fire

Suppose your boat sank in a storm and you washed ashore onto an

uninhabited island. You landed with an ice chest containing a 6-pack of

canned soda and a couple of peanut butter and jelly sandwiches wrapped in

plastic baggies. Throw in an attractive companion if you like (that‘s more

entertainment than Daniel Defoe‘s character, ―Robinson Crusoe‖ had).

You‘ll have the clothes on your back and tennis shoes, but nothing else. No

knife in your pocket, no matches, no cigarette lighter, or any other

convenient means to start a fire. You‘re going to be on this hypothetical

island for some time. Plenty of marine life will be easy to catch in the

coves around the island, and abundant game in the wooded jungle. How are

you going to cook that food, signal for help and stay warm at night? How

are you going to build your fire?

Well, you actually landed with three useful items that could be used to start

a fire. Someone ‗skilled‘ could probably utilize other items, already on the

island to make his fire.



Before 7000 BC mankind is believed to have had no reliable way to start a

fire. Therefore, once acquired, maintaining a continuous fire was likely a

critically important function. By 7000 BC, people in various regions begin

to discover reliable ways to start fires from scratch—and after that the

process will remain secretive, difficult and inconvenient for centuries to

come. Up until the 19th century, humans still had to work with ‗skill‘, to

initiate a fire. People in undeveloped regions of the globe were still pretty

much starting fires in the same manner that their prehistoric ancestors had

developed, eons before. Inhabitants of the ‗civilized world‘ were scarcely

more technologically advanced.

In 1669 Hamburg Germany, an alchemist was trying to convert some of

―life‘s essence‖ into gold. He took some of his own urine, let it rot, then

boiled it down to a paste, then cooked it some more—letting the vapors

travel through water. What he got was a waxy substance that glowed in the

dark (ammonia sodium hydrogen phosphate). Two years later the Irishman

physicist Robert Boyle (Boyle‘s Law) rubs this newfound phosphorus

against some sulfur and creates a flame. Boyle did not exploit his

opportunity to invent the friction match. Mankind was to wait another 1.5

centuries before finding an easier way to start a fire.

Along came an English apothecary and chemist in 1827. He invents a

functional but impractical match called the “Prometheus‖. This was a wood

splinter with a potassium chlorate head placed next to a tiny glass bead of

sulfuric acid, then rolled in paper. A person used tweezers or a bite with the

teeth to break the glass and set off the flame. More importantly, our

apothecary later sticks a mixture of starch, gum Arabic, antimony sulfide and

potassium chlorate onto a stick and lets it dry. This invention he calls a

―Congreve‖, named after an officer who had introduced War Rockets to the

British arsenal. Large rockets (16‘ long) that could rise 9000 feet in the sky

and which sprouted great flames (some were used against Fort McHenry-

Baltimore harbor, in the War of 1812). Our English chemist and friction

match inventor did sell a few matches but he did not get rich. Another

Englishman exploited the commercial market for these matches, and

renamed them ―Lucifer s‖. They became very popular with smokers, but

stank. In 1830 a French chemist created a match that did not stink, using

white phosphorous (highly reactive and toxic).

During the next 50 years large match factories were created that mostly

exploited the cheap labor of children, young girls and women. ―Phossy

Jaw‖ was a famous ailment caused by inhalation of white and yellow

phosphorus vapors in the match factories and often led to death. The

English suffragette movement and a defining moment in trade union history

started with women striking against conditions and hazards of the match

factories, in the Bow district of London. In 1855 a Swede created the first

safety match, using less dangerous red phosphorus and ignitable only on the

box. In 1889 the first matchbook matches were invented and were called

―flexibles‖. By 1910 the Diamond Match Co. patented the first

nonpoisonous match, using sequisulfide of phosphorous. Asked by

President Taft to release their patent for the good of mankind, Diamond

Match did in 1911. The strike anywhere type of kitchen match has become

very rare in the US today.

Retuning to the early 19 century (before the invention of the kitchen

match) a typical ―civilized home‖ might have had a tinderbox with which to

start a fire. The tinderbox, usually metal, contained a fire starting kit. The

kit would have contained a piece if hard steel, a sharp piece of flint,

probably a char cloth and of course tinder (some type of very combustible

material). During this same time period, other fire makers in the world, if

not also using flint and steel - were probably still rubbing sticks together.

Early on, the most popular fire starting method seems to have been the fire

drill. In this friction method the drill is a shaft of wood spun by hand

pressure. Dissimilar woods are generally chosen, usually hard wood for the

shaft and soft for the plank. Continued friction causes powder or dust to

separate from the softer wood and become heated. The base plank is

specially prepared with a notch to allow the tiny and delicate ember of hot

dust to fall out. After an ember is made it is then dropped onto some tinder.

The person blows on the ember, creates a flame, and then adds more tinder

and kindling – to make the flame grow. The whole process appears easy

enough, but in truth can be a significant chore. That said, a skilled

individual can make the process work in less than 60 seconds. It‘s a

question experience, technique and good tinder. The world‘s record for

getting a coal with a hand-drill is 4.5 seconds.

Another ancient friction fire starting method is the wood plough. Popular

in Polynesian cultures, this method also requires careful selection of

dissimilar woods. The base is usually a small tree trunk or staff of soft wood

with a grove worn into it. While the base is held immobile a plow of

smaller diameter hardwood is draw back and fourth in the grove. As with

the fire drill, friction creates dust which turns into a hot ember, which is then

dropped into some tinder. Like the fire drill, the fire plow requires

experience and steadily applied pressure to work.

The bow drill is actually an improvement on fire drill (or hand drill)

method. This method is also ancient. The bow with string wrapped around

the spindle imparts greater speed and greater friction than the previous

methods. Egyptians were using this method while building their pyramids.

Most other civilizations that used the bow for archery probably learned to

use it as a fire starting tool also. This was the favored method of some

American Indian tribes although they did not forget about the hand drill. An

archery bow will work for fire starting, but a bow for such a chore does not

need to be so big. In fact a small branch about 2‘ long (with a small

curvature) is optimum.









The same kind of bottom plank (fireboard) incorporated by the fire drill

method is used. Other acceptable fireboards are a pair of branches tied

together, a branch that has a season split or a tree fungus (a hard mushroom

that grows on a vertical tree trunk – already dead and dried).









The shaft or spindle can be shorter with a bow drill (usually somewhere

between 10‖ and 5‖). A thin spindle of about 5/8‖ to ½‖ is probably best.

Initially pointed for starting a new hole, the spindle thereafter is kept round.

A socket of wood or bone knuckle is held in the hand that applies downward

pressure in the spindle. Optimally the spindle is braced under the shin,

below the knee, where it can be held steady and secure. Since the friction

(heat) is wanted at the fireboard end of the shaft, the hand held socket will

benefit lubrication or from a hard insert. If the socket is wood then a metal

bottle cap or a stone (or other hard material with a concave surface) insert,

will reduce friction and allow more pressure to be gradually applied. The

types of wood used for spindle and fireboard make a big difference. Given

the choices at a random location – only experimentation will tell. Yucca

and Elm rate highly but Maple and Pine do not.









The Egyptian bow drill used several millennia ago was probably a tiny

affair. One of its attributes was the fact that the spindle was attached to the

string. Extra coils of string were wrapped around the spindle (wrapped both

directions from center). This allowed better traction and control over the

spindle. The spindle fastened either by the string passing through a hole in

the spindle or by the tying of a simple clove hitch knot. Someone very

skilled in its use can start a flame within 25 seconds, using a bow drill. The

world record in the late 1930‘s (for getting a flame with a bow drill) was 7 ½

seconds…

Another old variation of the bow drill is the pump drill. The pump drill

would be only slightly more complicated to build than the bow drill. Used

correctly, the spindle can be kept in continual motion by the centrifugal force

of the flywheel and rhythmic motion of the pumping hand. Friction is only

asserted on the downward stroke however.

So, before the invention of matches, ―civilized cultures‖ had a slightly

better way to start a fire. They would whack a piece of steel with a sharp

flint; the tiny spark was caught on a char cloth and tinder. A flint stone is

not one rock but a loose family of cherty type rocks that range at about 8 on

the Mohs scale of hardness. Flint stones are harder than steel and to work

in this application; they need to have a sharp edge. The flint does not burn –

but cuts a small curl of metal off that does. (Cigarette lighters use a man

made material called ferrocerium - not a true flint.) That peal of burning

metal falls onto a char cloth, which perpetuates the combustion. Char cloth

(from the typical tinderbox kit) is a pad of linen or cotton cloth that has been

pre-burned in a low oxygen environment. When the spark lands on this,

the little patch of carbon cloth is then folded over, set on tinder and blown

upon until it ignites. The fancier tinderboxes of the pre-match era often had

a c-shaped or horse shoe shaped piece of metal to hold in one hand, while

the flint rock was held in the other.









A crucial component to success with all of these fire starting methods is

the selection of good tinder. Any spark or glowing ember you‘re going to

get will be tiny. Your tinder needs to be dry, fibrous, fluffy, and highly

ignitable. Many materials can be masticated and crushed to make them

more fibrous. Some appropriate tinders include: spider webs, various plant

fibers, lint, termite dust, grass, pitch wood, bird’s nest, down, fungus,

Spanish tree moss, paper from wasp or hornet’s nest, oakum, and cotton

balls dipped in Vaseline.

Several modern (post 1827- friction match invention) fire starting methods

also require the collection and use of good tinder. These innovations might

use friction, sunlight or even electricity.

Ferrocerium is a man made mix of cerium and iron. The typical cigarette

lighter, a clock works toy that sparks or a welder‘s striker; each contains a

small cylinder of ferrocerium. This is usually pushed by a spring, against

an abrasive piece of moving steel to create sparks. As with the old flint and

steel method, friction ignites tiny shaving shavings of metal. This time

however the iron in ferrocerium burns, not the harder steel. Cerium's low

temperature pyrophoricity is responsible for the easy sparking. A modern

survival kit might contain a single rod of ferrocerium as a fire starter. It‘s

resilient to damage by water and reliable. Better yet a survival kit might

include a magnesium fire starter. This is nothing but a ferrocerium rod

attached to its own tinder. Shavings of magnesium are scraped off into a

little pile (already atop paper or other tinder). The sparks are then scratched

off the rod, onto the magnesium, which should burst into flame.









Energy from sunlight can often be concentrated enough to start a fire. A ray

of light passing through the center of a thin lens keeps its original direction.

A ray that strikes anywhere else is bent. The amount a light ray is bent

increases with its distance from the center of the lens. A magnifying glass is

actually a double-convex lens. It can gather the energy from a broad area

and concentrate it into a small area. The focal point (or hot spot) is where

parallel light rays converge (or cross) along the principle axis of the lens.









Starting a fire with a magnifying glass is a simple chore provided you have

good sunlight, a steady hand and a decent lens. Dust and scratches or other

imperfections on the lens will diffract the light. You‘re not likely to run

across a magnifying lens in an emergency situation, either. Other types of

lenses might be available however, and might be drafted into making an

improvised double-convex lens.

The first two lens shapes above (a & b) might be found in a camera or in a

pair of binoculars. Alone each shape bends light in a way that‘s

unbeneficial to fire starting. A pair of lenses with the shape a (above), back

to back however, might adequately mimic a double-convex lens. The last

two lens shapes above (e & f) are the type normally found in eyeglasses. A

drop of water placed on the back or inside of this type of lens will produce a

temporary double-convex shape. The surface tension of the water droplet

should produce the opposing convex surface. It takes a very steady hand to

find the optimum focal point and to hold eyewear and water, still; long

enough to initiate a flame. Not all eyewear is created equal so the

prescription will play a critical factor in any success.

A parabolic mirror or highly polished parabolic surface can also capture

heat from the sun. If held at the correct angle to the sun, the surface will

concentrate the light into one small spot along the edge of the parabola. For

example a desperate survivalist could polish the concave bottom of a beer or

soda can to a high sheen, using some steel wool. If steel wool cannot be

acquired, perhaps leaves from plants in salt marshes (containing diataneous

silica) or graphite (as in a pencil lead) might work. Graphite is commonly

used as a lubricant but it can also perform as a mild abrasive. The polished

surface (bottom of can) is then propped up by rocks and pebbles until the

sun is caught at a very small spot at the bottom edge of the can. Very small

pieces of tinder are then dropped onto the hot spot and will become hot

enough to ignite. As with all the previous emergency fire starting methods

presented before: creating that initial spark or ember is not so difficult.

Capturing it and making it grow, is usually the hard part.

Another clever idea for making a fire in an emergency involves the simple

clear plastic sandwich “baggie”. One fills the baggie with water, and then

twists the contents into a bubble or sphere. With this makeshift double

convex lens, one again needs to focus hot point upon the tinder and hold it

steady, long enough for the sun to do its work. A clear chunk of ice might

also concentrate solar energy in one spot, long enough to ignite some tinder.









Flashlight batteries and steel wool are a well known way to start a fire.

One strips a small ribbon of wool to the proper length to reach both positive

and negative terminals, and then shorts it out. The batteries need to have a

charge obviously. Two 1.5 volt cells in series provide 3 volts, which is

usually enough energy to make the steel wool glow red hot and then ignite.

Larger batteries will work also.









Finally one noteworthy fire starting method (which still does not involve

friction matches or cigarette lighters) is the ingenious ―Fire piston”. This

device was discovered by Europeans visiting Indonesia in the 1860‘s.

(Indonesia incorporates Sumatra, Indo China, the Philippines, Borneo and

about 17,508 islands in between.) The fire piston is thought to be an

ancient device because of its wide distribution. It may have resulted from

the development of the blow gun or blow tube. The fire piston works on the

same principle as the Diesel engine. A hand sized tube is fitted with a close

fitting rod (piston). For a tight seal the rod is fitted with a gasket of string

or sinew and packed with animal fat or wax. A small piece of tinder is

placed in the dimple of the plunger, the plunger inserted into the tube, and a

pump or two of the piston generates enough heat (through pressure) to ignite

the tinder. The fire piston requires careful construction and close

tolerances, but it is apparently a very reliable device.

So at the beginning of this chapter, a marooned survivalist, after washing

ashore, might have used the sandwich baggies or the bottom of a soda pop

can to start a fire – using solar energy. The shoe laces from the tennis

shoes might have been used in the construction of a bow drill. The hand

powered fire drill and Polynesian wood ploughs don‘t even require a bow

string.