Scientific Writing:
How to write like the pros(e)
BioG 105
Cornell University
Scientific Writing
Not creative writing…unfortunately
Can still be interesting
Should be precise, attention to detail
is very important
Aim for “hyperdistillation”
Three main goals
Clarity
Completeness
Insight
Follow Directions!!!!
Enzyme Lab Pages L14-L26
Appendix D (Lab Report Format)
Appendix F (Figures and Tables)
Pay close attention to pages L25-26,
Laboratory Checklist
Ask for help
Enzyme Lab Report
Title (2%) Discussion (22%)
Abstract (10%) Literature Cited (4%)
3 + sources required
Introduction (15%)
1 reserve reading
Materials &
Appendices (5%)
Methods (4%)
6-7 pages of text*
Results (20%)
* Not including title page,
figures, or appendices
Title
Clear, concise
Should communicate what you did
Be specific
Should identify organisms involved
Examples of bad titles:
Enzyme Lab
The effect of various factors on enzyme activity
The effects of the environment on catalase
conformation
Format title page exactly as shown on p. A7
Abstract
Brief summary of all parts of experiment
Problem investigated
General overview of methods
Major results
Conclusions
No citations
Be specific and concise
Abstract must stand alone
Write it LAST
What’s wrong with this?
Abstract (partial)
The series of experiments was designed to test the effects
of the environment on an enzyme, specifically catalase
taken from a Raphanus sativus.
What’s wrong with this?
Abstract (partial)
The series of experiments was designed to test the effects of
the environment on an enzyme, specifically catalase taken
from a Raphanus sativus. We tested how such factors as
concentration, heat, pH, hydrophobic solutions and
inhibitors were detrimental to the performance of the
enzyme.
What’s wrong with this?
Abstract (partial)
The series of experiments was designed to test the effects of
the environment on an enzyme, specifically catalase taken
from a Raphanus sativus. We tested how such factors as
concentration, heat, pH, hydrophobic solutions and inhibitors
were detrimental to the performance of the enzyme. We
expected changes in temperature, pH, and concentration,
as well as the presence of inhibitors to have a large effect
on the enzyme’s conformation and effectiveness.
What’s wrong with this?
Abstract (partial)
The series of experiments was designed to test the effects of
the environment on an enzyme, specifically catalase taken
from a Raphanus sativus. We tested how such factors as
concentration, heat, pH, hydrophobic solutions and inhibitors
were detrimental to the performance of the enzyme. We
expected changes in temperature, pH, and concentration, as
well as the presence of inhibitors to have a large effect on the
enzyme’s conformation and effectiveness. Using the methods
outlined in the Survival Manual, we conducted numerous
experiments to test these hypotheses.
What’s wrong with this?
Abstract (partial)
The series of experiments was designed to test the effects of
the environment on an enzyme, specifically catalase taken
from a Raphanus sativus. We tested how such factors as
concentration, heat, pH, hydrophobic solutions and inhibitors
were detrimental to the performance of the enzyme. We
expected changes in temperature, pH, and concentration, as
well as the presence of inhibitors to have a large effect on the
enzyme’s conformation and effectiveness. Using the methods
outlined in the Survival Manual, we conducted numerous
experiments to test these hypotheses. They proved correct as
the reaction rate changed drastically.
Introduction
Orient reader to your field and put the
experiment in context
Assume reader has a science background
Don’t regurgitate the basics, get to the point
Introduce method
General overview
Explain rationale and objectives
Present and justify hypotheses
Reference sources for background
A note on using references…
Must have a citation for every
statement of fact
Don’t simply throw the citation in at
the end of a sentence, write a
sentence that tells the reader what
you learned from the source.
What to cite? How to find sources?
A sample sentence from a
previous student’s Introduction:
“One would expect to see increased activity
for higher concentrations of catalase (Karp
1999).”
Why? What did you learn from Karp?
Sample sentences from a
published paper:
“Kosinski (1987) suggested that there was a
significant difference in motor skills when
using the dominant versus the non-dominant
hand. Experience performing a task appears
to improve the motor skills required for the
task (Helms, 1994).”
Materials & Methods
Reader should be able to reproduce
experiment exactly
Can refer to protocols described elsewhere
(i.e., Survival Manual) for sake of brevity
Must mention any deviations from protocol
and specific details of your experiment
(temperature, pH, etc.)
What steps were taken to be consistent?
Acknowledge work of others, shared data
Results
Quantitative “When using the
No raw data dominant hand, the
Summarize and mean reaction time for
illustrate findings dextrals was 0.223
No interpretation or sec, while that for
conclusions sinistrals was 0.227
Integrate tables/figures sec. (Table 1).”
and text
Point out most
important information
in text
Be careful using
“significant”
A counter-example
“My group’s next experiment was to
test the effects of high temperatures
on catalase activity. At 30˚C, the rate
was .195, at 40˚C, it was .186, at
50˚C, the rate was .137 and at 60˚C, it
was .015 (Figure 2).
Tables
Summarize data, no Mean
raw data Inhibitor Reaction
Means, SDs, etc. Rate (1/s)
Title should allow to Hydroxylamine 0.00
stand alone
4% NaCl 0.01
What does “stand
alone” mean? 4% NaF 0.04
Belong in section where
first referred to, as do
figures
Don’t forget units!!
Appendix F
Table 1. Effect of the presence of various
agents (possible inhibitors or stimulators) on
the reaction rate of radish (R. sativus)
catalase.
Inhibitor Mean Reaction Rate (1/s)
Hydroxylamine 0.00
4% NaCl 0.01
4% NaF 0.04
** It might make more sense to show change in
reaction rate. Think about the best way to present
your findings…
Figures
Can use computer
generated figures
MUST hand-draw
standard curve for this
lab report
Figure title should
allow figure to stand
alone
Indicate units
Use to show
Fig. 16. Mean relative M2 size for each group. The
LOW48 group mean was significantly higher (P < 0.05) patterns/trends
than all groups with the exception of TUNDRA and
KENAI. Bars are 95% confidence intervals. See Table
Appendix F
7 for group name abbreviations. Relative M2 size
calculated as: (( M2 length * M2 breadth)) /
condylobasal skull length.
Discussion
Interpret results (parallel structure)
Support conclusions with evidence
Discuss all data in results
Refer back to hypotheses
Analyze deviations from expectations
Tie results in to big picture ideas if possible
Cite literature to justify results and put
results in context
Identify sources of error and weaknesses of
experiment
Discussion Sample
“All subjects performed equally when using their dominant
hands, but there were significant differences among individuals
when the non-dominant hand was used. Furthermore, all
subjects showed decreased performance when their non-
dominant hand was used. This supports Kosinski (1987) and
agrees with the predicted outcome. Since this test required
typing skills, those subjects with typing training may have
performed better than those without due to their prior
experiences, as suggested by Helms (1994). All subjects were
only tested 10 times, and, therefore, a single errant response by
a subject had a large effect on their mean response. This could
have caused false conclusions to be drawn. Future
investigations would…”
Literature Cited
Citing source material is of the utmost
importance
Cannot tolerate plagiarism
See Appendix D, follow format exactly
McFadden, C., Sacco, T., and A. Plescia.
2005. BioG 105 Introductory Biology Fall
Survival Manual. CBS Digital Services, Ithaca,
NY.
More on Literature Cited:
Must cite 3 or more sources
One source from reserve readings or
other primary literature
Avoid using only textbooks
Appendices
Raw data in table form (use proper
format)
Show sample calculations
Neat and orderly
A word of warning:
You must write the report completely
independently.
Teamwork in writing lab reports is not
acceptable!
Plagiarism is a serious issue and will not be
tolerated.
Please see the Cornell Code of Academic
Integrity if you have any questions about
academic integrity issues.
The Code is accessible on the Internet at:
http://cuinfo.cornell.edu/Academic/AIC.html
Before you turn it in…
Proofread and Spellcheck!
Have a friend look it over.
Go over report while looking at L25-
L26, Laboratory Checklist - Enzyme
Lab.
Ask TAs SPECIFIC questions.
Another good source of info…
McMillan, V.E. 1997.
Writing Papers in
the Biological
Sciences, 2nd
edition. Bedford
Books, Boston.
At front desk or find
QH304 M16x 1997 @
Mann Library
Walk-In Writing Tutoring
at The Knight Institute for Writing in the
Disciplines
Olin Library 106: Sun - Thurs 7-10pm
Takton Center, Balch 3343: Sun-Thurs
7-10pm
RPC 222: Sun-Wed 7-10pm
Rockefeller 178: Sun - Thurs 3:30-5:30pm,
7-10pm
www.arts.cornell.edu/writing
Lab Report Puzzle
Two groups of naive, individually-isolated
squirrels, previously fed only a basic low
calorie diet, were presented with hickory
nuts for the first time. Group One was
allowed to continue under the same
conditions while the squirrels in Group Two
could observe an experienced squirrel
feeding. After six weeks, the
experimenter compared feeding times,
feeding techniques, and the metabolic cost
of feeding of the two groups.
_____ 1. Only the time actually spent handling and
M&M
gnawing a nut was recorded; feeding was
considered complete when the squirrel finally
discarded the empty shell.
_____ 2. Although initially both groups required
R
approximately equal time to eat, only Group Two
showed a significant decrease at the end of the
sixth week. Group Two also exhibited a marked
decline in within-group variability (see Fig. 1).
_____ 3. Thus, it would not be surprising to learn as
I
a result of this study that there is a
relationship between the food handling techniques
exhibited by squirrels and their success in avoiding
being eaten by predators.
D
_____ 4. Due to the territorial nature of these squirrels, a
particular difficulty was introducing the naive squirrels of Group
Two to the experienced individual. However, the overall
success of this approach is indicated by several
experimental outcomes.
R
____ 5. The graph in Fig. 6 shows that there is a strong linear
relationship between the size of each squirrel in Group One and
the overall proportion of its time which
was spent feeding.
I
_____ 6. While ecologists commonly study optimal foraging
from an evolutionary perspective (Emlem, 1968; Pulliam, 1974)
and ethologists explore social aspects of the learning process
(Alcock, 1969; Herbert and Harsh, 1944), little attempt has been
made to combine the insights from these two lines of research
(Galef, 1976).
Remember your due date.
Papers are due 15 minutes
prior to closing.
(Also keep in mind that you have
3 lab extensions to use for
Enzyme or CP lab report due
dates.)
The End…
Any
questions?
Fig. 15. Representative
images of lateral and
ventral views of the skull
for some of the groups
studied. All images
scaled to approximately
equal skull lengths. See
Table 7 for group name
abbreviations. Note that
three specimens have
been included for the
ABC group to illustrate
the range of within group
variation.
Figure 18. Plots of GLS superimposed configurations for each specimen for lateral (A) and ventral (B) views
of the skull. Lines connect the landmark points for the consensus (grand mean) configuration.
Figure 99. Schematic phylogeny of the bears based on analysis of complete sequences of three mitochondrial genes (Talbot
and Shields 1996b) (left) and RWA tree (right), an UPGMA dendrogram summarizing cluster analysis of mean scores for