Signs of Meaning in Computer Games
A Semiotic Analysis of Interactive Digital Environments
DAVID MEEHAN
SCHOOL OF COMPUTING AND MATHEMATICS
UNIVERSITY OF TEESSIDE
MAY 2002
Abstract
This report uses the field of semiotic analysis to search for meanings in computer games.
Semiotics has been applied to many fields, especially in literature, but is a useful tool for
understanding games as well. Games have a strong aesthetic element, which makes them
appear simplistic, as if few decisions have gone into their appearance. By applying semiotic
theories, we can see beneath the aesthetic surface and into the deeper meanings associated
with the games. They are actually full of 'signs', which can be read and analysed to extract
meaning.
This report demonstrates that many of the signs appear as they do due to pre-existing codes
and the influence of the genre and wider society. With this in mind, two games, Lemmings
and Age of Empires II, are analysed closely, and the semiotic process reveals a remarkable
number of similarities. They appear very different, but many of the signs fit neatly into the
same categories. The power of meaning behind the signs is much greater than most games
players realise.
David Meehan Finding Meaning in Computer Games
Contents
1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................ 3
2. OVERVIEW OF SEMIOTICS....................................................................................... 4
2.1 SIGNS .......................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 SYMBOLS, ICONS AND INDEXES ................................................................................... 4
2.3 ARBITRARINESS AND SIGNIFICATION .......................................................................... 5
2.4 PEIRCE'S SEMIOTICS .................................................................................................... 5
2.5 SYNTAGMS AND PARADIGMS....................................................................................... 5
2.6 CODES AND INTERTEXTUALITY ................................................................................... 6
2.7 COMPUTER-BASED SIGNS ............................................................................................ 6
3. IDENTIFYING THE TEXTS ......................................................................................... 7
4. SIGNIFIERS AND MODALITY ................................................................................... 7
5. INTERACTIVITY OF SIGNS ..................................................................................... 11
6. PARADIGMATIC ANALYSIS .................................................................................... 14
7. SYNTAGMATIC STRUCTURE ................................................................................. 16
8. INTERTEXTUALITY .................................................................................................. 18
9. CODES AND SOCIAL SEMIOTICS .......................................................................... 20
10. CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................... 22
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................. 23
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1. Introduction
This report aims to provide an in-depth analysis of an IDE (Interactive Digital Environment)
in order to elicit some of the meanings behind the visible output seen by the user. In
particular, the field of strategy games is examined to find out what elements they consist of
and how they combine to form an interactive medium. This examination is possible through
the use of semiotic analysis, which attempts to find the 'signs' and their meaning in any given
text. A text can mean the obvious example of a book, but also films, magazines,
advertisements and even music. In this case, the text is the computer game and it can be 'read'
using semiotics to establish its meanings and the relationship between signs.
Semiotics has been applied to many fields and by many practitioners. Although there are
several different viewpoints and methods, they all help to understand media in a deeper and
more thorough way. It is therefore useful to use some semiotic techniques to understand why
strategy games look and work the way they do. We can even gain some insight into the mind
of the designer and realise why they chose the particular graphics, sound and animation that
the user sees. To facilitate this analysis, the genre of multi-character strategy games will be
represented by one of the earlier products - Lemmings, and one of the recent leaders in the
field - Age of Empires II. One of the main objectives of this report is to use semiotics to
demonstrate how similar they are in many ways despite appearing completely different.
Section two of this report provides an overview of the main theories and techniques involved
in semiotics. It explains the main perspectives advocated by famous semioticians such as
Saussure and Peirce and why they are useful in this semiotic analysis. Section three identifies
the texts (games), summarises their background and describes the reasons for choosing them
as the subjects of analysis. Section four then begins to identify the signs involved in these
games and categorises them, using semiotic frameworks. Section five then looks at the
particular signs which come about due to the texts' interactive nature and how they signify
interactive possibilities to the player. Section six examines the 'paradigmatic' nature of the
texts through the way the signs are arranged and grouped together. Similarly, the choice of
the signs involved and the effects of substituting them for others is discussed in section seven.
Section eight then describes how the texts are related and influenced by other texts, in terms
of intertextuality. The codes (familiar conventions) that appear in the texts, and the wider
issues, are examined in section nine. A brief conclusion is then presented, followed by the
references used.
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2. Overview of Semiotics
2.1 Signs
At the most basic level, semiotics can be defined as the science of 'signs'. Jakobsen (cited by
Moriarty [10]) defines it as "the exchange of any messages whatever and of the system of
signs which underlie them." A sign is anything which represents something else and its
meaning is derived by 'reading the sign' and applying our codes and conventions. Signs
appear everywhere, including the field of computer games. The founder of semiotics was
Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure who described it as "science which studies the life of
signs at the heart of social life" (cited by Underwood [13]). He developed the theory where a
sign consists of a sound or image (the signifier) and the concept for which it stands (the
signified). The relationship between the signifier and signified is arbitrary - it is recognised or
understood by the conventions we live by. This two-way relationship forms the basis of all
subsequent semiotics and is shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1 - Saussure model of signs
2.2 Symbols, icons and indexes
This field of study can be applied to any area of communication, media and linguistics.
A lot of the defining work was carried out in the 19th Century and early 20th Century,
allowing plenty of time for the theories to be criticised, expanded and updated by other
semioticians. Charles Sanders Peirce offers a different approach from that of Saussure by
expanding beyond the ideas of the sign involving language. He said that signs are either
symbols, icons or indexes, where symbols have an arbitrary relationship, as in the Saussure
theory. The words we use to construct sentences are good examples of symbols, as they only
represent spoken words because we have been taught the conventions of recognising letters.
To a Chinese person, the symbols are meaningless and do not represent the actual word.
Unlike symbols, Peirce suggests that icons and indexes are more similar to the object they
represent. Icons are signs where the signifier actually resembles the signified. Traffic signs
are usually iconic, as they resemble the actual real world object. Indexes do not directly
resemble the signified, but the signifier is caused by the signified and has an inherent
relationship to it. An example would be an arrow pointing to something on a page in a book.
It is not an icon because it does not look the same as a real life arrow does. However, it is not
arbitrary because we recognise the similarity to a real arrow and make a mental connection
between the two. We know that the tip of an arrow points at the object it is fired towards and
therefore we know what the arrow on the page is indicating. Another example is a sundial
whose purpose is only recognised because we have learnt to associate it with the passage of
time.
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2.3 Arbitrariness and signification
Icons and indexes can be arbitrary to an extent as other signifiers can be used to achieve the
same effect. However, symbols can be 'invented' to represent things by mathematicians for
example, whereas icons and indexes usually take their form over time and through
convention. Usually, signs can also be placed into more than one of these categories and can
even be all three at the same time. Underwood [13] gives an example where "TV uses… a
shot of a man speaking (iconic), the words he uses (symbolic) and the effect of what is filmed
(indexical)." As there can be several signifiers, it is also worth noting the concept of
'signification'. This is mainly based on the work of another semiotician called Roland Barthes
and draws distinctions between levels of signification. The first order is 'denotative' which is
the most basic literal meaning of the sign. For example, a photograph of a car literally means
a car. However, the second order is 'connotative' where there are extra meanings to the sign.
For example, the details of the photograph would carry extra meaning through the camera
angles or lighting. A sports car in a photograph would most likely have a striking pose and
angle to give connotative meanings of speed and luxury.
2.4 Peirce's semiotics
The three-way model of symbols, icons and indexes allows us to assess the 'modality' of the
signs we see. Modality defines how close the signifier comes to directly representing the
signified, with icons having the highest modality. This approach to signs works better when
analysing visual media, and these categorisations are useful as a background to the analysis
within this report. As Andersen [3] remarks on a similar subject, "The Saussurean tradition is
less suited for this since, in practice and because of its roots in descriptive linguistics, it
assumes a primacy of the signifier over the signified." The three-way (or triadic) system he
defines actually uses the terms representamen, interpretant and object. Peirce and other
semioticians argue that signs are not just interpreted as mental constructs (as proposed by
Saussure), but instead have a physical real-world existence. With this approach, the
representamen (signifier) is the form the sign takes and alludes to a material thing. The
interpretant (signified) is the sense made of the sign and the object is the actual real-world
thing to which the sign refers. This is shown in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2 - Peirce's triadic model
2.5 Syntagms and paradigms
Saussure argued that the value of signs is culture-specific and others have pointed out that
this value is also affected by the other signs around them. Therefore, groups of signs (which
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is what we encounter most often) influence the meaning of the associated signs and how we
read them. This is the basis of syntagmatic and paradigmatic analysis. A syntagm is a linear
grouping of signs, as demonstrated by language when we speak a sentence. The sentence is
linear through time and each sign (word) has a syntagmatic relationship with the others. This
can also occur in terms of space where there is a relationship between the positions of the
signs in a given space. In every sentence we speak, we have choices as to which words we
use to convey meaning. We can use alternatives, which form a similar outcome, but will
subtly alter the meaning of that sentence. This is an example of a paradigm, where signs get
their meaning from their association with others. A text can be studied using syntagmatic and
paradigmatic analysis to work out why signs are grouped together as they are and what would
happen if alternatives were chosen.
2.6 Codes and intertextuality
Codes are a system of communication containing agreed rules that give meaning to signs.
Each culture has conventions for language and media, which signs fit in to, in order to be
recognised. Signs always fit in to categories of codes, but each culture or group will apply its
own codes to the signs and may not derive the same meaning as another group. Every genre
of film contains codes that the viewer will be familiar with and this is also the case for
computer games. Codes cannot always be treated in isolation as they can be influenced by
other genres or cultures. The idea of intertextuality, introduced by Julia Kristeva states that
texts share codes but they are also influenced by the author and by other texts and authors.
The reader cannot interpret the text without applying some of the influences learned from
already-existing texts. Books have references to other works, while films are always part of
some genre and are therefore influenced by that genre. Authors often rely on the reader's
knowledge of the codes that they have learned from other sources. Computer games rely on
the player already knowing that they have to „complete the level‟ for example.
2.7 Computer-based signs
The theories above are all useful, but to analyse a medium such as computer games, it is also
essential to consider the signs that only exist in a dynamic, interactive medium such as this.
Signs in most forms of texts are simply read and are not controllable, but in IDE's, the user
has 'agency' - control over the appearance or position of the signs. The user has an intention
of what is expected to happen when using the IDE and sees actual consequences of these
actions. As Friedman [5] says, "the computer responds almost instantaneously to every action
of the player, which in turn provokes a new reaction from the player, and so on."
Signs in IDE's can be categorised, using the semiotics proposed by Peter Bøgh Andersen, by
their role in the environment and their influence. These categorisations will be explored
further in section five. Using this method allows us to go beyond simply recognising what a
sign represents in a static way. We can also see the 'potential' of the sign to do something and
have an effect on others.
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3. Identifying the Texts
The purpose of this report is to apply the theories above to analyse strategic computer games.
There are many 'texts' within the genre including war simulations, so-called 'god-games' and
more action-oriented games. The games that allow the user to control armies and populations
are particularly fascinating as they are packed with signs. They have many levels of meaning
and a lot of them allude directly to the social codes of the target audience. To explore these
ideas, the games of 'Lemmings' and 'Age of Empires II ' are analysed. They are both
immensely popular and widely played, so a wide variety of people, from different cultures,
have played them. This influences the analysis, as it is worth examining how the signs and
codes were chosen to make sense to so many people at the same time.
Figure 3.1 – not included in this extract version (reduced file size)
Lemmings is interesting as it is one of the first such games in the genre and defines many
aspects that are still used in current strategy games. It was created by DMA Design /
Psygnosis and first released for the Amiga computer in 1991. The objective is to guide a
group of creatures to safety before they die in various horrible ways. They have no
intelligence, so it is up to the user to choose which skills (such as digging, floating and
blocking) to use, in order to save them from their fate. Demo versions for the PC are freely
available on the Internet and the full game is still available to buy on CD-ROM. Although the
graphics are simple (by modern standards), it makes it easier to recognise the signs. Age of
Empires represents the modern benchmark of the genre started by Lemmings. It was released
in 1999 by Microsoft and the objective is to guide one of 13 civilisations to dominance over
others, through technological progress and battles.
By analysing these texts, we can see how they depend on the codes that the genre uses and
what we are familiar with. We can see how games have become like 'interactive cinema',
where there are some fascinating sociological meanings behind the desire to 'become the
hero'. There seems to be an almost infinite amount of possible interactions when the user has
the opportunity to 'play God'. As Friedman [5] says, "…playing a computer game is often an
intensely personal experience, and a transformative one."
4. Signifiers and Modality
The first step in analysing the meanings of these games is to identify the main signs involved.
This should initially involve recognising the 'signifieds' of the 'signifiers' we can see. In other
words, what does each element represent? To aid simplicity at this stage, we look at the
denotative meaning of the signifiers, ie. the actual everyday meaning. In Lemmings, this is a
relatively straightforward process as the game has a clear, uncluttered interface and quite a
small number of signs to recognise. Figure 4.1 shows a screenshot of a typical level in the
game, and demonstrates how it is split up into the playing area and the control area where the
user influences the play. This layout is examined in more detail later.
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Figure 4.1 - not included in this extract version (reduced file size)
The first thing we might notice is that the playing area contains a lot of little characters with
green hair! They do not look anything like real life lemmings but it should be obvious that
each of these signs represents a playable character. Assuming the player has seen the box for
the game, or read any of the instructions, he will know that these are the 'lemmings' as it soon
becomes clear that they are the living creatures he is meant to be helping. This is a good
example of a sign with quite low modality; they are not icons as they do not resemble the real
life object. Other signs nearby are more iconic. There is a trapdoor which the lemmings are
falling from which does indeed look like a pair of wooden doors. Above the trapdoor, the
blue and green looks like sky and trees, representing 'outdoors'. The lemmings are walking
over a rough green strip, which is obviously grass. These signifiers are just sets of coloured
pixels, but they look similar enough to real-life objects for us to recognise the signifieds.
Under the playing area are the 'skills' buttons that control the lemmings' actions. Most of
them appear as lemmings so that we recognise the fact that these buttons relate to the
characters in the play area. Considering they all show representations of the same character,
only the stance of the character signifies the role of the button. A vertical lemming represents
a 'climber', while another holding his arms out represents a 'blocker'. The rest of the signs in
this area do not use the character as they represent more general actions. A mushroom cloud
clearly alludes to a nuclear explosion and signifies that it will make all the lemmings explode.
Plus and minus signs are quite symbolic as they use the mathematical notations of 'more' and
'less'. They change the speed of the lemmings appearing on the screen. The green chevrons
are also symbolic and try to indicate a 'fast forward' action. A particularly ingenious sign is
the pair of footprints. If the player is clever, he will realise that they are animal footprints,
made by an animal's paws; therefore, the button represents a 'pause' function.
Some of these signs are also grouped together to signify other meanings. As mentioned, all
signs in one part of the screen represent the play area. The numbers at the bottom of the
screen become the statistics for the level. All the lemmings together become a single sign
representing a 'group' character. This is why Lemmings became a benchmark for future
strategy games as it moved away from controlling a single 'hero' and made the user consider
the whole group of characters as the hero to be controlled. Helping a single lemming achieves
nothing (usually) and the player must use strategies that give the whole group success.
As mentioned before, signs often have more than one meaning and there are usually
connotative meanings in addition to the denotative ones. The numbers represent the current
progress in the level and how likely the player is to succeed. The lemmings themselves
appear comical and stupid, demonstrating their need to be helped. The sky above the trapdoor
represents the freedom and safety the lemmings once had, whereas the dark cave-like
surroundings they appear in represent the fact that they are now trapped and lost. At the end
of every level is an exit door, which signifies successful conclusion to the level. However,
unlike the trapdoor, it does not show sky; you are reminded that the lemmings are only safe
until the next level and have not yet achieved freedom. Signs such as water and steep cliffs
are connotative to danger, especially as we know that lemmings often die through these
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dangers in real life (undoubtedly, the reason why this creature was chosen for the game in the
first place.)
Clearly, despite such a simple interface, there are many signs and meanings within
Lemmings. The game designers have thought of many ways in which to convey the gameplay
to the player. In recent years, this format has been expanded greatly and Age of Empires is
currently one of the highest rated strategy games. The interface is vastly more detailed and
there are many more signs to interact with. However, the argument for the analysis in this
report is to show how the same signs appear right across the genre, regardless of time and
technological progress. It is useful, therefore, to compare and contrast the two games. First
though, the signs in Age of Empires need to be briefly discussed. A screenshot is shown in
Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2 - not included in this extract version (reduced file size)
One of the most interesting aspects is that many of the signs appear more iconic than in
Lemmings. This is partly due to the improvement in computer graphics technology and partly
because the game aims to show a realistic set of people and places rather than a fictional
setting. The screen is full of signifiers clearly denoting people, buildings, boats, water and
grass. Here, the playing area is meant to appear as if we are looking at real historical action
through a window and therefore has no symbols; all signs are as iconic as possible. The other
main difference is the use of a three-dimensional perspective to increase realism. This is more
connotative of a larger 'world' with many opportunities to explore in every direction. Outside
the playing area (at the top and bottom of the screen) there are many graphics, as shown in
Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3 - not included in this extract version (reduced file size)
They usually attempt to have strong modality to elements within the playing area. There are
signs showing swords, armour, gold, food and people - all closely corresponding to the same
elements within the game. As the game is so much more complex than Lemmings, it is
inevitable that a lot of the interactions are hard to represent iconically. Therefore, some
symbols are necessary to signify formations, map types, unit strength and game options. The
game tries to help the player by providing rollover text information to explain what each
button does. Again, there are signs grouped together, such as the ones in the bottom-left
corner, which show the status and options for the selected unit in the playing area. There are
also signs with more than one meaning here, such as the gold, which literally means gold but
also represents the success of the player. The map in the bottom-right corner is indexical as it
alludes to the playing are but also shows the game world, how much has been discovered and
therefore, the player's progress.
The two games have levels of modality that could be considered particular to this genre,
though also at different levels for each game. Lemmings offers an almost 'fantasy' world
which would not be mistaken by anyone for real life. They could have used sprites of real
lemmings, but they would then have to behave like the real animal, which would spoil the
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gameplay. Age of Empires, on the other hand, is trying to resemble real life and every sprite is
intended to appear that way. Although the battles are fictional, they take place with real
historical tribes and weapons, so everything must match. It also includes may aspects of
cause and effect of the real world, such as the effect of firing a cannon, or setting fire to a
building. To add further realism, the gameplay is carried out in real-time (though sometimes
accelerated) and demonstrates this with indexes such as spells of weather and seasonal
changes. The player responds to these markers by applying real-world knowledge to their
strategic decisions. In Lemmings, they realise it is more fictional, and choose to do
'unrealistic' actions to help the creatures.
Having looked at the signs and the differences between the two games, it is now worth
beginning to demonstrate how closely related they are. The screenshots make them appear
completely different but through semiotic analysis, many comparisons are possible. Both
games split the screen into a playing area and a control area, with the playing area containing
mostly iconic signs to add to the realism. The control areas contain symbols that the user
comes to understand through playing or by convention (as discussed later). Both games
contain representations of controllable characters with anthropomorphic qualities and they
can be controlled individually or more successfully as a single grouped unit. Both provide
feedback signs through sound or animation to the player's choice of action and this feedback
is quite iconic, eg. a lemming digging or an archer firing. There are areas off-screen in each
game, representing further exploration or obstacles to overcome. Finally, they both group
related signs together and only the signs in the playing area move, to indicate that it is the
focus of the screen.
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5. Interactivity of Signs
So far, we have looked at the signs from a traditional perspective of signifiers, signifieds and
modality. However, much of this theory was proposed before the advent of computer games
and does not allow for the way signs change when presented in an interactive digital
environment. It is therefore necessary to expand the framework to consider computer-based
signs and a way of categorising them. One person who has done work in this field is Peter
Bogh Andersen who gives us a way of breaking down and categorising the signs, regardless
of environment. As Andersen [2] says, "...we must look for the smallest elements out of which
to build computer-based signs." These theories are very useful for recognising the similarities
and differences between the two texts here.
In the games, the signs have 'agency' which means they can be controlled or influenced by the
player. Buttons, links and graphics all have potential for the user to alter that sign or the
whole screen. For example, the scroll graphic at the top of the screen in Age of Empires is
more than a simple sign, as it changes the whole screen to an options page when clicked. On
a more subtle level, clicking on a lemming, when a skill is selected, changes the default
walking action into a different action reflecting the skill. Unlike other texts, such as books,
we do not simply read the signs passively. We always have the cursor on the screen, which
represents ourselves, and is the nearest we can get to actually being inside the game
environment. Both games (and most others) signify the player in this way, because the player
needs an 'agent' on screen for it to be an interactive experience. By manipulating the cursor,
we are not just reading the signs that the computer game is delivering to us. We are actually
sending our own signs to the computer to tell it how we want things to change. Thus, there is
always a balance between the signs being indicated by the game and by the player. The
player has the final word, as he can indicate that he wants to quit, overriding all other signs
on the screen.
The first stage in using Andersen's system is to identify the properties of all the signs we can
perceive using four possibilities; permanence, transience, handling and action. A permanent
sign will remain the same during its existence, such as the graphics surrounding the control
area in Age of Empires. A transient sign can be altered while still being recognised as the
same sign. For example, the walls and floor in Lemmings may appear to be permanent, but
they can also be altered by digging through them, while remaining recognisable. Handling
means the sign can be altered directly by the player; the cursor being a prime example.
Finally, action means the sign can cause changes without being influenced by others, such as
the lemmings themselves, which move around on their own if not manipulated. Many
elements can belong to more than one of the categories, especially in games, allowing
anything to be classified as some combination of these categories. This means that signs
which appear aesthetically very different, can be classified in the same way, which helps us
go beneath the surface of the appearance and see how frequently a range of games use
different graphics to carry out the same purpose.
It is the combination of properties that decides the class to which the sign belongs. For
example, all signs that contain all four properties all classed as 'interactive', whereas signs
that are permanent and transient, but nothing else are classed as 'object'. The full list of
classes and their properties is shown in Figure 5.1.
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Figure 5.1 - not included in this extract version (reduced file size)
These classifications can now be applied to the texts involved in the analysis to find where
the constituent parts fit in. First, looking at Lemmings, we can see that the lemmings
themselves are actors. They are permanent, they can alter in appearance (transience) and they
move by themselves. However, they are not directly handleable because we cannot drag them
around the screen using the mouse. The cursor does contain all four properties and is
therefore Interactive. It is always present, its appearance alters when 'rolled over' a graphic,
we can directly handle it and it is also moved by the game sometimes. The exit door at the
end of each level is an Object as it permanent, transient (animated), cannot be handled and
only alters signs when a lemming jumps through it. The buttons to select skills can be
officially classed as Buttons because they have action (affect other signs) but are not directly
handleable; they can only be handled through the cursor. The screen background is a Layout
sign as it only stays the same and does not affect the action. Note, however, that this does not
include the rocks, metal etc. as they can be dug through or become an obstacle, making them
Actors. Water and fire are Controllers, as they remain the same but cause an action by killing
lemmings. Finally, there are hidden crushers and traps, which can be classified as Ghost
signs. They cause an action (again, killing lemmings), but are hidden and therefore invisible,
so they do not have the property of permanence. They only become signs when discovered
through play, a feature unique to IDE's. A full list of all the signs and their classifications are
shown in Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2 - not included in this extract version (reduced file size)
It must be noted that some of these classifications are debatable and some signs could be
placed in different classes. For example, the exit door could arguably be classed as an Actor.
Some may consider that the sign has the action property as it causes changes (reducing the
number of lemmings on the screen). It has been classed as an Object here due to the opinion
that it only causes this action with the help of another sign ie. a lemming jumping into it.
Similarly, it might be argued that the clock causes an action as the whole screen changes to
the 'failure' screen when the time runs out. These variances in interpretation are inevitable
with different texts and different readers, but the benefits of using Andersen's categories still
outweigh these problems.
If we now consider the computer-based signs in Age of Empires, the most obvious point is
that there are far more, as it is a more complex environment. There are again, a number of
signs that can be immediately classified. The cursor is here, appearing different, but having
the same properties; it is the Interactive sign in this game. There are many different sprites for
each type of villager or soldier but they are all Actors as they are not directly handleable, they
are transient and they have an effect (action) on other signs, such as killing another soldier.
The screen at any time is full of Objects such as buildings, water, trees and flags. They are all
transient as they move or change in appearance, but they do not directly alter other signs.
Other signs such as weapons, gold or food lying around are not Objects but Actors as they
alter other signs. For example, if a soldier walks over a weapon, it will be picked up, altering
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the appearance of the soldier. The screen is also filled with unchanging Layout signs such as
grass, rocks, sand, snow and roads. A list of most of the signs in shown in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3 - not included in this extract version (reduced file size)
The results of this classification process show that signs which appear similar or very
different to others can all be grouped together so that they have more in common than visual
appearance. As we now have groups of signs, we can discover more about the texts involved.
It is interesting, for example, that in both cases the cursor acts as the interactive element of
the game. In other genres, it might be a car or character being controlled by a joystick, but
complex strategy games almost always 'extract' the player from the environment and give
them control of a whole population or landscape. Thus, the player's only representation is the
cursor, though it can change in response to the different elements it is pointing at. Another
unique factor is that signifieds can exist without signifiers in the form of Ghost signs, such as
hidden traps. This contradicts the normal rules of semiotics but demonstrates how different
and interesting IDE's are.
By classifying the signs in the two texts, it is now easier to see their commonalities and
differences on a level deeper than aesthetics. Age of Empires has many more signs and is
packed with Layouts and Objects. This is because the game has benefited from ten years of
technological improvement but also because it needs to appear more iconic. Despite this
difference, the texts are surprisingly similar. They both use the cursor as the Interactive sign
and also include every class of sign, demonstrating the richness of gameplay. Earlier games
had mostly interactive and active signs, but were still enjoyable. Newer games are expected
to have exciting gameplay but also appear more realistic, as demonstrated by the large
number of Objects and Layouts in the texts. Lemmings has less than Age of Empires though,
as it was still on this road of 'improvement' in games. Though appearing as very different
graphics, the landscape details in Age of Empires do exactly the same function as the ones in
Lemmings, while they both contain hidden traps. They have different looking scores, but they
do the same thing and in both cases, there are a large number of controllable characters
performing as Actors. They both place graphics outside the playing area to act as Buttons and
they both use unchangeable barriers as Controllers to limit the player's choices. It is
remarkable how many similarities there are and shows how game designers continue to use
the same codes, as explained later.
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6. Paradigmatic Analysis
We have seen that the texts are made up of many signs, with many associated meanings. But
we must now consider why these particular signs were chosen, instead of the alternatives, and
whether the alternatives would be effective. Why do the lemmings have green hair and why
does the control area in Age of Empires resemble a book and a scroll? Such questions are
perhaps easier to answer in Age of Empires because the majority of signs were chosen to be
iconic - to closely resemble real world objects. However, there are other issues to consider.
Many of the signs in the texts appear the way they do because of the context they are in. They
are appearing in a strategy game and displayed through the medium of a computer screen,
where they must be arranged in a way to force the user into strategic decisions. If this
medium changed, the signs would become redundant in many cases. If the games appeared as
a comic book, the Layout signs would still be useful but Actor and Interactive signs would be
lost, as it would become a passive experience. Even if it was an animated cartoon, there
would be no Button or Interactive signs and we would lose the 'agency' that makes the signs
exciting. Similarly, a change of genre would dramatically affect the nature of the signs.
Lemmings tried to break away from the dominance of 'platform' and 'shoot-em-up' games at
the time. To do this, new signs had to be 'invented' to indicate that the player could control
multiple characters and make complex decisions. It could easily have been a platform game,
as it is not a vast departure. The player still guides a character across the screen, navigating
the platforms along the way. Many of the signs would still work in this context, and only the
skills buttons would become redundant. However, if it was a shoot-em-up game, it would
probably not work. It would be strange to control such helpless characters, attacking enemies
and getting 'power-ups'. It would also be strange to turn Age of Empires into any other genre,
as there would be little point in having different types of characters or decisions on weapon
development.
The signifiers in the texts belong to familiar paradigm sets, some belonging exclusively to
computer games and others alluding to concepts in film. Age of Empires has paradigms
familiar from history, especially dramatisations of history in films such as Gladiator. There is
a 'good' army versus the 'bad' army and they are ranked up to a leading general. There are the
ever-present concepts of victory or defeat and the concept of exploration. Various animated
signs demonstrate these concepts and belong to these paradigm sets. Surrounding them are
paradigm sets of scenic signs, weather signs and character signs. Lemmings has paradigm sets
more familiar and unique to computer games. There are platforms and an end-of-level
marker, as seen in many other games. The screen also includes a type of score and a timer,
which are paradigms the player expects to see in most computer games. In belonging to these
paradigm sets, the signs within the texts are quickly understood and recognised by the player.
With any choice of signifier, others could be chosen from the paradigm set. The score and
timer in Lemmings are simply numbers, but an egg timer or bomb fuse might have been used.
Although these would be aesthetically superior, they might distract from the playing area and
are harder to interpret. The characters themselves could have looked like real-life lemmings,
but perhaps the player would then be unwilling to sacrifice them, as must be done
occasionally (see Figure 6.1). The lemmings could have been placed in an outdoor
environment, though it might reduce the feeling of danger they are in. However, outdoors
scenery would more accurately reflect their real life environment and there are plenty of
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David Meehan Finding Meaning in Computer Games
dangers in cliffs, rivers and predators. The designers chose an indoor environment either to
allude more to other games or simply because it is easier technically.
Figure 6.1 - not included in this extract version (reduced file size)
In Age of Empires, historical and battle paradigm sets were chosen to reflect the game's
objective of developing a tribe against adversity. The game could also be set in the present or
the future and still have the same concepts of enemies, battles and death. Indeed, other
strategy games have done this and Age of Empires' successor, Age of Mythology (due for
release in September 2002), moves all the signifiers to a more mythical setting. The paradigm
sets contain different signifiers but the same sort of signifieds, so other settings work just as
well, as shown in Figure 6.2. However, if very different signifiers from a set were chosen,
such as replacing the soldiers with cartoon characters, it would probably not work.
Figure 6.2 - not included in this extract version (reduced file size)
Like any good film or book, there are contrasting pairs in the games, which improve the
narrative structure and add depth to the gameplay. Age of Empires uses a concept we are very
familiar with; that of good versus evil. The tribe the player is fighting against (eg. Celts,
Turks, Persians) were almost certainly not evil, but they become so, as they are the 'bad guys'
who are trying to destroy the player's tribe. This central opposition then runs in the
background at all times during the game, and the more the player becomes immersed, the
more he will feel his tribe are good and the others are evil. This is exactly what happens in
films where one party is quickly tagged as being evil because of a single act. There is also a
contrasting pair of war and peace running throughout the game. Empires are expanded mainly
through battle, and success in war often signifies success in the game. However, the player
also needed to develop his towns and cities, while hoping they are not attacked by the enemy.
A player who has fought many battles, often craves months (in game time) of peace in order
to make progress.
In Lemmings there is a contrast between the concepts of freedom and imprisonment, as the
characters are trapped and the aim is to achieve the opposite by leading them to freedom.
These concepts permeate all the signs and the objects and layout of the screen reinforce these
concepts. This could be argued to be the central opposition within the text as it affects so
much and the player is always aware of it. However, there is another, more subtle contrast
that is discovered through semiotic analysis. There is a contrast of nature and technology,
forces that are in constant conflict in the real world. In the game, the lemmings are actually
imprisoned and killed by natural forces such as water and steep cliffs. They overcome this by
employing technology, such as tools for digging or bricks to build bridges. This is directly
related to what our society is doing in the real world, and some may argue that it is wrong to
advocate the destruction of nature.
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7. Syntagmatic Structure
The signs can also be analysed to see how they are related in spatial and temporal ways. As
games are interactive and ever-changing, they are rich in syntagmatic structure. The way the
signs are arranged affects gameplay and they also change as gameplay proceeds. The possible
structures in a text are often identified as having properties of narrative, montage or
argument. The two texts covered in this analysis definitely have a strong sense of narrative,
or 'story', and it is the dominant syntagmatic structure. This is important as, according to
Culler (cited by Chandler [4]), “the analysis of narrative is an important branch of
semiotics”. Like a film or book, they have a beginning and an end, where the characters
evolve and face adversity in between. The story has a sequence, involving different places
and times, but there is a logical order to the sequence until it reaches its conclusion, or
'narrative closure'. Figure 7.1 shows the beginning of the story in Age of Empires, where a
tiny community is struggling to survive. The story progresses until eventually, the community
has become a town, complete with a castle and knights. Along the way, there is openness of
interaction, but the outline of the narrative is the same every time the game is played.
Figure 7.1 - not included in this extract version (reduced file size)
Within the narrative sequence, there is also a syntagmatic structure to each 'scene'. There is a
spatial relationship of signs, similar to montage in films, and their positions are important.
Some signs have a dramatic effect on the others around them and thus carry more weight. In
Lemmings, the signs making up the platforms of rocks, walls and pits are very significant as
they totally change the actions of the characters and the technologies they use. This makes the
game unusual as the 'hero' characters are, in a way, minor signs that are more influenced by
the signs around them, rather than the other way round. Usually, main characters in games
have total dominance over the other signs, such as the hero in a shoot-em-up. It is also worth
noting that usually, the lemmings all perform the same action by default and have equal
relevance. However, if one is made a 'blocker', it becomes much more significant and has a
considerable effect on the others.
The narrative in Age of Empires is achieved partly by the arranging of signs in a way that
helps the story unfold. There is a temporal arrangement of signs so that they appear and
disappear as events unfold. In the short term, buildings burn and ships are sunk, indicating the
end of a sequence of events. In the longer term, the seasons change, armies grow and villages
become towns, indicating the successful progress of the player through the narrative.
Friedman [5] provides further insight- "...a computer game is a process of demystification:
one succeeds by discovering how the software is put together." The spatial arrangement of
signs also helps to signify the narrative's progress. The dark areas of map signify areas yet to
be explored, while a large number of red dots on the map indicate that the enemy is
proceeding more successfully in the story. This can be seen more easily in Lemmings, where
every level has a clear, time-limited narrative starting with the arrival of the lemmings
through the trapdoor, to the moment they reach the exit door. The way the obstacles are
arranged spatially usually indicates how difficult the level is going to be. The buttons in the
control area are also arranged in a way that helps the player decide their strategy, as shown in
Figure 7.2. All the skills are arranged together, followed by ways to alter the game
parameters, such as altering the arrival speed, pausing and fast-forwarding. Significantly, the
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David Meehan Finding Meaning in Computer Games
'nuke' button, which sacrifices all lemmings, is placed at the end, as it is often a last-resort
strategy.
Figure 7.2 - not included in this extract version (reduced file size)
Computer games are a unique text in another way as they allow signs to alter the syntagmatic
structure of the text. In both the texts here, the cursor is interactive and it often alters other
signs. In either game, if the player clicks somewhere on the 'mini map', the screen switches to
that location and all the signs on the screen are altered accordingly. In Age of Empires,
clicking one tiny button near the map brings up a whole set of new information and graphics
in the scroll-like information area. Meanwhile, a soldier in the playing area can totally change
other signs when he burns down a building.
Both games share many similarities in their syntagmatic structure. They both use linear
progression through time as a marker to the progress in the narrative, especially in Lemmings
where the story ends as time runs out. There are challenges to overcome in making this
progression and the player has to decide how to best use the time available. Although the
games have different goals, they both require leading a group of characters towards that goal,
and this is reflected in the syntagmatic structure. Signs are arranged spatially to indicate the
same concept of danger, a 'larger' world to explore, and a set of selectable options to achieve
the goals. Identifying the paradigms and syntagms in the texts leads to a better understanding
of the reasons for the choices behind the gameplay. It is now easier to see why certain
graphics were chosen and why they were placed in such a way, as it helps to indicate that the
texts are both part of the strategy game genre. Despite appearing very different, enough
elements are kept the same between the games to ensure the player has a greater sense of
what his goals are.
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8. Intertextuality
The previous two sections analysed the relationship of signs within the texts, but considering
the texts on their own is not enough. The influence of other texts, authors and the reader
themselves are important. When an author writes, he is affected by what has been written
before and it works the same way with computer games. The texts are framed within the
genre of computer strategy games, and the game designers use familiar elements of this genre
whether they aware of it or not. Despite a difference of ten years, and technological
improvement, Age of Empires uses a remarkable number of similar elements to Lemmings.
Undoubtedly, the designers are aware of the success of the earlier game, and others, and re-
use the same successful elements.
The texts have a hint of alluding to another gaming genre; that of adventure games. The way
the characters move through a landscape, interacting with other characters and objects, takes
influences from that genre. This is particularly clear in Age of Empires, where other
characters talk and sometimes give cryptic puzzles. The texts also allude to the more distant
genre of film and television. As previously mentioned, there is a progressive narrative from
start to finish, with an unpredictable story in between. Lemmings is surely influenced by
cartoons, from the comical way the characters look and act, to the way they explode and
shout a squeaky-voiced "oh no!". It could be argued that Lemmings created the group-strategy
genre, so it is difficult to compare it with similar games. Even so, it was definitely influenced
by the success of multi-screen, scenic platform games going right back to early classics such
as Manic Miner and Monty Mole, as shown in Figure 8.1. Age of Empires, on the other hand,
is now one of a long sequence of strategy games such as Civilization, Warcraft and Command
& Conquer. All these games influence each other and the most successful features are carried
forward in each release. It is worth noting that they have all had sequels, as the designers are
influenced to keep competing, in order to improve the features.
Figure 8.1 - not included in this extract version (reduced file size)
Sequels and new strategy games partly rely on the player's knowledge and expectations of the
other games within the genre. Designers know that the player will probably have played
another strategy game, so they use many of the same conventions and options that have been
used elsewhere, as shown in Figure 8.2. As Chandler [4] says, "...it credits its audience with
the necessary experience to make sense of such allusions and offers them the pleasure of
recognition." The experienced player recognises the familiar isomorphic display, the inset
map and the option buttons to organise the characters. They gain a sense of being experienced
and can quickly become immersed in the new game, despite its different signifiers. This
highlights the importance of the reader, or player in this case, as they draw upon the genre's
frame when reading the text, and the designers are aware of this fact.
Figure 8.2 - not included in this extract version (reduced file size)
There are also links to similar themes in other genres, where the theme may be the same but
is presented differently. Age of Empires is strong in this area as it contains the familiar
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themes of good versus evil, adversity, evolution and progress. These themes run through
many books and films such as Star Wars, Gladiator, Blade Runner and arguably even 2001:
A Space Odyssey. They are presented in an epic way, and the game tries to use a similar
concept by presenting large battles, huge landscapes, and hundreds of years of progress.
However, the game presents them as a compacted version of events and to an extent,
trivialises the theme. Battles can be over quickly and the player has little sympathy with an
individual dead soldier or a burned down forest. Although the game relies on intelligent
decisions, it is not expecting the user to have an intellectual experience or spend hours
philosophising over the issues involved. There is no doubt, however, that the games in this
genre will continue to use themes from history and popular fiction to capture the player's
imagination. Intertextuality will continue to play a major role in games design.
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9. Codes and Social Semiotics
Just as texts are influenced by intertextuality, they also depend on shared codes. Many signs
do not generate their meanings automatically; they only get meaning from the code in which
it is situated. This is especially true where the sign is symbolic, as it will probably only be
interpreted if the reader is aware of the right codes to which it belongs. Computer games are
an area rich in codes that have been built up through over 20 years of playing. Games have
developed a 'language' of their own, with unique signs and meanings that most players
recognise. The earliest arcade games gave rise to familiar concepts of scores, times, lives and
levels. Almost anybody can now load a game and know what these represent without
thinking about them. It is as if they have always existed, but they have not; they are only read
successfully because the player has learned these codes from previous exposure.
It is hard for us to imagine, but people who have never seen a game would probably struggle
to realise the point of most games or how to control them. They would be confused as so
many of the codes are specific only to computer games. Even if they had seen films, they
would have difficulty with the concepts of 'power-ups', 'end-of-level monsters', and especially
many of the sounds that indicate success or the loss of a life. Lemmings uses some of the
standard gaming codes (levels, score, time) and some slightly more advance codes that some
players might not be familiar with, like platforms and exits. Fortunately, they are quickly
understood and the player has then learned that code, which he can apply to any future
games. As Lemmings was a groundbreaking game, it actually invents some new codes, such
as the concept of applying skills to an individual and controlling a group. Age of Empires is
more recent and the codes started by Lemmings are now expected to be firmly embedded in
players' minds. It does however, use such a large number of codes that novices may find it
daunting and decide it is too hard to play. The codes have also evolved to become more
complex and harder to learn.
Some codes in the games are easier to understand as they are shared with other media.
Having some historical knowledge and sense of battle strategies helps to decide some of the
tactics in Age of Empires, without having to learn the codes first. There are also a wide range
of social codes, such as the speech bubble button indicating 'chat', and the red circle with a
line that indicates 'forbidden', as seen on road signs. Newcomers to Lemmings will probably
understand that they are expected to save them, if they have ever seen a television
documentary showing their unfortunate demise. It also uses symbols that the player may have
prior knowledge of, such as the chevrons for the fast-forward button, as seen on video
recorders, and the mushroom cloud as the typical symbol for a nuclear explosion. From
within the same genre come conventions that tell the player that the control buttons are not
playable characters, despite appearing similar. The control buttons are the most obvious
conventions in both texts as they do not appear in many other types of games and are clearly
separated from the playing area in both cases.
To make it more obvious that these conventions are being used, they are often related in a
syntagmatic way eg. the control buttons are placed together and away from the playing area.
The relationship between the codes is subtle but there is enough spatial or temporal
placement to make them readable. However, some codes that the player might expect to see
are absent. There are no 'lives' as such and unlike most early games, there are no aliens or
monsters to fight. It appears that both games try to draw the player into the scenario as
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David Meehan Finding Meaning in Computer Games
quickly as possible and immerse them in the task they have been given. They clearly attempt
to form a relationship where the player feels the game is easy to get into, but soon becomes
challenging, and therefore a good game. The relationship also involves offering to make the
player an actor in the story that is being told.
Chandler [4] states that, "In order to communicate, a producer of any text must make some
assumptions about an intended audience; reflections of such assumptions may be discerned
in the text". This means that the author must 'read' the reader, as well as the other way round.
Upon discerning what codes the reader will expect, they need to be conveyed in some way.
The codes used in the games are delivered to the player through 'modes of address', though
these are very subtle in this case. The games do not start by saying, "this is a strategy game,
and you have to press the control buttons to influence the playing area". Such an obvious
mode of address would seem amateurish in games and appear patronising to experienced
players. This is significant, as novice players need to 'work' harder to read the text and
recognise the codes. This mode of address might be described as 'hidden' or 'indirect', and it
relies more on the conventions of the genre to get its meanings across.
In order for the player to read the codes, assumptions are made that they probably have some
knowledge of games and experience of other popular media, such as television and the
Internet. The designers assume that players will distinguish buttons, menus and sounds. It
might seem unfair on some people, but the designers know that the majority of players will
have this experience. The target audience is often boys or young men, who typically have an
interest in the other media mentioned above. They can be relied upon to recognise the codes
and be comfortable with the game. Age of Empires, for example, uses many codes that the
target audience will have grown up with and enjoy. The designers try to set the game at a
level where it provides an appropriate challenge to the majority audience. They have a
preferred reading in mind, where the player will recognise the challenges and proceed in a
narrative and intellectual way. This is different from the preferred reading of films where the
viewer is not expected to challenge the events they perceive. Games more accurately match
society, where people are expected to face challenges and come up with their own solutions.
Beyond the codes are influences of social semiotics, which are important to analyse.
Kücklich [8] reminds us that, "To date there have been few approaches to the field of
computer games from a broad cultural perspective." As mentioned, many of the codes use
signs from social areas including newspapers, advertising, street signs and home computing.
Thus, it can be argued that those responsible for creating the codes in the games come from
the whole spectrum of society. People such as advertising executives, TV producers and web
designers have all influenced the signs that seem so appropriate to games. All the codes rely
on the reality of life in society, albeit an American / Western European view of society, it
must be said. For those who are not part of this society, the codes are unfamiliar and
alienating. The games are clearly targeted at this group and make little attempt to adjust to the
codes of other cultures. Even people belonging to this group have many different views and
personalities, so the games may be baffling or offensive to some. As Berger and Luckmann
(cited by Chandler [4]) said, "Our sense of self as a constancy is a social construction which
is 'over-determined' by a host of interacting codes within our culture."
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David Meehan Finding Meaning in Computer Games
10. Conclusion
This report has analysed and compared two computer games using a semiotic framework. An
overview of the main theories of semiotics were presented and applied to the games to
discover the meanings of the signs involved. In performing the analysis, a rich set of
meanings was discovered within the games and in the wider fields of the genre and society as
a whole. We can now see in much more detail why the games appear the way they do, and
just how many decisions (conscious and unconscious) have gone into deciding that
appearance. The games have been shown to be far more complex than a set of graphics and
sounds.
After identifying the texts, the signs were identified in terms of their modality and denotative
or connotative properties. We saw how the games contain many objects and active signs,
enriching the interactive experience. We also began to discover, through semiotics, how
similar they are, as many of the same signifieds are present. This was expanded further by
looking at the computer-based signs involved. They were classified according to their
properties; making it easier to spot how similar many of the signifieds were, despite
appearing very different. Paradigmatic and syntagmatic analysis demonstrated how the signs,
are indeed, well arranged and suitable for the genre they are conveying. It was remarkable to
see how many of the same concepts and goals appear in both games, despite initially seeming
very different. By examining the effect of intertextuality and codes, it was also possible to
find some explanations for the similarities between the games.
Age of Empires uses much more advanced graphics and more complex strategies, but is the
game totally superior as a result? Arguably, the answer is no, as we have seen how it uses the
same elements of gameplay that made Lemmings successful. The differences in Age of
Empires are due mainly to the technology of games design. It has more sprites, better 3D,
more narrative, and is more iconic, but the designers cannot guarantee that this will beat the
power of imagination. Lemmings is still very popular, which proves that the quality of the
signifieds in games is more important than the signifiers. Aarseth [1] agrees when he says,
"In terms of playability, themes, tasks, sub-genres, and dramatic structure, nothing much has
changed over the last two decades...What is changing is the scenography, landscape, and
(3D) visual effects, which are constantly evolving from bestseller to bestseller."
Semiotics has demonstrated that the games' designers were working within in a framework,
whose boundaries are relatively set. They adhere to the same codes and structure of previous
games and the boundary is only extended gradually over time. Age of Empires has not
completely changed from Lemmings; it has simply evolved. It is far more complex, but an
incredible number of signs have remained the same, in so far as their meanings. The genre
continuously re-uses its most successful elements and sticks to familiar codes that players
will recognise. Looking at the surface shows two very different environments, but semiotics
has shown that, despite ten years of progress, the core of the games has remained the same.
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David Meehan Finding Meaning in Computer Games
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May 2002 Page 23