Definition of Attitude
Originally meant as indicating physical properties
such as a position of the body, figure, or statue.
Later, in aeronautics, it refers to orientation of an
aircraft relative to the horizon.
• Leaning
• Stance
• Position
• Direction
A current definition of attitude ---
A psychological tendency that is expressed by
evaluating a particular entity with some degree of
favor or disfavor *
* From: Eagley and Chaiken (1993). The Psychology of Attitudes.
Components of Attitudes
A) Affective (Emotional)
B) Behavioral
C) Cognitive (Thinking)
Process
Stimuli Attitude Evaluation
Observable Inferred Observable
Cognition
Stimuli Attitude Affect
Behavior
Basic factors that influence persuasion
WHO What To Whom
Communicator Message Audience
Variables Variables Variables
Examples: Examples: Examples:
Credibility Single personal Knowledge
example
Attractiveness versus factual Personality
(e.g., self-esteem)
Status Fear appeals
Pre-existing
One-sided versus attitudes
two-sided
arguments Gender
Repetition
Campaign For and Against Adding Fluoride to Drinking Water
Don’t Put Rat
Poison in Your
Drinking Water
Text (in favor versus
of fluoride)
(Against
fluoride)
Factual Emotional
approach approach
Which approach would be the most effective?
Campaign to Make Homes More Energy Efficient
Text (in favor
of energy
conservation
in homes)
Factual Emotional
approach approach
Which approach would be the most effective?
Fear Appeals
Do they work?
Create a lot of fear in
Influence of other
the message (within
factors
ethical limits)
Self-esteem
Personal relevance
Give audience additional Perception of control
information on how to
deal with their fear (e.g.,
where to go, when, why)
TRADITIONAL PERSUATION TECHNIQUES
A) Greater rewards lead to more responses
B) Greater punishment leads to less responses
C) Use of "credible" sources (experts, authority figures)
D) Use of conformity paradigms (e.g., Asch, Sherif)
SOME WEAKNESSES OF TRADITIONAL
PERSUASION APPROACH
A) Effects not very strong
B) Short-term effects
C) Limited to less important issues
Leon Festinger
THEORY OF COGNITIVE DISSONANCE (1957)
BASIC HYPOTHESIS
The existence of dissonance, being psychologically uncomfortable, will
motivate the person to try and reduce the dissonance and achieve
consonance
Behavior inconsistent Creation of
Attitude
with the attitude dissonance
BACKGROUND FOR DISSONANCE IDEAS
• End of the world groups
• Earthquakes in India
• Bad car purchase (post-decision dissonance)
Attitude: “I’m not going to smoke cigarettes anymore”)
Behavior: Smoke cigarettes
Some Options
1) Change behavior (e.g., Throw pack away)
2) Change cognitions (e.g., “Smoking isn’t all that bad”; “I don’t
really smoke that much”)
3) Add supporting cognitions (e.g., “ Smoking relaxes me” “it helps
me think better”
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
FESTINGER & CARLSMITH (1$ - $20 Study)
Asked to tell participant
Perform that the task was $1
boring task interesting Rate
$20 task
• Which group rated the task as more interesting after lying,
those paid $1 or $20?
Key is lack of sufficient external justification for one’s behavior
ATTITUDES REGARDING MARIJUANA LEGALIZATION
Original belief = “No”
Asked to give speech
opposite of their attitude (for
legalization)
More positive
Speech watched Told speech taped and
by research team views of
would be shown to high
legalization
school students
Attitudes regarding marijuana legalization
“TOY” STUDY
Children rate desirability of toys
Told not to play with the most desirable toy
MILD THREAT SEVERE THREAT
Children did not play with the desired toy
Children rate the desirability of the toys a 2nd time after not playing with
the desired
Which group viewed the desirable toy most attractive?
More Cognitive Dissonance Occurs When:
1) Choice is involved
2) Commitment has been made
3) Individuals are responsible for any consequences of their behavior
(and if the consequences could be anticipated)
4) Negative consequences are believed to be likely to occur
5) One’s self-concept is involved
SELF-PERCEPTION THEORY
DARYL Internal States (e.g., “So-called “private” stimuli,
BEM
physiological)
“Gross” evaluation (e.g., “I feel happy”; “I feel
sad”
Use of external social cues for precise
discriminations (e.g., other people’s behavior
or one’s own actions, statements, thoughts)
Attitudes formed
SELF-PERCEPTION STUDY
Behavioral
Attutude survey (what Attitude
survey (on people actually survey (on
environmental did about environmental
issues environmental issues
issues
WEAK STRONG Those with weak initial environmental
attitudes had their attitudes affected by
their responses to the behavior
questionnaire
Do Changing Attitudes Lead to Changes in Behavior?
• Norms regarding proper behavior in a
given situation (& consequences)
• Availability or absence of alternatives
• Extraneous events
FACTORS AFFECTING THE CONSISTENCY OF
ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIORS
ATTITUDES BEVAVIOR
Range of behaviors
• Specific Role of assessed
• Strength personal
experience
• Accessibility
Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
Central Peripheral
Processing Processing
In-Depth Thought; “Lazy” Thinking;
Detailed Analyses of Superficial Analyses of
Information Information
• Ability (IQ, knowledge base,
distracters, message complexity)
• Motivation (e.g., personal relevance)
~ ELM Detail ~ Message
Motivation to Process? No Peripheral Cues Yes Peripheral
(e.g., relevance, need for Present in Message? Processing
cognition, responsibility (e.g., attractive source,
emotional content)
Yes
No
Ability to Process? (e.g.,
knowledge, distractions, Keep initial
message comprehensibility) attitude
Yes
Nature of Cognitive Processing
Favorable Unfavorable Neutral
thoughts thoughts thoughts
Cognitive Structure Change (e.g., new thoughts
stored in memory)
Central positive Central negative
attitude change attitude change
Relatively permanent attitudes,
More predictive of behavior
Issue: To institute a comprehensive university exit exam
STUDY OF
ELM Status of Presenter
MODEL Low High
Relevance Relevance
Low High Low High
Low argument
quality
High argument
quality
If high perceived relevance exists, argument quality is most
important
~THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOR~
Behavioral Beliefs (beliefs about the
likely consequences of a behavior Attitude toward the behavior (the
and the evaluation of the possible specific attitude toward a behavior,
outcomes favorable or unfavorable)
Normative Beliefs (beliefs
about the expectations of other Subjective norms (beliefs
people and the motivation to about how other people will Behavioral
view a behavior; social pressure) Behavior
comply with these expectations) Intention
Control Beliefs (beliefs about
the existence of factors that Perceived behavioral control
may help or hinder the (ease with which people believe Actual behavior
performance of a behavior and they control
the perceived power of these can perform the behavior)
factors)
Predicting the use of birth-control pills; An example
• My taking the pill regularly will reduce my chances of becoming
Behavioral Beliefs (beliefs pregnant:
about the likely consequences
of a behavior and the Extremely unlikely _____________________ Extremely Likely
evaluation of the possible • Reducing my chances of becoming pregnant is:
outcomes
Extremely bad _______________________ Extremely good
Normative Beliefs (beliefs • My close friends believe that
about the expectations of other
I should __________________________________ I should not
people and the motivation to
comply with these expectations) take birth control pills.
• On average, I really care what my close friends thinks I should do.
Not at all _________________________________ Very much
Control Beliefs (beliefs about
the existence of factors that • I forget to do some very important activities.
may help or hinder the Very rarely _______________________________ Very often
performance of a behavior and
the perceived power of these • My forgetfulness would make it very difficult for me to remember to
factors) take birth control pills
Definitely not true _______________________ Definitely true
Attitude toward the behavior For me, taking birth control pills regularly is:
(the specific attitude toward a
behavior, favorable or Extremely valuable_______________________ Worthless
unfavorable)
Subjective norms (beliefs
about how other people will Most of my close friends are using birth control pills
view a behavior; social pressure) Definitely untrue _______________________ Definitely true
Perceived behavioral control For me to be able to take a birth control pill on a regular basis would
(ease with which people believe be:
they
can perform the behavior) Impossible ___________________ Possible
• I plan on taking birth control pills regularly
Behavioral Definitely not true ______________________ Definitely
Intention true
• I will make every effort to take birth control pills Behavior
regularly
Definitely not true ______________________ Definitely
true
Regularly taking
birth control pills or not
~ Some Issues Regarding the Theory of Planned Behavior ~
• Role of past behavior and habits
• Focus on the prediction of individual behavior; what
about the role of others (e.g., cooperation), obtaining
resources not possessed by an individual
• Assumption that people engage in elaborate cognitions before
behaving
• Role of self-identity and/or moral obligations