Section 1
Manifest Destiny
As you read, look for:
• the concept of Manifest Destiny,
• the annexation of Texas,
• the Mexican-American War, and
• vocabulary terms: manifest destiny, Wilmot Proviso,
and Compromise of 1850.
When the thirteen colonies declared independence in 1776, they controlled a
land area that stretched from Maine to Georgia along the Atlantic coastline
and inland as much as three hundred miles. At the end of the Revolution, the
P
Figure 19 United States had expanded westward to the Mississippi River. In 1803, the
United States purchased the Louisiana Territory from France and basically
Timeline doubled the size of the country. In 1810, parts of Alabama and Mississippi
1845-1861 were annexed, and in 1819, Florida was ceded to the United States by Spain.
1845 1852 1861
Texas became State convention to consider secession; Confederate States of America formed
state Uncle Tom’s Cabin published
1860
Lincoln elected president; South Carolina seceded
1850
Compromise of 1850 1857
Dred Scott decision
1846 1854
Mexican-American War; Kansas-Nebraska 1856 1859
Oregon Territory split between Act; Republican Brooks-Sumner John Brown’s raid
Great Britain and US party formed Affair on Harpers Ferry
1845 1850 1855 1860
1848 1853
Gold discovered in California Gadsden Purchase 1856
1850 The first railroad bridge
Nathaniel Hawthorne published The Scarlet Letter across the Mississippi River built
1858
First message sent across Atlantic cable
1860
Pony Express mail service began between St. Joseph, Missouri, and Sacramento, California
326 Chapter 13 The Road to War
In less than fifty years, the United States had grown tremendously in land
area and had almost doubled the number of states—from thirteen in 1776
to twenty-four in 1820. In 1845, John O’Sullivan, editor of the Democratic
Review, wrote that it was the manifest destiny of the United States to con-
trol all of the land area between the
Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific
Ocean. In other words, the United
States was destined to control the
continent. Many Americans held OREGON CEDED BY
GREAT BRITAIN
this attitude and worked to expand TERRITORY 1816
1846
the land area of the United States.
They had three areas in mind— LOUISIANA
Texas, California, and Oregon. PURCHASE
MEXICAN 1803
CESSION ORIGINAL
Annexing Texas 1848 UNITED STATES
When Mexico revolted in 1821
GADSDEN
and declared its independence from PURCHASE TEXAS
1853 ANNEXATION
Spain, it looked for support from 1845
FLORIDA
the United States for its new gov- CESSION
1819
ernment. It invited Americans to
move into what is now Texas. Led
by Stephen F. Austin, thousands of
Americans moved into east Texas
and settled on land granted them by the Mexican government. The settlers Map 30
brought with them a desire to grow cotton and the slaves needed to do so.
But Mexico had abolished slavery in 1821. For several years, the Mexi- United States
cans overlooked the slaves held by the Americans, but in 1830 the Mexi- Territorial
cans ordered the Americans to give them up. Mexico also prohibited more Acquisitions
Americans from entering Texas and passed a number of strict laws to con-
trol the American settlements. When Stephen Austin traveled to Mexico City Map Skill: Which states were
to appeal to the Mexican government for relief, he was jailed without a trial included, in total or part, in
for over a year. the Mexican Cession?
By 1836, the Americans had had enough and declared themselves inde-
pendent of Mexico. General Antonio López de Santa Anna, the dictator of
Mexico, led an army of about 4,000 men against the rebellious Texans. He
quickly took control of San Antonio, but was not able to capture the Alamo,
the old Spanish mission being held by the Texas defenders. After a brutal
assault, the Mexicans finally succeeded in taking the mission, killing the entire
180 Texans who defended the mission. Included in the casualties were Wil-
liam Barrett Travis and James Butler Bonham, former residents of the Saluda
area of South Carolina. A few weeks later, Santa Anna ordered that over
350 Texans being held at Goliad be executed by firing squad.
These two incidents inspired the Texans. Led by Sam Houston, the Texans
defeated Santa Anna and his army at the Battle of San Jacinto on April 21,
Section 1 Manifest Destiny 327
Did You Know?
?
During the 1844 campaign,
James Polk (below) made
five promises: to acquire
California from Mexico, to
settle the Oregon dispute,
to lower the tariff, to
establish a sub-treasury,
and to retire from the office
after four years. When he
left office, all of his
campaign promises had
been fulfilled.
1836. The Texas victory created the Republic of Texas, also known as the
Lone Star Republic.
The people in Texas wanted to become part of the United States as quickly
as possible. John C. Calhoun and other South Carolinians, along with their
Southern counterparts, pushed for annexation. President Jackson and his
successor, Martin Van Buren, however, were not willing to fight the politi-
cal battle over adding another slave state to the Union. They thought the
annexation would require a formal treaty since Texas was an independent
nation. They did not think they could get the two-thirds vote necessary to
ratify the treaty. Calhoun, President John Tyler’s Secretary of State, negoti-
ated a treaty of annexation, but the Senate rejected it.
The admission of Texas to the Union was a major issue in the presiden-
tial election of 1844. Democrat James K. Polk campaigned vigorously for
annexation and won the election. President Tyler, however, persuaded Con-
gress to pass a joint resolution annexing Texas before Polk became presi-
dent. Unlike a treaty, a joint resolution requires a simple majority vote. Texas
became a state in December 1845, ending its almost ten-year independence.
Northern abolitionists were unhappy with the annexation of Texas.
Mexico, however, was even more unhappy and declared war on the United
States in April 1846. It claimed that Texas was still a possession of Mexico
and insisted that the border of Texas was the Nueces River. The Texans
claimed that the border was the Rio Grande River.
The Mexican-American War
The Mexican-American War involved much more than admitting Texas
to the Union. Americans hoped to obtain even more territory from Mexico,
especially California. Should the United States succeed in obtaining Cali-
fornia, the objective of manifest destiny would be achieved, at least in part.
328 Chapter 13 The Road to War
American troops fought on Mexican soil often during the war. Marines
landed at Veracruz and easily took the city. Troops under General Winfield
Scott captured the Mexican capital city, Mexico City, in September 1847.
One important event of the war took place in California in 1846. John
C. Fremont led a militia of California residents and a naval squadron and
defeated the Mexican forces in California at Sutter’s Fort. The Californians
then declared their independence and established the Republic of Califor-
nia. It was also called the Bear Flag Republic.
With the revolt in California and their capital city in American hands,
the Mexicans had little choice but to negotiate. American negotiator Nicholas Opposite page, above: For
Trist offered Mexico a little over $18 million for over 500,000 square miles twelve days, the Texas rebels
of territory, including the disputed area of Texas. The Mexicans eventually held off Mexican forces
accepted, and the result was the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which was before falling to General
signed in February 1848. The treaty set the boundary of Texas at the Rio Santa Anna. “Remember the
Grande and gave the United States all or part of the present-day states of Alamo,” however, became
California, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, Wyoming, and Colorado. a battle cry. Below: Though
The United States now controlled a good part of the continent from the he was seriously wounded,
Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific. General Winfield Scott’s
The Mexican-American War is important for reasons other than mani- troops captured Chapulta-
fest destiny. The war served as a training ground for many of the generals pec in the last battle of the
on both sides of the Civil War. Jefferson Davis, the future president of the Mexican-American War.
Section 1 Manifest Destiny 329
Confederacy, was the secretary of war. As a congressman from Illinois,
Did You Know? Abraham Lincoln voted against the declaration of war. He was concerned
?
that the territory obtained from Mexico would become slave territory. Lin-
coln was not the only concerned member of Congress. David Wilmot, a
Robert E. Lee (below), representative from Pennsylvania, added the Wilmot Proviso to an appro-
Thomas “Stonewall” Jack- priations bill in Congress in 1846. The proviso stated that no land obtained
son, Ulysses S. Grant, and from Mexico could become slave territory.
William T. Sherman were South Carolinians were outraged over the proviso. They had not pushed
among the Civil War military for the war and they knew that the vast majority of land gained from the
figures who served in the war probably would be unsuitable for plantation slavery. To South Caro-
Mexican-American War. linians and many other Southerners, if they were going to fight for the United
States, then they should have the right to take their property into any Ameri-
can land like all other Americans. While the proviso was defeated in the
Senate, it signaled that the admission of more slave states to the Union would
be very difficult.
Many South Carolinians fought in the Mexican-American War, includ-
ing the Palmetto Regiment. Overall, 1,048 men from the palmetto state
joined the regiment, and 441 died. This death rate of 42 percent was three
times the rate of the army as a whole. While South Carolina accepted the
casualties as part of war, they could not accept the fact that abolitionists
were determined to bring the slavery question further into public view.
Oregon
The third land area the United States wanted was the Oregon Territory.
This region was west of the Rocky Mountains and north of the California
border. It stretched northward to 54˚ 40’ north latitude, presently the north-
ern border of British Columbia, Canada. Four nations laid claim to the area—
Spain, Russia, Great Britain, and the United States.
With neither Russia nor Spain able to strongly assert its claim to the area,
the dispute came down to the United States and Great Britain. In 1846, Great
Britain and the United States agreed to split the Oregon Territory by ex-
tending the border along the 49th parallel to the Pacific coast. Both coun-
tries received part of the region. Acquisition of the area barely registered in
South Carolina. State leaders were more concerned with the Mexican-
American War and the Wilmot Proviso than they were over the addition of
land they knew would not support slavery.
The Compromise of 1850
Shortly after the end of the Mexican-American War, gold was found in
California. Within weeks, the once sparsely populated land was teeming
with settlers. In 1850, California petitioned Congress for admission to the
Union as the thirty-first state. The admission of California posed a problem
for, in 1850, there were exactly 15 free states and 15 slave states. California
would upset the balance in the Senate.
330 Chapter 13 The Road to War
In Congress, arguments over whether California should be a slave state Above: Henry Clay of
or a free state were heated. It became clear that the only way California would Kentucky was a Senate leader
be admitted to the Union was through a compromise. The most important in 1850. Here, he urges the
leaders of the time—Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, John C. Calhoun, and Senate to pass compromise
Stephen Douglas—all worked toward that end. legislation in order to pre-
Calhoun warned that the proposed compromise would not solve the serve the Union.
problem. The only way the problem would be solved, said Calhoun, was if
the North dropped the slavery issue from its political agenda. He said, “I
have, Senators, believed from the first that the agitation on the subject of
slavery would, if not prevented by some timely and effective measure, end
in disunion.” He proposed a constitutional amendment that would create
two presidents, one from the South and one from the North. Each presi-
dent would have the power to veto laws he felt would hurt his section of the
country. The South would thus be able to protect slavery. Obviously,
Calhoun’s proposal was not adopted.
After much debate and behind-the-scenes work, Congress adopted the
Compromise of 1850 offered by Henry Clay. The compromise provided
for: (1) the admission of California as a free state, (2) the organization of
Section 1 Manifest Destiny 331
South Carolina Portraits
John C. Calhoun
John C. Calhoun was born in 1782, in the Calhoun openly. The most divisive issue was the Tariff of 1828,
settlement in northwestern South Carolina. His father which Jackson supported and Calhoun opposed. Even-
was a farmer who owned a few slaves. John studied tually Calhoun resigned as vice president and returned
law at Yale, returned home in 1807, and became a to Congress as a member of the Senate. There he sup-
member of the bar. In 1807, he also became involved ported the process of nullification, advocated the pro-
in politics when he gave a speech in Abbeville against tection of slavery, and spoke out for states’ rights. He
the British attacks on American shipping. worked, however, to achieve compromise when pos-
Calhoun was elected to the South Carolina legisla- sible. He served briefly as secretary of state for Presi-
ture the next year, beginning a long period of service dent John Tyler, then spent the rest of his political life in
to South Carolina. He served only one term in the state the Senate. In 1850, Calhoun, near death, came to the
legislature before being elected to Congress in 1810. Senate to speak on the compromise being worked out.
He quickly became involved in the affairs of the na- Because Calhoun was unable to deliver the speech him-
tion and was labeled a War Hawk, advocating war with self, Senator James Mason of Virginia delivered it for him.
Great Britain. Calhoun was an ardent supporter of the Calhoun realized that compromise on the issues divid-
War of 1812 and helped raise troops and supplies. Af- ing the country was impossible. He died in March 1850,
ter the war, Calhoun became an influential member less than a month after writing his last speech.
of Congress. He was one of its most eloquent speak- John C. Calhoun worked hard to protect the rights of
ers and, along with Henry Clay of Kentucky and Daniel all states, especially those of the southern states. One
Webster of Massachusetts, con- historian described Calhoun as
trolled much of the negotiating “first in the hearts of his Carolina
that took place behind the scenes. countrymen.” A vote of U.S. sena-
He did not remain in Congress tors in 1957 declared Calhoun to be
long, however. one of the five greatest senators of
In 1817, he became President all time.
Monroe’s secretary of war. Calhoun
wanted to be president, but he Opposite page: John C. Calhoun
withdrew from the 1824 presiden- opposed the Compromise of
tial race to run unopposed for the 1850. His death that year helped
vice presidency. Calhoun was re- make compromise possible.
elected vice president in 1828, un- Left: Fort Hill, Calhoun’s Up
der President Andrew Jackson. Country plantation, was eventu-
Calhoun did not agree with Jack- ally left to the state. Clemson
son on the issue of states’ rights, University was founded on what
and soon they began to disagree had been the plantation.
332 Chapter 13 The Road to War
Section 1 Manifest Destiny 333
the territories of New Mexico and
Utah with no mention of, or restric-
tion on, slavery, (3) the end of the
slave trade in the District of Colum-
bia, (4) the payment of the Texas
government’s debt by the federal
government, and (5) a new and
stronger federal fugitive slave law. Of
the five parts, only the last two ben-
efited the South in general, and only
the last benefited the entire South.
Most southern representatives in
Congress voted for the compromise,
but South Carolina’s representatives
did not. They followed the advice of
Calhoun, who died during the de-
bate on the bill. When the bill passed, some South Carolinians suggested
Map 31 that the state should secede from the Union. Those in favor of secession were
Compromise called fire-eaters, for they were hot-tempered. Most of the people in South
of 1850 Carolina were not yet in favor of secession, but after Calhoun died no leader
of the state could fully restrain the actions of the fire-eaters.
Map Skill: According to the
Compromise of 1850, A Call for Secession
should the Utah Territory What did tame the fire-eaters in 1850 was the refusal of other southern
have been slave or free? states to join them in the call for secession. The fire-eaters, led by Robert
Barnwell Rhett of Beaufort, urged South Carolina to secede. Other South
Carolinians, led by Langdon Cheves, argued that South Carolina should
secede only if other southern states would do so. In the elections of 1850,
Cheves and others who held his viewpoint won a majority of the seats in
the South Carolina legislature. They voted to call a state convention for 1852
to consider the crisis.
On April 26, 1852, a state convention met in Columbia to consider two
proposals. One proposal stated that the federal government had violated
the rights of the state by passing measures such as the Compromise of 1850,
the Missouri Compromise, and the various tariffs. The other proposal stated
that South Carolina—or any other state—had the right to secede from the
Union at any time, although now (1852) was not the right time to do so.
Both measures were adopted. South Carolina remained in the Union, at least
for the time being.
Reaction to the Fugitive Slave Law
Few people in the North or the South were happy with the Compromise
of 1850. In reality, the compromise settled nothing regarding the issue of
slavery. If anything, it made the issue worse.
334 Chapter 13 The Road to War
Southerners, especially South Carolinians, were not happy because the
Compromise gave the free states a majority in the Senate; the free states
already had a majority in the House of Representatives. Southerners were
afraid that if Congress could pass a law outlawing the slave trade in the
District of Columbia, there would be nothing to stop it from passing a law
to abolish slavery in all of the United States. At stake, as far as the South
Carolinians were concerned, was their way of life.
Northerners were not happy with the provision changing the fugitive slave
law. The United States had a fugitive slave law for many years. Under that
law, slave owners could recover their slaves, but at their own expense and
through their own efforts. Under the compromise, however, the responsi-
bility for capturing and returning fugitive slaves fell to the United States
government. Federal marshals were appointed, and their primary duty in
the 1850s was the capture and return of fugitive slaves.
Many northerners believed the new law put the federal government in
the business of slavery; they began to take matters into their own hands. In
several northern states, especially Pennsylvania, citizens interfered with the
federal marshals. Jails where fugitive slaves were being held were attacked,
and the slaves freed.
In addition to interfering with the fugitive slave law, Northerners and
abolitionists increased their efforts to free slaves covertly, or secretly. Dur-
ing the 1840s a groups of abolitionists formed a system of safe houses to Above: Slave owners often
move runaway slaves to the North or Canada. The system, nicknamed the used woodcuts like this one
Underground Railroad, transported many slaves to freedom. Though the in newspaper ads used to
system was never as organized as the name indicates, individuals called find their runaway slaves.
conductors helped the runaway slaves get from safe house to safe house,
hiding during the day and moving at night. Harriet Tubman was one of the
most famous conductors. She and other conductors risked jail and even death
if they were caught in the process of helping slaves run away.
To the South, the actions and attitudes of the northerners were frighten-
ing. The people were openly ignoring a law passed by Congress. Southern-
ers began to fear that northerners possibly would attack the South to free
the slaves.
It’s Your Turn
1. What were three target areas for expansion of the United
States?
2. What land area did the United States acquire through the
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo?
3. How did the Mexican-American War contribute to the Civil
War?
Section 1 Manifest Destiny 335