Between “Special Interest” and “a Social Duty”: Reflections on
Teachers and ICTs
Leikny Øgrim Eevi E. Beck
Faculty of Education Education Research Institute
Oslo Univ. College, Norway Univ. of Oslo, Norway
leikny.ogrim@lu.hio.no eevi@ped.uio.no
Information and communication technologies (ICTs) have fired the imaginations and hopes,
including national planners of education. During the past decade or two expectations in Norway to
teachers' intimacies with ICTs have changed dramatically. In this paper we explore some of the
consequences for teachers.
The education system in Norway is based on the idea that all children should have equal rights and
equal opportunities to school. Most schools are public and free for the first 14 years of schooling.
There is a detailed national curriculum for the unified school system. In this paper we concentrate
on the primary school, which lasts for 10 years and is obligatory. A new national curriculum L97
(UFD 96a), was put into action in 1997, substituting the former M87 (KUF 87). The next version is
in work in these days (2004). L97 is characterised by a pedagogical shift, in the direction on
individualised training, and teaching and learning organised as theme and project work.
The idea of an equal and unified school system also leads to equal and unified teacher training. All
teacher training programs are obliged by a national teacher training curriculum, the revision of
which does not necessarily fall together with the revision of the national curriculum for the primary
school. The last revision came in 2003 (KUF 95, UFD 03).
Changes in the National Curriculum and the changing attitudes of the shifting ministers create the
need for teachers for updating through in-service training. Several programs have been organised,
centrally or locally, as short or long-lasting courses for groups of teachers at each school. These
kind of collective solutions are often organised as results of new demands to teachers in plans or
curricula, and do give formal competence to the participants. In addition, many teachers attend
courses at colleges and universities, on the participants’ own cost and spare time.
Our interests and practices
We, the authors of this paper, are researchers and practitioners in the fields of Information Systems
(IS) generally and educational uses specifically. Both of us have an academic IS background, being
trained to analyse critically the design and introduction of ICTs, including ways of involving users
in the design of ICTs. Our later experiences of teaching ICTs to pre- and in-service teacher students
have lead to a number of encounters which have impressed us deeply. This paper is an exploration
of some of the issues we have met through our practice of teaching.
While previous papers have focused on the use of ICTs in teacher education (Johannesen and
Øgrim 99, Øgrim et al 00), various aspects of distance education (Fjuk and Øgrim 97, Johannesen
and Øgrim 00 and 01), gender aspects (Hilde et al 98, Øgrim 01a, Carm and Øgrim 03), the
relevance of ICTs on teacher and student roles (Øgrim 01b), this paper uses the lens of ―Sociality
With Objects‖ (Knorr Cetina 97) to help explore some of the changes taking place, and thereby
better understand the teaching profession. Based on our experience in teaching pre- and in-service
teachers we develop some possible directions for future research.
1
A Theory of Sociality With Objects
We wish to explore the changing expectations to and experiences of relations between ICTs and
teachers in terms of relations between technologies and socialities. We draw on several theoretical
approaches. Of prime concern in the present paper are ideas of socialities with objects as proposed
by Karin Knorr Cetina (97).
Key terms discussed in her paper include the emergence and nature of a knowledge society and the
corresponding ―need to trace the ways in which knowledge has become constitutive of social
relations‖ (p.8). ―[A knowledge society] means that knowledge cultures have spilled and woven
their tissue into society... The traditional definition of knowledge society puts the emphasis on the
first term, on knowledge... the definition I advocate switches emphasis to society.... [which] is now
more inside knowledge processes than outside.‖ (p.8) An empirical example of this may be the
historical development of plans for ICT usages in Norwegian schools.
Objects and knowledge objects
Knorr Cetina’s 1997 paper is an argument for the inclusion of objects into the realm of the social,
as viewed by sociologists. ―Socialities with objects‖ becomes her term for professional societies
with common core knowledge. Knorr Cetina discusses ―knowledge objects‖ and states that they in
her conception are shared, open, and under-defined. As we understand her concept of objects, they
can cover both long- and short-term teaching plans, national curricula, individual and collective
models of teaching, thumb rules and theories for handling situations in the class room, text books,
chalk and blackboard, morning rituals etc etc, as these can be seen as objects that are used by the
teaching experts. Now, as we judge the situation in schools, we are in the middle of a big change in
the understanding of the teacher profession, both from the society and from the professionals
themselves. The change can, in the light of Knorr Cetina’s terms, be seen as if new important
knowledge objects are involved in the teacher profession.
Also other authors, both within sociology and informatics, discuss the concept of object. In
informatics, object oriented programming (Nygaard 85) and object oriented analysis and design
(Kaasbøll 96, Norman 96) are well known areas. Objects are seen as containers of processes and
attributes, for instance variables, references to other objects, procedures and classes. The objects are
seen as building bricks of systems. In this field objects are concrete and well defined. In the
international community of ICTs and learning, the tern ―learning object‖ has the meaning of a
small, reusable unit of learning material, that can be stored in a database and shared by teachers in
different fields and institutions (Gilbert 03). A discussion on related notions of objects would have
been interesting.
Experts, emotions, and openings
Knorr Cetina’s treatment of expertise encompasses, according to our reading of her paper, several
dimensions or aspects. Not all of these we find immediately unifiable. While her focus could be
read as being on object relations as constitutive of expertise (―Object worlds... emotional home for
expert selves‖, p .9) she also states ―The concept of an object-centred sociality attempts to break
open such notions as that of an expert, of technical competence... These notions often presuppose
but do not unfold or interrogate the object relations on which expertise depends.‖ (p. 9). Also,
―Experts’ relations to objects involve rituals‖ (p. 18). These latter statements appear to tie expertise
closely to particular ways of relating to objects - as may be the purpose of Knorr Cetina’s
exploration of expertise. Our focus, however, is on object relations with a substantially more
ambiguous relation to expertise.
2
Contexts: Changing agendas for ICTs in schools
The schools are parts of a technical society, and technological changes have slowly impact on the
situation in the education system. In this chapter we sum up some technological milestones, for then
to present some highlights of the history of ICTs in schools in Norway.
Some technological milestones
The 50-ies are often regarded as pioneer years when it comes to technological development.
Computers were found in universities and research laboratories, and no one could imagine the
tremendous growth we have seen afterwards. The 60-ies were characterised by growth and
commercialisation. Computers moved into the large companies, and some universities started
carefully with courses in programming for especially interested students. In the 70-ies, the mini
computer was a reality. Computers were taken into use in a large scale both in industry and
governmental administration.
The technical revolution most important for the educational system, came in the 80-ies with the
growth of the market for mini computers with IBM’s PCs, and even more important Macintosh’
graphical user interface. The gradually fall in prices and the graphical user interface, made the
computers usable for millions of people who were not dedicated technical interested.
The 90-ies brought a new technical revolution, that was extremely important for the wide spread of
computers – the introduction of internet with easy-to-use web browsers. In Norway the
breakthrough of internet can be dated to the winter Olympics at Lillehammer in 1994. Now (2004),
approximately 76 % of all persons over the age of 13, have access to the internet (Gallup 04). For
families with children in the primary school, the number is even higher.
The well known Clinton-Gore initiative included the metaphor of a digital super highway. The
initiative emphasized that changes in infrastructure may lead to new activity in the working life.
Another vision was that all students and teachers should have universal access to effective
information technology in their classrooms, communities, and homes. This should include that
every educator and learner should have to acquire three new foundational skills: the knowledge of
how to find information, the knowledge to determine if what is found is relevant to the task, and the
knowledge to determine if the relevant information is accurate.
What the new millennium will bring, we do not yet know. So far we may think that we have seen a
glance of an integration of several technologies. What we can see, is the rapidly spread use of broad
band, the growing, a significant growth in the e-trading industry, and emphasis on Norwegian
national content on the internet. These tendencies are in line with national and trans-national plans
for e-Norway and e-Europe (Ødegård 03).
Øgrim et al (00) discuss different trends in education related the technical development. The idea is
to show that the future is not deterministic; the scenarios are rather different even if the technology
is almost the same.
Changes in the National Curriculum
Norms for usage of ICTs in primary and lower secondary schools in Norway have been expressed
in successive editions of the national curriculum. A notable change is found from M87 to L97, from
ICTs as an optional subject for the especially interested to being integrated into all subjects, at all
levels.
3
ICTs are not, as in the former curricula, seen as a specific topic. On one hand, that means a
democratisation, in the way that all pupils have to become users of the technology. On the other
hand, the pupils with technical interests are no longer encouraged to learn more of the specifically
technical topics. This change have led to a reasonable shift in the teachers’ duties, and hence the
expectations to their competence.
The national curriculum has status as a law, which all schools and teachers are obliged to. L97 is
used and referred to by teachers. They really feel obliged by it. It is a part of the curriculum in every
teacher training college. One way for the ministry to communicate the importance of the L97, was
to print it as a beautiful hard cover book, illustrated by well known artists and given to every
teacher. It is also published in an internet version. Using Knorr Cetina’s concepts, L97 is a
knowledge object for the professional teacher, as M97 was before.
National Plans
In addition, the ministry of education have published five- and two-years plans for the
implementation and use of ICTs in the education system (UFD 96-03). These plans are ranked
under the national curriculum. Also, the L97 covers the whole picture, while the plans only cover
ICTs.
The first national plan were published in 1983. According to that, test schools, a system for
development and testing of pedagogical software, and standards for computers and operating
systems in schools were established. The first program for in-service teacher training was
developed. The next plans from 87 and 89 followed in the same track (Ødegård 03).
In 1990 a ―National centre for learning materials‖ was established. The pedagogical goals were
ambitious. ICTs should contribute not only to enhancing the learning situation, but also to new
methods of teaching, individualisation, gender and geographically equity, as well as
internationalisation and helping the teachers to work more effective.
In 96 this was concretised into three levels of goals, stated in the slogans ―playing for learning,
learning for using, and using for learning‖ (UFD 96). Playing for learning is the main activity for
the smallest children, using ―edutainment‖ programs and playing with the computer as well as other
learning materials. The next level is called learning for using‖, that is when the schools
systematically teach their pupils skills in handling the computer and its different programs, in order
for the pupils to become personal computer users. Many schools have developed their own local
computer ―driving licence‖, including practical skills and rules for the use of the computers and the
internet. The top level is called using for learning, when the computer has become a natural tool,
acting as seamless technology. Of course the three levels are integrated in practice. When these
three levels are reached, the technology might be seen as a knowledge object for the students. The
pupil’s use of the technology is still in focus. The teachers’ obligations are to facilitate that of their
students. For the teachers, the technology is still not an integrated knowledge object.
By the millennium change, the general computer access in schools was quite good. In 2002, there
were 8 – 10 pupils in average per computer in the primary school. Over 90 % of the schools were
connected to the internet. Approximately 80 % of the schools said to offer basic training in the use
of ICTs for their teachers, and over half of the schools said to offer in-service teacher training in
pedagogical use of ICTs (Gallup 02, Kløvstad and Kristiansen 04).Yet, Drotner (04) claims that
differences are increasing. In June 1994, this remains stratified according gender, where while
usages and access rates are increasing, the difference has been stable since 1998, age differences are
slightly reduced since 2000, and education differences have been stable or slightly decreasing since
2001 (Gallup 04).
4
The time had come to go some steps further. One idea was to move from pilot schools and
outstanding single examples, to broad implementation and large scale experiments. A national
learning network was established, as well as a plan for implementing new methods of evaluation
and exams. ICTs as a specific subject was re-introduced. Net based in-service training for teachers
was developed, based on the idea of a pedagogical computer ―driving licence‖ for teachers
(LærerIKT 03). The research organisation ITU (ICTs in education) became permanent (ITU 04).
In 04, the current ―Program for digital competence‖ was published (UFD 04c). This program has
four main areas: 1) infrastructure, 2) development of competence, 3) digital learning resources,
curricula and methods of work, and 4) research and development. The program has ambitious
goals; in 2008 there should be satisfactory infrastructure, ICTs should be a central element in all
parts of the education system, Norwegian educational should be among the best in the world in the
field of ICTs, and ICTs should be an integrated agent for innovation and quality development. As a
necessary result, ICTs must be an integrated knowledge object for every professional teacher.
The program for digital competence must be seen together with the recent school reform called
―Culture for learning‖ (UFD 04d). Among the most radical actions are the introduction of
individual plans for every child, and no more age divided classes.
The national plans influence the school system, but not as directly in pedagogy and didactics as
L97. We might say that the plans influence the teachers’ day-to-day work, but they are not in their
repertoire of knowledge objects.
School Practice: Challenges to teachers
What knowledge a person needs to demonstrate to be recognised as a teacher is changing. From our
experience with in-service teacher training in ICTs, we suggest that experienced teachers are being
challenged in at least three non-distinct areas:
Weakened control over contents
Text books, curriculum and traditional teaching methods are definitely knowledge objects in
teaching. According to previous views course materials were contained within – and in practice
defined by – identifiable, single repositories. Typically these were text books. In Norway, once a
text book had been published and printed and arrived at the school, its contents defined what was to
be taught at that level. The necessary connection back to the national plans was taken care of by a
board of authorisation for teaching materials.
Expectations that materials are observably contained and certified now break down. No longer can
correct answers appear as given, but are permanently liable to being challenged. With alternatives
to text books, correct answers are no longer given, but are subject to negotiation. The pupils may, to
a larger degree than before, find their own learning materials. Earlier, the teacher was seen as the
wise and knowledgeable oracle. Now she is more a tutor who guides the pupils in judging their
sources. Drotner (04) sees this as the advantage of the new complex society. To the pupils, this may
lead to motivation and responsibility for own learning. The teachers, however, may or may not
agree. While in practice many teachers may often teach as before, we argue that the model of
certainty as ideal for teachers to orient to, has broken down. Partly this is due to the new technical
possibilities, partly by its legitimation.
To date this has not obliterated text books. The searching for relevant information elsewhere
however, already has a number of consequences. Some parents are nervous about the core
curriculum. Some are nervous about what their children might be exposed to through the internet.
5
They do not recognise the safe, traditional school, and they fail to help their children with respect to
subject contents. When young students fetch information on the internet there is a multiplicity of
potentially relevant sources which may or may not challenge the teacher. She must not only herself
gain competences in evaluating the reliability of sources in the new media, but also include this
issue in her teaching. Internet and related didactics are not yet a common knowledge object for all
teachers.
Weakened control over the learning process
The ways of organising teaching and learning, which are obviously knowledge objects for the
teachers, are now disappearing, due to L97, the use of ICTs and the reform ―Culture for learning‖.
Classes do no longer exist, many schools do not have fixed time schedules with 45 minutes time
slots, project and theme based work are continuously becoming more important and the text books
are to a large degree exchanged with, or at least complimented by, the internet. The groups of
learners more and more decide what to learn, how and when to do it. Different sources of
information are used, like the internet, the library, interviews and experiments.
The role of the tacheris not by any means reduced. She has a tremendous influence on their pupils
and their choice of project subjects and working methods. The subjects that the pupils learn, are
more than before dependent of the interests and knowledge of their teacher. Teachers have to learn
didactics related to project and theme based work. Most teachers have, in loyalty to L97, gained
experience about project didactics for some years. It is gradually becoming a knowledge object.
Weakened control over pupils
Traditionally, the roles of teachers and pupils were quite clear. The teacher was an authority, who
possessed answers and decided what to do. The authoritative oracle-like role was encouraged by the
dominant method of teaching being lectures and task solving in the classroom, as well as by the
restricted content of learning found in the text books.
The pupils were organized in classes, usually quite homogenous according to age (until 2004, UFD
04d), ethnicity (until appr 1970), and social class. Also with respect to learning ability the classes
were quite homogenous, until 1981 when all children, independent of physical or mental abilities,
were integrated in the common school. Then the teacher could concentrate on the subject, being
quite certain that most of the pupils could follow the same track and the same progression.
All the resent changes, increased by L97 and national plans, have encouraged, or nearly forced, the
teacher to change the emphasise, from subject to pupil, from class to individuals. ICTs increase the
possibilities to adjust learning materials and tasks to the individual pupil. Also, the pupils work
more on their own, in groups and individually.
Conflict handling, community building, analysing the needs of each student, guiding, and tutoring,
are elements of a didactics that is expected from the modern professional teacher, but these
elements are not yet totally internalised as knowledge objects.
Some pupils apparently have more technical knowledge than their teachers. Many teachers lament
this situation, and feel obliged to learn more ICTs themselves, in order to match the pupils. The
attention on this intrigues us, however. According to our understanding, the young students’
familiarity with ICTs rarely matches what the school is trying to teach. We therefore wonder why
this issue seems to draw such disproportionate attention from teachers. Many teachers seem to mix
necessary user knowledge with specific knowledge of every technical detail. This is even more
surprising when we know that pupils of all times have been experts far beyond their teachers in
specific subjects such as English football athletes, Greek mythology, or horse race. without
6
underdog reactions from the teachers. In discussing a parallel issue Kirsten Drotner (04) shows that
young students’ informal learning during their free time is more varied than what they learn
formally in school in relation to media. She argues, however, that this does not in itself provide
media competence.
Traces of teacher responses
During 8 years of in-service training (96-04), we have met quite a number of teachers facing this
situation. We have experienced two main ways of reacting, related to competence enhancement.
Some actions have been taken from the government – large ambitious projects to include many
teachers. The project LærerIKT is one of the (LærerIKT 03, UFD 04b). Net based learning
materials were designed for teachers who should acquire basic skills in the standard user programs
(as for instance the Office Package from Microsoft) and apply it for pedagogical purposes. The
program was organised as a learning pyramid. Some hundred teachers were participating in the first
round, and then recruited as instructors. With this organisation, more and more teachers would
participate every year. The idea was to organise peer groups of learners on each school, in order to
promote cooperation. The materials provide hands on training sections, but he main work is
supposed to be organised around pedagogical tasks to be solved in the peer groups. More than
18000 teachers have fulfilled the program (UFD 04b). This has been a significant lift in making
ICTs a knowledge object for professional teachers.
Also other central initiatives are organised in a hierarchical way, with a system of tutors to guide
groups of teachers on each school (UFD 04a). Such a large project is a strong symbol, showing the
teachers that this area is taken seriously by the authorities. The program is initiated from the
government and decided by the local school leader. One might say that the teachers participate out
of duty.
The other approach is courses initiated by the teachers themselves and attended on their own cost
and free time. These courses give formal competence and eventually wage race.
Some of the students are experienced computer users, who want to have their competence
formalised. They often get a lot out of the courses, as they are dedicated students with special
interests in the field.
Others believe that computer competence is a knowledge object of theirs, even if it’s not. This
group of students often have a hard time trying to impress themselves, their peer students and their
teachers. They can be said to suffer from the misunderstanding mentioned earlier, by confusing
three different knowledge objects: user knowledge, specific technical skills, and computing
professional knowledge objects.
Still other participants start out with almost no pre skills in computer use. During the four years we
ran special classes for females, we met a lot of these students. They had avoided computer use,
either because they had low confidence, because they felt computers are co notated to mathematics
and technique, while they themselves were oriented towards humanities, or simply because they had
not found the time before. Still 10 or 20 % of our students fall into this category. When they finally
attend the course, they have felt the pressure from the society, some times directly from their local
head master. Earlier participation in computer use classes has not increased their technological self
confidence. Many of our students have reported on instructors who seem to be more interested to
impress with their own specific competence and answering intricate questions from already skilled
participants than guiding novice users. The specific female classes have proved to be helpful for
this group of students (Hilde et al 98).
7
Discussion
Exploring reactions to the reorientation of the teacher profession opens up both established views of
knowledge in school and processes of establishing object-centre red socialities.
On the one hand, theories of object socialities may be used as aids in understanding the teaching
profession. Possible research questions evolve from this discussion. The profession of teaching is
under continuous debate (Vaage et al 86, Sundli and Oma Ohnstad 03, Baune 01). There is not even
a consensus on what really defines a profession. Hence there is no consensus if teachers belong to a
profession, or may be a semi profession. The notions of (professional) knowledge and knowledge
objects may contribute to that discussion.
On the other hand, empirical studies of Norwegian teachers may be aids in developing theoretical
perspectives on socialities with technological objects. Knorr Cetina (97) argues ―we need to trace
the ways in which knowledge has become constitutive of social relations‖ (p 8). Emotional
investments and open dynamics (ibid: 14) can be found, while - as a potential expansion of her
argument - these are not all ―experts‖ (ibid: 25). Knorr Cetina’s discussion of knowledge may be
related to other influential views such as Haraway's (91) call for a notion of knowledge as not only
situated but plural: Situated knowledges.
This raises the discussion on the concept of expert, which in the field of informatics most
frequently is found in literature on expert systems (Anderson et al 94) and user participation
(Bjerknes et al 87). From our point of view, as members of a profession (or semi-profession),
teachers are experts in teaching, pedagogy and didactics. What this means, is changing over time.
They also need to have additional knowledge on a lot of boundary fields, like language,
mathematics, history, and ICTs. But they are not, as professionals, experts on ICTs. Knowledge
objects, such as computers, programming languages, system development methods, and human
computer interface guidelines, belong to the profession of informatics. In the recent years, when
ICTs are used everywhere, many members of different professions seem to think they are experts on
ICTs, even if only the usage specific to their own profession is a knowledge object to them.
The increased emphasis on ICTs in schools can, we argue, be studied as a process of a knowledge
objects moving from the realms of experts to the everyday for teachers, thereby transforming the
meaning of membership in the teacher profession. Previously, ICTs were for teachers with a special
interest, while the current expectation that all make ICTs part of their everyday practice turn it into
a social duty for teachers to know ICTs.
Knorr Cetina (97) presents a compelling argument for, and an overview over, a notion of socialities
which includes objects and human relations to these. This paper is not – and could not be –
exhaustive on these issues. As a way of concluding, we present some further questions arising from
our work to date.
Accountability
o Establishing infrastructures: Whose views and what concerns are shaping the emerging
technical and organisational infrastructures for ICTs usage in schools? How are dissenting
voices included or not?
Socialities With Objects:
o Whose views structure the new socialities teachers are pressured to orient to?
8
Design vs. Theory:
o How can an extension of social theory along the lines proposed in Knorr Cetina (97)
towards including objects, aid in systems design for teachers and students?
Relation to other social-technical approaches:
o How does the theoretical extension of sociality with objects relate to sociologies and
anthropologies of and with ICTs? Or to the insights of actor network theory, including
Star’s boundary objects and other related concepts of objects? I.e. theoretical approaches
where the integral nature of technological tools to human sociality are taken as a starting
point?
More research is needed.
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