.
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Economic Problems Today
Indeed, Americans work longer for less pay today than they did
in 1970, but it depends on specific categories.
For example, the civil rights movement aided racial minorities
and women in their efforts to achieve upwardly mobile jobs.
Women have had more opportunities recently than they have
ever had, thanks to civil rights gains.
The primary culprit is globalization, but there are many factors
that are stressing the U.S. economy. Globalization has led to
increased foreign competition and American corporations
downsizing American jobs in favor of hiring cheap labor in
other countries. Unions have been on the decline, automation
has displaced many workers, executives have become too
greedy, tax policies favor the rich, the economy has become a
service sector economy with lower paying jobs, and the
government is reluctant to offer national health care, national
day care, and other family supports. 25
New Opportunities for Some
On the other hand, American values are
changing for the better and levels of racism,
sexism and homophobia are declining.
This means that we are becoming a more egalitarian
society, as well as a more inclusive society. This is
good news for most minority groups because it
means they are finally getting opportunities denied to
them in the past.
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End
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