Chapter 3
Nuclear Energy
Objective
This presentation focuses on the entire
nuclear fuel cycle. It is designed to explain
the negative effects caused by the use of
and production of nuclear energy. It takes
you through the cradle to grave lifecycle of
nuclear energy, paying particular attention
to the social, environmental, and public
health impacts of the processes associated
with nuclear energy.
Overview
We will start with a brief introduction,
then extraction and processing of uranium.
We then discuss the distribution of uranium
to enrichment facilities, and the enrichment
process. This is followed by a more
detailed explanation of nuclear uses for
weapons and electricity production.
Following each will be a discussion of
distribution and consumption. Finally, we
will end with an analysis of nuclear waste.
Brief History
Nuclear energy was first discovered in 1934 by
Enrico Fermi. The first nuclear bombs were built
in 1945 as a result of the infamous Manhattan
Project. The first plutonium bomb, code-named
Trinity, was detonated on July 16, 1945 in New
Mexico. On August 6th 1945 the first uranium
bomb was detonated over Hiroshima. Three
days later a plutonium bomb was dropped on
Nagasaki. There is over 200,000 deaths
associated with these detonations. Electricity
wasn’t produced with nuclear energy until 1951.
Source: The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age by John May
Radiation
Radiation is the result of an unstable atom
decaying to reach a stable state. Half-life is the
average amount of time it takes for a sample of a
particular element to decay half way. Natural
radiation is everywhere—our bodies, rocks,
water, sunshine. However, manmade radiation
is much stronger. There are currently 37
radioactive elements in the periodic table—26 of
them are manmade and include plutonium and
americium (used in household smoke detectors).
Source: http://theodoregray.com/PeriodicTable/index.html
Types of Radiation
There are several different kinds of radiation: alpha
radiation, beta radiation, gamma rays, and neutron
emission. Alpha radiation is the release of two protons
and two neutrons, and normally occurs in fission of
heavier elements. Alpha particles are heavy and cannot
penetrate human skin, but are hazardous if ingested. Beta
radiation is when a neutron is changed to a proton or
visa versa, beta radiation is what is released from this
change. Beta particles can penetrate the skin, but not
light metals. Gamma rays is a type of electromagnetic
radiation which is left over after alpha and beta are
released and include X-rays, light, radio waves, and
microwaves.
Source: The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age by John May
Penetration of Radioactive particles
Source: http://www.ratical.org/radiation/NRBE/NRBE3.html
Uranium Mining
Uranium is usually mined similarly to other heavy
metals—under ground or in open pits—but other
methods can also be used. After the uranium is
mined it is milled near the excavation site using
leaching processes. The mining process explained
here is a combination of two of major mines in
Australia.
Then we will look at the Navajo uranium miners
who were some of the first uranium miners.
Next we will explain some of the other
community and environmental impacts
associated with the mining processes.
Mining risk
“…uranium mining, a polluting activity that
devastates large areas. Uranium ore sometimes
contains as little as 500 grams recoverable
uranium per 1000 kilograms of earth. So,
enormous amounts of rock have to be dug up,
crushed and chemically processed to extract the
uranium. The remaining wastes, which still
contain large amounts of radioactivity, remain at
the mines. These "tailings" are often stored in a
very poor condition, resulting in the
contamination of surface- and groundwater.”
Source: http://www.antenna.nl/wise/
Mining
Uranium ore is usually
located aerially; core
samples are then drilled
and analyzed by
geologists. The uranium
ore is extracted by means of drilling and blasting.
Mines can be in either open pits or underground.
Uranium concentrations are a small percentage of
the rock that is mined, so tons of tailings waste
are generated by the mining process.
Sources: http://www.anawa.org.au/mining/index.html and
http://www.energyres.com.au/ranger/mill_diagram.pdf and http://www.world-
nuclear.org/education/mining.htm
Milling & Leaching
The ore is first crushed into smaller bits,
then it is sent through a ball mill where it
is crushed into a fine powder. The fine ore
is mixed with water, thickened, and then
put into leaching tanks where 90% of the
uranium ore is leached out with sulfuric
acid. Next the uranium ore is separated
from the depleted ore in a multistage
washing system. The depleted ore is then
neutralized with lime and put into a
tailings repository.
Sources: http://www.anawa.org.au/mining/index.html and
http://www.energyres.com.au/ranger/mill_diagram.pdf
Yellowcake
Meanwhile, the uranium
solution is filtered, and then
goes through a solvent
extraction process that includes
kerosene and ammonia to
purify the uranium solution.
After purification the uranium is
put into precipitation tanks—
the result is a product
commonly called yellowcake.
Sources: http://www.anawa.org.au/mining/index.html and
http://www.energyres.com.au/ranger/mill_diagram.pdf
Transportation
In the final processes the
yellow cake is heated to
800˚Celcius which makes a
dark green powder which is
98% U3O8. The dark green
powder is put into 200 liter
drums and loaded into
shipping containers and are
shipped overseas to fuel
nuclear power plants.
Sources: http://www.anawa.org.au/mining/index.html and
http://www.energyres.com.au/ranger/mill_diagram.pdf
Mining Leaders
Australia and Canada are currently the biggest
Uranium miners. The before mentioned process
that takes place in Australia is exported because
Australia does not have a nuclear energy
program. The mining in Australian is primarily
open pit, while the mining in Canada is mostly
underground. Following is two charts—one is
the major uranium producing countries, the other
is of the major corporations that actually do the
mining.
Source: http://www.antenna.nl/wise/uranium/uwai.html
Production in 2000
Canada 10,682
company tonnes U
Australia 7,578
Cameco 7218
Niger 2,895
Cogema 6643
Namibia 2,714
Uzbekistan 2,350
WMC 3693
Russia (est) 2,000 ERA 3564
Kazakhstan 1,752 Navoi 2400
USA 1,456 Rossing 2239
South Africa 878 KazAtomProm 2018
China (est) 500 Priargunsky 2000
Ukraine (est) 500
Czech Republic 500 two charts
India (est) 200 —one is the major uranium producing
France 319 countries, the other is of the major
others 422 corporations that actually do the mining.
Total world 34,746
Source: http://www.world-nuclear.org/search/index.htm
Other Mining Methods
open pit
Another method of
29%
underground 40%
uranium mining is in-situ
in situ leach (ISL) 16%
leaching. This method is
by-product 15%
used because there is
reduced hazards to the employees of the mines, it
is less expensive, and there are no large tailings
deposits. However, there are also several
significant disadvantages including ground water
contamination, unknown risks involving the
leaching liquid reacting to the other minerals in
the deposit, and an inability to restore the
leaching site back to natural conditions after the
leaching process is done.
Source: http://www.antenna.nl/wise/uranium/uisl.html
In-Situ Leaching
Source: http://www.antenna.nl/wise/uranium/uisl.html
Community & Environmental
Impacts
Communities located near the mines and the
workers in the mines are most heavily impacted
by the uranium mining industry. The Navajo
Indians in Arizona were the first uranium miners
back in the 1940’s to the 1970’s. Early on, little
was understood about the dangers of uranium
exposure, and as a result there have been many
illnesses related to the mining. Despite safety
efforts, uranium miners are still at risk. In
addition, tailings dams have broken and
contaminated drinking water in the communities
near the mines.
The Navajo Miners
Some of the first uranium miners were Navajo Indians in New Mexico and
Arizona.
Vanadium mining started there around 1918, but uranium mining did not start
until after the Second World War. Before uranium was discovered there, it
was not clear what this element was, and as a result the tailings from the
Vanadium (that contained high levels of uranium) were not stored
properly—leading to excessive human exposure and environmental impacts
on the water supply and food production.
To make things worse, once the element was discovered, there was a large
prospecting movement throughout the reservation. In addition, the major
corporations that ran these mines paid unfairly low wages and did not warn
the workers of the dangers of the uranium. It was not until people got ill
and were dieing that the workers and their families found out. In 1960 the
workers and their families started the Uranium Radiation Victims Committee,
which sought to warn other workers and families of the danger of exposure
to uranium, but because there was little alternative employment, many kept
their jobs in the mines anyway. In 1990, a bill was passed in congress to
compensate radiation exposure victims, and since then the Office of Navajo
Uranium Workers has sought to identify exposed workers and to provide
medical care. There are currently 2,450 registered workers, and 412
recorded deaths of workers.
Floyd Frank
Floyd lost several
brothers and other
relatives to uranium
related illnesses. He
witnessed calves that
had been born defected
and sheep that have had
lung problems. His view
is that the US
government wanted to
see what happens to
people exposed in these
conditions. The water
has been contaminated
and, through the
tributaries, so has the
land. He says that the
US government will
only compensate
someone if they have
lung cancer, but he says
that his brothers had
sores all over their
Source: http://www.inmotionmagazine.com/brugge.html bodies .
Donald Yellowhorse
Donald Yellowhorse is a
resident of Cove,
Arizona . He recalls
piles of uranium around
his house and in his
town. He says that
some people had their
foundations of their
houses built with the
rock, and that the debris
was dumped directly
upstream from the
drinking water so that
everyone was exposed.
He remembers that the
effects took some time
to notice and that by
the time effects were
observed it was too late
to turn back.
Source: http://www.inmotionmagazine.com/brugge.html
Uranium miners today
“Uranium threatens the health of mine workers and the
communities surrounding the mines. According to the
International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War,
uranium mining has been responsible for the largest collective
exposure of workers to radiation. One estimate puts the number
of workers who have died of lung cancer and silicosis due to
mining and milling alone at 20,000. Mine workers are
principally exposed to ionizing radiation from radioactive
uranium and the accompanying radium and radon gases emitted
from the ore. Ionizing radiation is the part of the
electromagnetic spectrum that extends from ultraviolet radiation
to cosmic rays. This type of radiation releases high energy
particles that damage cells and DNA structure, producing
mutations, impairing the immune system and causing cancers.”
Source: http://www.anawa.org.au/health/oc-health.html
Australia Tailings Spills
Australia currently has four uranium mines—Ranger,
Beverley, Honeymoon, and Olympic Dam—and they have
plans for six more.
In 2002 there were two incidents involving the Ranger
mine in which the stockpile with low-grade ore got
downstream, and was not immediately reported.
In May of 2002 the Beverley mine spilled uranium-
contaminated water for the fourth time.
Even worse than the Beverly mine record is that of
Olympic Dam in which hundreds of thousands of liters of
uranium mining slurry was leaked from a storage tank—for
the seventh time.
Source: http://www.planetark.org/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/16505/story.htm
USA Tailings Spills
On July 16, 1979 the largest spill of radioactive isotopes in the
United States was in the form of uranium tailings erupted from
the Church Rock Dam. The broken dam released eleven
hundred tons of mill waste and ninety million gallons of
contaminated liquid in the Rio Puerco area immediately
effecting over 350 Navajo ranching families, and endangering
the water supply of New Mexico, Arizona, Las Vegas, and Los
Angeles—including Lake Mead. The cause of the breach was a
dam that was not built to code—an accident that could have
been prevented if the proper authorities had done their jobs.
The United Nuclear Corporation have acknowledged fifteen
tailing spills between 1959 and 1977—seven of those were
dam breaks—and at least ten of the spills got into major water
systems.
Source: Killing Our Own by Harvey Wasserman and Norman Soloman.
http://www.ratical.org/radiation/KillingOurOwn/
Nuclear Fuel Cycle
We will start the nuclear fuel cycle
with a brief explanation of how
nuclear energy works, the
enrichment process, and then power
reactors. Following will be
information on Three Mile Island
and Chernobyl, the risk of reactor
leaks, and the impacts on the
communities and the environment.
Then we will discuss the nuclear
weapons program, including the use
of depleted uranium, Hiroshima and
Nagasaki, weapons testing, and the
effects on soldiers, victims,
communities, and the environment.
Source: http://www.sonic.net/~kerry/uranium.html
Key terms
Nuclear energy—synonymous with atomic energy, is the energy produced by fission or fusion
of atomic nuclei.
Atoms—are made of three main parts: protons, neutrons, and electrons . The protons and
neutrons make up the center of the atom while the electrons orbit around the center .
Isotope—if an atom has a different number of neutrons from protons. Isotopes, measured by
their total weight called “mass number” are the sum of neutrons and protons. Some
isotopes are unstable and will decay to reach a stable state—these elements are considered
radioactive.
Ion—if an atom has a different number of electron from protons.
Fission— occurs when an atoms nucleus splits apart to form two or more different atoms.
The most easily fissionable elements are the isotopes are uranium 235 and plutonium 239.
Fissionable elements are flooded with neutrons causing the elements to split. When these
radioactive isotopes split, they form new radioactive chemicals and release extra neutrons
that create a chain reaction if other fissionable material is present. While Uranium, atomic
number 92, is the heaviest naturally occurring element, many other elements can be made
by adding protons and neutrons with particle accelerators or nuclear reactors. In general,
the fission process uses higher numbered elements.
Fusion—is the combining of one or more atoms—usually isotopes of hydrogen, which are
deuterium and tritium. Atoms naturally repel each other so fusion is easiest with these
lightest atoms. To force the atoms together it takes extreme pressure and temperature,
this can be produced by a fission reaction.
Source: The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age by John May and Energy and the Environment by James
A. Fay and Dan S. Golomb.
Conversion
To enrich uranium it must be in the gas
form of UF6. This is called conversion.
The conversion diagram shown here is
from Honeywell. First the yellow cake
is converted to uranium dioxide through
a heating process (this step was also
mentioned in the mining process). Then
anhydrous hydrofluoric acid is used to
make UF4. Next the UF4 is mixed with
fluorine gas to make uranium
hexafluoride. This liquid is stored in
steel drums and crystallizes.
Source: http://www.gat.com/converdyn/dfcp.html
Enrichment
Uranium enrichment increases the amount of U235 in
comparison to U238. Domestic power plants use a mixture that
is 3-5% U235, while “highly enriched uranium” is generally used
for weapons, some research facilities, and naval reactors.
Domestic reactors usually require fuel in the form of uranium
dioxide and weapons use the enriched mix in the form of a
metal. The conversion and enrichment process is very
dangerous because not only is the uranium hexafluoride
radioactive, it is also chemically toxic. In addition, if the
uranium hexafluoride comes in contact with moisture it will
release another very toxic chemical called hydrofluoric acid.
There have been numerous accidents during the conversion and
enrichment process. Depleted uranium is the waste that is
generated from the enrichment process.
Source: http://www.anawa.org.au/chain/enrichment.html
Fuel Fabrication
After being enriched, the UF6
is taken to a fuel fabrication
facility that presses the
powder into small pellets.
The pellets are put into long
tubes. These tubes are called
fuel rods. A fuel assembly is a
cluster of these sealed rods.
Fuel assemblies go in the core
of the nuclear reactor. It takes
approximately 25 tonnes of
fuel to power one 1000 MWe
reactor per year.
Source: http://www.world-nuclear.org/education/nfc.htm
Transportation
Radioactive materials are
transported from the
milling location to the
conversion location, then
from the conversion
location to the enrichment location, then from the
enrichment location to the to the fuel fabrication facility, and
finally to the power plant. These materials are transported in
special containers by specialized transport companies. People
involved in the transport process are trained to respond to
emergencies. In the US, Asia, and Western Europe transport is
mainly by truck, and in Russia mainly by train.
Intercontinental transport is usually by ship, and sometimes
by air.
Source: http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf20print.htm
Picture: http://www.ocrwm.doe.gov/wat/facts.shtml
Nuclear Reactors
There are usually several
hundred fuel assemblies in a
reactor core. There are
several types of reactors, but
they all use a controlled
fission process with a
moderator like water or
graphite. During the fission
process, plutonium is created and
half of the plutonium also fissions accounting for a third of the
energy. The fission process makes heat that is converted to
energy.
Pictured above is the Diablo Canyon reactor in California.
Source: http://www.world-nuclear.org/education/nfc.htm
广东省大亚湾核电站
广东省大亚湾核电站
Reactor Types
PWR—Pressurized Water Reactor—does not boil, but uses the pressure of
the water to heat a secondary source of water that generates electricity.
Most popular (accounts for 65% of reactors world wide). Considered a
light water reactor.
BWR—Boiling Water Reactor—boils water (coolant) that makes steam to
turn turbines. Conducive to internal contamination. Also considered a
light water reactor.
RBMK—Graphite-moderated pressure tube boiling-water reactor similar to
BWR but uses graphite and oxygen. Complex and difficult to examine.
CANDU—Canadian Deuterium Uranium—Doesn’t use enriched fuel. Has
lots of tubes and internal contamination issues.
Magnox—Gas cooled reactor. Cooled with carbon dioxide or helium, and
uses natural uranium. (UK and France).
AGR—Advanced Gas-cooled—also cooled with carbon dioxide or helium.
Uses enriched uranium. (UK).
Fast Breeder—high temperature gas reactor. Uses U235, U238, and
Plutonium 239. Very dangerous because it uses liquid sodium in the
primary circuit and in inflammable with air and explosive with water.
Source: www.world-nuclear.org/
Nuclear fission
fission
1、1938年，德国化学家哈恩和斯特拉斯用中子
轰击铀核时发现了核裂变
a heavy nucleus splits into two lighter ones
2,one example of a fission pathway
235
92U 01n 92
36 Kr 141Ba 301 n +201Mev
56
3,我国物理学家钱三强，何泽慧夫妇1946年在巴
黎发现了铀的三分裂和四分裂 。
Chain reaction
In the case of 235U, however, fission is induced when the
nucleus absorbs a neutron. Not only does the nucleus then split
into two lighter nuclei, but two or three neutrons are also
released. These newly produced neutrons can then collide with
other 235U nuclei, inducing them to fission. There can be a
nuclear chain reaction, in which the number of fission events
rapidly increase.
Chain reaction-1
Chain reaction induced with thermal (slow) neutrons
Chain reaction -2
Chain reaction showing
chain reaction
Pressurized Water Reactor
Source: http://www.uraniumsa.org/
反应堆
Cadmium rods
concrete
Water
pipe
cooling
Heat exchanging
Fuel rods graphite
moderator
fast neutron → slow neutr
Russian RBMK
Source: http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/chernobyl/inf07.htm
Reactor Hazards
Reactor pose a serious threat radiation threat—especially to
the employees and surrounding communities. Recently the
New York times featured an article “Extraordinary Reactor
Leak Get’s the Industries Attention.” The implication is that if
this reactor can leak, so can others. Typically, the reactors
develop boric acid under their lids—which eats away at the
steel encasement (fixable), but this leak is in at the bottom of
a reactor.* In an article featured on CorpWatch, “Bechtel’s
Nuclear Nightmares” talks about a reactor that the Bechtel
corporation built in San Onofre—that’s been shut down since
1992 for lack of safety upgrades. The problem is that there is
no place to permanently send the reactor to and is a risk
because it was built on a fault line.** Three Mile Island and
Chernobyl are two of the worst incidences of reactor
breaches.
*Source: www.nytimes.com/2003/05/01/national/01NUKE.html
**Source: www.corpwatch.org/issues/PRT.jsp
Three Mile Island
Three Mile Island is a pair
of PRW’s. The second one
was built in a hurry for tax
purposes (started operation
on December 30, 1978 to
meet deadline). On March
28, 1979, the Pilot
Operated Relief Valve was stuck
open and caused pressure to be released from the primary
cooling system. The fuel rods came apart and radioactive
material discharged into the sky. Two days later 3,500
pregnant women and children were evacuated. Although
there were no official instructions to do so, many others left
as well. Numerous residents in the aftermath developed
various cancers and thyroid diseases.
Source: The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age by John May;
picture: http://www.libraries.psu.edu/crsweb/tmi/tmi.htm
Chernobyl
Chernobyl had the RBMK
design. In an experiment,
technicians let the power of
reactor 4 fall, and on April 26,
1986 the result was rapid power
levels rising inside the core—
melting fuel and causing a reactor
containment breach—in addition to an
internal hydrogen explosion. The top of the
reactor blew off and spewed radioactive material
into the atmosphere for 10 days.
Source: The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age by John May
Picture: http://www.chernobyl.co.uk/
Health Impacts
Thirty people died in direct relation to the accident.
They were the workers in the plant and the people
who assisted in the cleanup. Approximately 2,500
additional deaths were related to the accident.
Since the accident rates of Thyroid cancer has risen
significantly. The rate of thyroid cancer in children
15 years and younger increase from 4 to 6 per
million to 45 per million in the Ukraine region
between 1986 to 1997 (compared to 1981 to 1985).
64% of these cases were in the most contaminated
regions.
Source: http://www.chernobyl.co.uk/
Community Impacts
116,000 people were evacuated from 1990
to 1995 and 210,000 were resettled.
Major infrastructure had to be rebuilt.
There was also a shortage of electricity.
Agricultural activities had to be reduced,
which lead to a reduction in income.
Source: http://www.chernobyl.co.uk/
Environmental Impacts
Radioactive fall out spread throughout the
Ukraine and Europe, and eventually the
whole northern hemisphere. In the local
ecosystem (10 km radius) coniferous trees
and small mammals died. The natural
environment is recovering but there may
be long-term genetic effects.
Source: http://www.chernobyl.co.uk/
Weapons
Nuclear weapons fall under two categories—
fission weapons and fusion weapons. Fission
is splitting the nucleus of an atom into two or
more elements, which causes a huge amount
of energy to be released. In addition if there
is left over neutrons they will cause fission in
other elements—sustaining a chain reaction.
Fusion is almost the reverse because it
requires the putting together of two nuclei.
The Hydrogen bomb is a fusion weapon,
while weapons that use U235 and Pu239 are
fission weapons. A thermonuclear weapon
detonates in three steps: fission chain reaction,
fusion reaction, and then fission again. When
a thermonuclear weapon explodes, there is
an explosion of neutrons and gamma rays
that causes a silent flash of heat and light,
followed by the extreme pressure of a
mushroom cloud that raises millions of tons
of earth resulting in nuclear fallout. Atomic bomb
Source: The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age by John May
Weapons Production
Production plants involved in the manufacturing of
weapons have also done significant harm to the
environment and surrounding communities. Because the
US was in such a hurry to make as many nuclear weapons
as possible, there are many severely contaminated
environments surrounding these sites. Of special note are
Hanover Washington (evacuated in 1943)*, Rocky Flats
Colorado (plutonium spontaneously igniting cause two
major fires)*, and Fernald Ohio (contaminated ground
water)**. All three of these sites are currently in the
process of being cleaned up.
*Source: Michael E. Long “Half-life: The Leathal Legacy of America’s Nuclear
Waste” National Geographic July 2002.
**Source: www.fernald.gov.pfd
Trinity
In New Mexico on July 16, 1945 was Trinity
test, the first atomic explosion. The Trinity
test spread radioactive material over a 300
square mile area, including Santa Fe, Las
Vegas, and Trinidad (Colorado). Later two
bodies were discovered 20 miles from the
detonation location—the couple had been
living in a nearby canyon in an adobe house.
Source: The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age by John May
Hiroshima & Nagasaki
The Hiroshima bomb was nicknamed
“little boy” (on the left) and was
detonated on August 6, 1945 killing
approximately 140,000 by the end of
that year—and an estimated total of
200,000 altogether. “Fat Man” (on the right) was
dropped three days later on Nagasaki killing
approximately 70,000 people. Entire families were
wiped out. The effects of the radiation caused birth
defects in some of the survivors’ children, while
others could no longer have babies. The physical,
psychological, and environmental impacts of these
atrocities can hardly be put into words.
Source: http://www.csi.ad.jp/ABOMB/
Hiroshima—before
Source: http://www.aracnet.com/~pdxavets/1259a.gif
Hiroshima—after
Source: http://www.aracnet.com/~pdxavets/1260a.gif
Hiroshima—after
This picture was taken by a US army medic named
Henry Dittner in October 1945.
Source: http://www.aracnet.com/~pdxavets/hiro3.htm
Weapons Testing
Since 1945 there has
been 2,050 nuclear
weapons tests world
wide.* This picture is
of “Dog Shot” in the
Nevada desert in 1951.
The second series of
tests, the first series
with large scale troops
present (with 6500
soliders). **
Source: * http://armscontrol.org/act/1998_05/ffmy98.asp,
**http://www.aracnet.com/~pdxavets/naavmed.htm (and picture)
Health Impacts
“The morbidity study for Crossroads contains data received
from 1,572 veterans of the 42,000 participating veterans. This
represents a sample size of 3.74 %. The average death age of
the 380 deceased veterans is 57 years. The incident of all types
of cancers in deceased Crossroads Veterans is 59%.
The Incidence of all types of cancer in the 1972 reporting
Veterans is 35%.
The leading cancer types, ranging from 23% down to 6%, are
skin, prostate, lymphoma, lung, urinary, colon, and esophagus.
These percentages for the most part are seen in data on Ranger,
Greenhouse, Buster-Jangle, Trinity, Tumbler-Snapper, Upshot-
Knothole, Castle, and Redwing. Information from veterans from
other tests is needed before an analysis can be performed.
Further study and data is needed to isolate target area, ie, tests,
units, ships.”
Quoted from: http://www.aracnet.com/~pdxavets/naavmed.htm
Environmental & Community
Impacts
Nuclear weapons devastate large areas of land
with a forceful blast and intense heat. The land
around the blast zones are contaminated with
radioactive debris. The mushroom clouds break
up slowly, and travel with weather patterns
which distributes fallout across the globe. Many
of the tests focus in rural, mainly uninhabited
areas, and as a result disproportionately affect
indigenous and other peoples living in these rural
areas. Other important test sites that have
drastically impacted indigenous peoples include
the Marshall Islands (US) and Mururoa (France).
Weapons Transportation
Another significant threat is planes armed with
these weapons can (and have) crashed; and
submarines have also sunk into the ocean. In
addition there have been incidents in which
material has just been dumped as well. Man
estimates that there are 60 nuclear weapons and
10 reactors on the ocean floor from submarines,
plane crashes, and dumping. Although very
strong casings likely guard them, the casings will
eventually corrode resulting in radioactive
contamination of our ocean and marine life.
Source: The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age by John May
Depleted Uranium
Depleted uranium is
what’s left over from the
enrichment process and is
radioactive. Uranium is a
heavy metal that can
easily penetrate. Depleted
uranium is currently being
used in Iraq, and was
used in Kosovo, the Gulf
War, and Bosnia. When a
depleted uranium burns,
radioactive particles are
release into the air.
Depleted uranium is also
a toxic hazard.
Source: http://www.cbc.ca/news/indepth/background/du.html
Impacts
Jerry Wheat was hit with friendly fire
during the Gulf war and suffered
mysterious ailments when he returned
home. When the shrapnel was removed it
was discovered that is was radioactive.
Source: http://www.tv.cbc.ca/national/pgminfo/du/index.html
“DU has been blamed for a number of
leukemia cases among former Balkans
peacekeepers”
“The Iraqi authorities claim that DU is
responsible for a marked increase in cancers“
Source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/2860759.stm
Nuclear Waste
There four different kinds of waste: High-
level (spent fuel and plutonium waste),
transuranic (contaminated tools and clothes),
low and mixed low-level (hazardous waste
from hospitals), and uranium mill tailings. In
the US there is approximately 91 million
gallons of high-level waste, 11.3 million cubic
feet of transuranic waste, 472 million cubic
feet of low and mixed low level waste, and
265 million tons of uranium tailings.
Source: Michael E. Long “Half-life: The Leathal Legacy of America’s Nuclear
Waste” National Geographic July 2002.
Storage
Many facilities store their own waste on site, but
they are quickly running out of space. Other sites
are in the process of being cleaned, but there is no
place to store the waste. Part of the problem is the
half-life. Half-life is how long it takes for an unstable
element to decay half way. Uranium 238 takes 4.5
billion years. Typically, after ten “half-lives” the
element is considered safe. Nuclear waste lacks
permanent safe storage. Temporary storage is being
proposed for the Skull Valley Goshute Indian
reservation, and permanent storage may be in Yucca
mountain. Mean while waste and tailings are pilling
up.
Source: Michael E. Long “Half-life: The Leathal Legacy of America’s Nuclear
Waste” National Geographic July 2002.
Skull Valley Goshutes
According to the Skull Valley Goshute Indian website the
Goshute Indians in Utah recently made an agreement with a
private utility to temporarily store 40,000 metric tons of spent
nuclear fuel. The Goshute reservation is 18,000 acres, and
already surrounded by other polluting industries. To the south
of the reservation is the Dougway Proving Grounds—a
government chemical and biological weapons testing site. Also
to the south is the Intermountain Power Project, which mainly
makes coal-fired electricity for California. To the east is a
government depository of nerve gas, and to the northeast is a
low-level radioactive disposal site and toxic waste incinerator.
Finally, in the north is a magnesium production plant. On the
Skull Valley Goshute website it is stated that since the
reservation is already surrounded by hazardous facilities, and
after careful consideration and consultation with the
government, scientists, and corporations, they have entered
into this agreement.
Source: http://www.skullvalleygoshutes.org/
Moab, Utah
This is a picture
of a ten-million
ton pile of
uranium tailings.
The pile is right
next to the
Colorado River,
and leaks
ammonia into it
threatening the
fish. The owners of the
pile when bankrupt, so no the citizens of Moab are waiting
for the Department of Energy to clean it up. The clean up
will cost an estimated 64 million dollars.
Source: http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0207/feature1/zoom3.html
Yucca Mountain
Yucca Mountain located in
southern Nevada. Although
this location has not been
built yet, the plan is to have
the waste buried deep in the
mountain. Waste would be
transported from all over
the country in specially
design railroad cars and
truck trailers. The waste
would then be repackaged
for final burial. This plan is
highly controversial.
Source: http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0207/feature1/zoom3.html
Picture: www.ocrwm.doe.gov
Impacts
Radioactive waste is highly dangerous to
humans and the environment. Because the
waste will remain radioactive for so long, it
will remain to be a threat for thousands of
years.
Conclusion
Overall, nuclear energy disproportionately effects
rural communities and the communities near
nuclear facilities. Uranium mining and bombing
are particularly detrimental to the environment.
Further, the effects of radiation (cancer, illness,
and death) are significant. If you find yourself in a
situation where you are being exposed to
radiation, shield yourself from the blast, and then
move as far away from the detonation area as
possible (otherwise remain indoors).
Source: Ready.gov
Sources
The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age by John May
Atomic Veterans website http://www.aracnet.com/~pdxavets/
WISE http://www.antenna.nl/wise/uranium/uisl.html
WWW A bomb museum http://www.csi.ad.jp/ABOMB/
Navajo Indian Miners http://www.inmotionmagazine.com/brugge.html
DU article http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/2860759.stm
Arms Control website http://armscontrol.org/
Ready.gov
UK Chernobyl site http://www.chernobyl.co.uk/
TMI picture: http://www.libraries.psu.edu/crsweb/tmi/tmi.htm
Sources cont.
Source: Michael E. Long “Half-life: The Lethal Legacy of America’s Nuclear Waste”
National Geographic July 2002.
National Geographic waste article (online version of above):
http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0207/feature1/zoom3.html
Yucca Mountain Picture: www.ocrwm.doe.gov
Skull Valley Goshutes: http://www.skullvalleygoshutes.org/
Fernald document: www.fernald.gov.pfd
DU article: http://www.tv.cbc.ca/national/pgminfo/du/index.html
US Nuclear Map http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/three/maps/index.html
World Nuclear Association http://www.world-nuclear.org
Source: Killing Our Own by Harvey Wasserman and Norman Soloman.
http://www.ratical.org/radiation/KillingOurOwn/