Demise of the Soviet Union
Historical Background:
Brezhnev Era
Soviet government more repressive; seeming
return to Stalinism
Intellectuals repressed
Solzhenitsyn expelled
Jews harassed, prevented from emigrating to Israel
Rise of dissident movement; repressed
Small demonstrations, criticism of govt in public
Accusations of violation of human rights of 1975 Helsinki
Accords
Andrei Sakharov (Nobel physicist), others persecuted
Concentration of power
Combined president and Comm party secretary offices
Brezhnev appointed; most power of all since Stalin
US & Detente
Begun with Nixon at end of Vietnam War
Agreements on trade, reduction of strategic weapons
BUT USSR increase in defense spending, esp navy, so
economy down
Helsinki Accords
Under US President Ford
Recognized USSR “sphere of influence” in E Europe
Committed both countries to protect human rights of
citizens
Carter: apply the human rights provisions; USSR
didn’t want to be scolded
Invasion of Afghanistan
Though already a presence there, in 1979,
USSR invaded to establish puppet regime
Factional bickering in Marxist government; Amin
elected, but not general support; accused as CIA
USSR forces in, executed Amin and put in USSR
supporter
Secretly: Carter $$ for anti govt propaganda 6 months
before invasion; Amin probably really USSR’s friend
US response:
Senate refused to ratify second Strategic Arms
Limitation agreement (though Carter had already
signed)
Embargo of grain shipments to USSR
Boycott of 1980 Olympics in Moscow
Their Viet Nam
9 year occupation with \ 80% of country away from
Kabul not controlled by USSR
Ultra Muslim mujahideen fought guerrilla war
Soviet failures due to:
mountainous terrain
no anti-guerrilla training
weaponry and military equipment, especially tanks,
ineffective in mountains
Heavy artillery used vs rebel forces.
Afghan guerillas funded and trained by the USA
and its allies.
Stinger anti-aircraft missile systems (US made),
increased aircraft losses of Soviet Air Force
guerillas able to fire at aircraft landing, taking off
Outcomes
Soviet withdrew forces,
left government still
Marxist, but much of
Muslim fundamentalist law, as well
Loss of support for war in USSR as
army deaths increased, no gains; pull
out lead to:
Loss of support of government in
general because of futile war
Beginning of Muslim fundamentalist
rebellions in other Asian USSR republics
Reagan Challenges to USSR
Positive steps
Relaxed grain embargo: sold to USSR
Placed less emphasis on human rights of Helsinki
Accords
Challenges
Intensification of Cold War rhetoric
Increase in US military spending
SDI (Strategic Defense Initiative) Star Wars, high tech
defense in space vs nuclear attack major in later arms
control negotiations
Forced increase in USSR defense spending, which it
couldn’t afford; helped bring on collapse
Beginning of the end:
Solidarity in Poland
Late 1970’s Poland (while USSR busy),
challenges to party rule and influence of USSR
Gomulka problems: though peace with Church,
trade with W, cultural exchange with non Comm,
chronic econ mismanagement, shortage of food
and goods
Gdansk shipyard strike December 1970:
authorities suppressed, killed workers; Lech
Walesa, leader, fired and blackballed,
imprisoned off and on; Gomulka forced out
Next decade: people didn’t have enough bread;
1980 raised food prices leading to:
Gdansk shipyard strike, again, but this time….
Spread of unrest
Workers occupied Lenin shipyard; Walesa joined to lead
Spread to other shipyards, transport, factories
Union Solidarity
Lech Walesa, refused government unions, SO
Government allowed establishment of independent
union, Solidarity
Promised union access to media (TV, too) along w
Catholic Church
Temporary gains
Secret elections for party congress with real choice
Still single party, but real debate in party congress
Oppression, again
Dec 1981, martial law under General Jaruzelski (new
head of Polish Comm party);
Arrested Solidarity leaders (Walesa imprisoned 7 years);
suppression of reforms
Gorbachev:Collapse of USSR
Brezhnev d. 1982; successors Andropov (d 1984)
and Chernenko (d 1985) didn’t rule long
Condition of USSR
Militarily strong USSR: after Cuban missile crisis,
poured into military buildup
BUT rest of economy in terrible condition with shortage
of consumer goods
Marxism at work: absenteeism, alcoholism
Reagan defense initiatives forced USSR further
defense buildup, but no $$$
Reformer, Gorbachev put in
Recognized inefficiencies of system
Supported Marxism and socialism, just wanted
rejuvenated Bolshevikism he thought undermined by
corruption and Stalinistic terror
Perestroika, restructuring
Economics
Reduced size of economic ministries’
bureaucracies
Allowed more local private enterprise
Began advocating private ownership of property
Moved toward more free market, liberal economy
Real Problems
Siberian miners’ strike 1989 settled quickly
Promised better wages, more liberty
BUT
Results: worse, with shortages of food, consumer
goods and housing
blamed on abandonment of old fashioned central
planning
Politics
Critical of corruption and inefficiencies in party
Glasnost
Allowed public discussion and criticism of Soviet history,
party policies
Bukharin, others “purged” by Stalin, recognized for
contributions
Workers permitted to criticize party officials and their
decisions
Dissidents released from prison
BUT all ethnics and national minorities wanted political
independence; Gorbachev couldn’t satisfy their demands
Political Perestroika
1988 new constitution to permit real elections
Congress of People’s Deputies 1989 included Sakharov
1989: Fateful Year
Poland
1984 some Solidarity leaders released, back to union
activism
Underground press and political organizations
Legalization of Solidarity 1989
Free elections after repeal of martial law in 1989
First noncommunist pm of Poland since 1945; approved
by Gorbachev
In November 1990, Lech Wałęsa was elected President
for a 5-year term. introducing world prices, greatly
expanding private enterprise.
Free parliamentary elections 1991: 100 + parties with full
spectrum of political views (none received more than
13% of vote).
Why E Europe could break away….
All transitions to democratic governments in E
Europe and Baltics peaceful except Romania
Refusal of USSR to intervene militarily as in 50’s
and 60’s to prop up old line communist
governments
Gorbachev renounces Brezhnev Doctrine 1989
As soon as public, ordinary citizens all over E
Europe demonstrated to denounce Communist
Party domination, assert nationalism and desire
for democratic reform
Tiananmen Square demos in Beijing violent
suppression in June 1989 had something to do
with party decision not to repress?
Hungary
Earlier moves: some capitalism and stock
exchange; production of food and consumer goods
Jan 1989 Parliament ok’d legalization of other
political parties
Permitted free travel with Austria: first breach in
Iron Curtain (thousands of E Germans went
through Hungary into Austria and on into W
Germany)
Parliament voted premier installed by Soviets after
1956 out of office: honorary public burial to Nagy
Communist party changed name to Socialist
1990: free elections
Berlin:
The Walls Came Tumbling Down
Popular demonstrations in many German
cities
Leipzig: people demanded democracy and
end to Communist Party rule
Gorbachev cut off E German Communist
party: said USSR would no longer support
E German Honecker, others resigned
New Communist leaders promised political
and economic reform, but emigration to W
continued
Nov 1989, ordered opening of the wall: tens
of thousands crossed to visit families, shop
with W German supplied money
Reunification: almost instant
E German communist party government
discredited
Corruption exposed among officials
Changed name to social democratic party
Free elections 1990: conservative majority
Wanted reunification
Helmut Kohl (W German chancellor) had to deal with it
EEC accepted idea of unified Germany; then USSR, UK,
US, France
Rapid unification
BUT still dealing with problems
Combining economies, weakened W German
Integration of “communist” thinking E Germans
NOT instant wealth and infrastructure
Czechoslovakia: Velvet Revolution
Change of rule
After 1968 invasion,
hard line communist
rule 20 years;
opponents imprisoned
Popular pressure from
demonstrations and
well organized political
opposition
Older leadership
resigned, younger
communists replaced,
but proposed reforms
inadequate
End of political dominance of
Communism
Vaclav Havel, playwright, lead
group Civic Forum
Changes: inclusion of
noncommunists in
government,elimination of
Marxist education, removal
travel restrictions and
censorship
USSR, communist govt,
Warsaw pact states denounced
invasion of 1968, forced
resignation of president Husak
put in then; free election :
Dubcek returned to chair
Parliament, Havel elected
president
Violent change: Romania
Ceausescu dictator for over 25
years
One party Stalinist, with total
centralized economic control,
at odds with Gorbachev
reform
Army and loyal security force
Closest relatives in high
positions where corruption
profit
Timisuara (W Romania) incident
Clergyman tried to protect
Hungarians living there
Security forces tried to arrest
him: demonstrations
Security fired upon
demonstrators: 100’s +
casualties
Bucharest support rally
Vs Ceausescu; within one week, full
rebellion
Fighting between army supporting
revolution and security forces loyal to C
Revolutionaries gained control of tv,
broadcast reports of revolution to world
End of Ceausescu
Tried to flee country with wife, captured
Secretly tried, executed Christmas day
1989
Fighting ended, provisional government
announced free elections for spring
Consequences: Unrest until elections put in
new government
Political Change: USSR
Gorbachev proposed
reform
Strong presidency
eventually by election in
Supreme Soviet
Wanted political base NOT
Communist Party
Didn’t want to abandon
communism or socialism,
but did want genuine
competition
New political forces not under G’s control
Conservatives
who wanted to preserve influence of Party and army,
Deplored political and social turmoil, economic ills
1990-91, G appoints many to key government posts
Disillusioned Communists favoring swift change
Spokesman: Yeltsin, elected Russian Republic Pres
Supported market economy and more democracy
Groups Pressing for change in Republics
Discontent in past repressed by military, party action
Initially: Baltic Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania
Independent til eve of WWII when Soviet/German nonaggression
pact gave them to USSR
Soviet Islamic republics
Rebellion in Azerbaijan, Tajikistan
Gorbachev failure to negotiate new arrangements between
republics and central govt added to discontent
August 1991 Coup
Conservative attempt to seize power
Those Gorbachev named into government
Army occupied Moscow, Gorbachev
confined (arrested) when on
vacation in Crimea
Boris Yeltsin reaction
Climbed on tank in front of Russ Parliament
Building to denounce coup attempt
End of Coup 2 days later
Army refused orders to assassinate Yeltsin
Gorbachev back to Moscow, but humiliated
Large demonstration celebrated failure of coup
Yeltsin became dominant political figure
Yeltsin vs Conservative Hardliners
December 25,1991 USSR dissolved:
Commonwealth of Independent States; G out
Yeltsin most powerful as leader of largest state
Popularity through 1992, but no economic miracles,
declined
Opposition coalesced in parliament with old
Communist powers
1993 Rebellion
Sept 1993 Yeltsin suspended parliament; it deposed him
Parliament tried to incite popular uprising vs Y in Moscow
Military supported Yeltsin
Troops and tanks surrounded Parliament building, fired
on building, killing 100+ , and crushing revolt
1993 vote: new parliament and constitution with strong
president
Russ Federation: Economic Woes
Where’re the income producing enterprises?
Most nonfreezing ports, consumer goods factories, oil and
gas pipelines, and a significant portion of the high-tech
enterprises (including nuclear power stations) = outside of
Russia, in the newly independent states.
Russia's domestic industries were mainly focused on heavy
and military branches.
Russia took responsibility for settling USSR's
external debts, although population just half of the
population of the USSR at time of dissolution.
The largest state enterprises (petroleum, metallurgy,
and the like) controversially privatized for $US 600
million, far less than worth.
And Onward: Russian Federation’s
continuing problems
Continuing Communist unrest
Still old bureaucracy and institutions, including
army
Corruption and lack of control of criminals
No economic miracles; slow progress
Unrest in member republics
Rebellion in republics wanting independence
Persecution of ethnic minorities
Muslim unrest in So republics
Economic woes in republics, with consumer
shortages, unemployment
Conflict with Chechnya
Chechnya declared independence, 1991
Corruption of Dedayev regime(dictator)
Persecution of non checnyans: Russ leave, killed
Slave trade and criminal activity
First Chechnyan War
Yeltsin ordered 400,000 troops to retake
Chechnya 1994; not prepared for heavy fighting
Hostage taking in hospital, attacks against
remaining Russian soldiers after pull out;
Dedayev killed in air raid
Negotiated de facto independence, but not
enough for separatists,
Second Chechnyan War
Suicide attacks and bomb attacks on apartment buildings;
Putin ordered troops in as part of “War on Terrorism” after 9/11
Since then, continuing terror attacks; Russ army holds most of
area:
Theater hostage taking Moscow 2002 (700 hostages)
Beslan school hostage crisis: 1200 taken, 330 killed brutally
Collapse of Yugoslavia: Civil War
1980 Tito’s death: instability
Six national groups (Serb, Croat, Slovene, Montenegrin,
Macedonian, Muslim Bosnian)
3 religious groups (Croat and Slovene = Catholic, Latin alphabet;
Serb, Montenegran., Macedonian = E Orthodox, Cyrillic alphabet;
Bosnians Muslim)
Only held together by Tito cult of personality + power sharing
Ethnic divisions reemerge
Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Macedonia pushed for
independence from the Yugoslavia in 1990
No strong leader to unite all groups, because Tito repressed
Nationalist leaders (Slobodan Milosevic, Communist nationalist in
Serbia, others) encouraged ethnic strife to gain power;
1990: Milosovic refused independence of other provinces because
wanted power. Macedonia and Croatia
Balkan Wars Renewed-- 1990’s
Serb contention vs Croats
and Slovenes
Croatia and Slovenia
independence 1990;
violence from Serbia—
Milosovic, using Yugoslav
army, determined to keep
Yugoslav state to dominate,
Serbia accused Croatia of
persecution of Serbs living
there
Croatia accused Serbia of
maintaining Stalinist regime
War between Serbia and Croatia
Milosovic attacked Croatia 1991
Croatian and Serbian forces determine to divide
Bosnia/Herzegovina
Muslims in Bosnia crushed between forces;
Serbs, especially, “ethnic cleansing” to eliminate
Muslims (killed, raped, removed)
Bombing of Sarajevo (capital of Bosnia
/Herzegovina) by Serbs to eliminate Moslem
Bosnian government; other places Croats fighting
to take areas of Bosnia (where Croats lived).
US and NATO intervention
Mediation and sanctions little impact
After marketplace bombings killed many in 1994,
NATO ultimatum if Serbs didn’t withdraw from
around Bosnian capital
1994 NATO bombing strikes (first ever by NATO)
pushed back Serbs: Dayton Accords end war,
continued NATO forces peacekeeping there
Kosovo
Kosovo was an autonomous province within Yugoslavia with the
majority of the people Albanian, but with a small population of Serbs,
who considered Kosovo historically sacred land.
In 1989 Milosevic, in Serbian nationalist fashion, removed Kosovo’s
autonomous status.
In 1996, the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), ethnic Albanians, attacked
Serbian leaders in Kosovo. Serbian forces retaliated, massacring
ethnic Albanians with horrible atrocities on both sides.
The U.S., NATO allies, and Russia tried to settle the conflict.
Madeleine Albright declared, "We are not going to stand by and watch
the Serbian authorities do in Kosovo what they can no longer get away
with doing in Bosnia."
Albanians eventually agreed to a peace plan, but Milosevic refused.
U.S. and NATO forces bombed the area to force the Milosevic
government to comply (1999).
Milosevic lost the 2000 elections, later put on trial at the Hague by a
international tribunal for "ethnic cleansing" he enforced, died during
trial.