China
• The major sources of competition and growth.
• Agriculture and household responsibility system.
• Local leaders began dividing up the land among work
units
• Production quotas were subcontracted to these units
• They had to sell a set amount of produced goods to
state officials at stipulated prices
• Anything produced above these quotas could be sold at
higher prices to other buyers who sold in the free market
• Village leaders had the power to divide land and work
responsibilities
China
• Growth in agricultural production for the first few years
following the reform was spectacular.
• Agriculture sector growth averaged 7.1 percent from
1979 to 1984 compared with 2.7 percent from 1970 to
1978.
• This rapid growth fed into industrial growth.
• After 1985 agricultural growth slowed, although still
strong at 4 percent.
• Industry grew at over 12 percent from 1985 to 1995.
China
• Town and village enterprises (TVEs) are a cooperative
venture between the town and village authorities and
local rural businessmen.
• The land, improvements, technology and labor force
come from the local towns.
• In the beginning TVEs produced simple consumer goods
to satisfy demand from farmers and the rural
communities.
• TVEs absorbed surplus rural as productivity in
agriculture rose and helped to smooth out the seasonal
work cycle in rural areas by providing off-season work.
• They also facilitated the development of local markets
and contributed to the expansion of exports
China
• TVEs helped pave the way for the emergence of private
firms.
• Some TVEs were transformed into privately owned
ventures.
• Government provided some incentives for the
development of TVEs to local authorities.
• The interaction of TVEs and HRS resulted in rapid
growth in the Chinese economy for a decade.
• The importance of the TVEs began to wane in the late
1990s.
China
• Special economic zones (SEZs) started to grow in the
early 1980s.
• They spread quickly throughout the south.
• 15 free trade zones, 32 state-level economic and
development zones were opened as well as 53 industrial
development zones.
• As a share of GNP international trade has increased
rapidly. Imports are now 30 percent of GDP, up from 5
percent in 1978.
• About half of Chinese exports are from foreign funded
enterprises, primarily in the SEZs in the southern
provinces
China
• Foreign direct investment has grown from almost nothing
in 1980 to over $50 billion annually in 2003.
• Rapid growth in exports has led to persistent trade
surpluses and increased tensions with the US and the
EU.
• Trade surpluses and current account surpluses reached
7 percent of GDP in 2005.
• Foreign reserves exceeded $1 trillion by the end of 2006
up from $212 billion in 2001.
• Intellectual property protection has been a major source
of contention between China and the United States and
the EU.
• China is an especially big violator of software copyrights.
China
• Issues facing China.
• Demographic Transition and Aging.
• “late, long, few” policy replaced by one child policy after
1979.
• There has been a steady increase in the sex ratio, from
1.06 in 1979 to 1.17 in 2001.
• There are many reasons – abortion, infanticide, hidden
female births
• Sex ratios are also 1.12 to 1.20 in many other Asian
countries, where male children are also preferred.
• Could be as a result of abortion as ultrasound tests for
sex during pregnancy have become more widely
available.
China
• Many issues relating to sex ratios
• These include mail order brides, more belligerent men
who can’t find wives and growing desirability of girls as
they become scarcer and more educated.
• Working age population will decline as one child policy
works is way through the age distribution.
• As the population ages the ratio of working age to those
over 60 will also decline from 8 in the 1950 to around 2
by 2020.
• The rising dependency ratio may also undermine
household savings and constrain future growth.
China
• LFR model doesn’t work well in China
• In many countries standards of living in urban areas
could be two times that of rural residents.
• In China these differential are substantially higher, as
much as 6 to one, once the higher volatility of rural
incomes and the differences in social benefits are taken
into account.
• The household registration system, Hukou, was installed
as a regulation in 1958.
• It requires that all changes of residence have to be
registered with both origin and destination governments
and approved by both governments.
China
• Regulations have been somewhat relaxed in recent
years.
• However from 1985 to 2005 the rate of rural to urban
migration did not increase beyond 0.25 percent per
annum.
• Failure to obtain Hukou certification prevents rural
migrants from obtaining any of the perquisites available
to legitimate urban residents, including children’s
education, housing and other social benefits.
• As a result they were forced to take jobs in the
construction industry and provided temporary housing by
their employer.
China
• Income inequality is reflected in rising Gini coefficient
from between 28 to 30 to as much as 40 to 50 (or .28 to
.30 and .4 to .5).
• Also income per capita has been diverging across
provinces of China.
• This pattern is probably the result of restrictions on
migration.
• Hasn’t happened elsewhere in either developing
countries or in developed countries.
• Could lead to greater social tensions in the future.
• The government is trying to develop the western
provinces to address this problem.
China
• A second problem is the environment.
• We will speak more about this when we cover this
general topic for the entire region.
• Industrial policy is another contentious area.
• Growth accounting shows that capital has been the
driver of growth.
• GDP is growing at around 9 percent.
• Labor force grows at 1 percent and TFP at around 3.7.
• The rest, over 5 per cent is the result of capital
accumulation and rising labor productivity.
• This has been fueled by mammouth increases in
invesment of close to 40 percent of GDP.
China
• There is an obsession with investment in manufacturing
and industry.
• SOEs are slowly being replaced by more efficient private
enterprises.
• Rapid industrial growth has resulted in very slow growth
in services and a continued rapid fall in share of
agriculture.
• Consumption has now fallen to 45 percent of GDP while
investment has risen to 45 percent.
• Forty years ago consumption was 60 percent and
investment 20 percent.
• Capital intensive manufacturing continues to grow
rapidly along with labor productivity.
China
• Many observers think a redirection to services is
required along with more environmental management.
• This shift is already occurring in industries dominated by
state owned enterprises (SOEs).
• The industrial sector has begun to lose jobs.
• However service sector growth is not sufficient to
compensate for the loss of jobs in industry.
• There are still concerns about the inefficiency of SOEs
and the need to retain inefficiency enterprises instead of
laying off more workers in poorly managed and
inefficient SOEs.
China
• Social policy is another area of concern.
• Educational and health spending are skewed to coastal
provinces.
• Existing social security is also skewed to the rich living in
these same coastal provinces.
• As fertility falls and life expectancy is extended social
security safety nets need to be put in place for the rest of
the population.
• SOEs used to provide such programs.
• They are being phased out as the power of SOEs has
been eroded by private sector firms aided by FDI.
China
• The obsession with industrialization has extended to
exports which have accelerated rapidly.
• Trade and current account surpluses have mushroomed.
• As a result exchange rate policy is an area of tension
with the West.
• Foreign exchange reserves have reached more than a
trillion dollars, from 140 billion a decade ago and no end
in sight.
• Pressures to revalue the Yuan have mounted as exports
rise faster than imports.
China
• SOEs inefficiency is another area of concern.
• Many SOEs are making losses and are
inefficient.
• Industrial output shares have shifted to
collectives and foreign owned enterprises (see
Table on next slide)
• Inefficient SOEs are being allowed to continue to
produce.
• They can not be allowed to close because of the
impact on employment.
• Closures would put many out of work.
China
Industrial output 1980 2002
share
State owned 80 30
Collective 20 29
Foreign owned 0 34
China
• Financial sector reforms are needed.
• The financial sector services are dominated by
four state banks.
• Lending favors SOEs.
• There is credit rationing to the private sector.
• Domestic firms have trouble getting credit.
• Much investment is funded by foreign
enterprises.
• Financial sector highly regulated and credit is
directed.
• Regulatory apparatus is weak and opaque.
China
• The social security burden previously borne by
SOEs has been referred to previously.
• How to fund it remains a challenge as SOEs
themselves are getting large subsidies.
• New financial assets have to be created as
Chinese consumers gain more purchasing
power.
• Credit cards are a potential area as well as new
financial instruments and greater competition in
the financial sector.
China
• Central government has been weakened by the
growth of TVEs and power of local governments.
• As a result fiscal policy is not effective.
• Budgets tend to be procyclical rather than
anticyclical.
• More foreign funded investment results from
increasing tax revenues as the growth bubble
continues.
• Inflation is also becoming a problem.
China
• Gobalization issues are becoming more
important.
• As China become a bigger player in the global
arena its role in WTO and its compliance with
WTO rules is being scrutinized.
• There have been recalls and investigations of
copyright infringement.
• China playing a bigger role in regional trading
arrangements (ASEAN + 3) and Asian trading
system.
India
• Until 1990 India followed a pattern of economic
development where there was
• government control and ownership,
• inward looking development policies
• limited emphasis on international trade.
• The so-called “license raj” (raj means regime in
Hindi) stressed
• government controls and supervision of
commerce
• extensive monopoly power
• stable but comparatively slow overall growth
India
• As a response to a fiscal crisis that put India on
the brink of international bankruptcy in 1990/91
• The government undertook a series of reforms
in the early 1990s
• These resulted in a significant shift in policy
• toward international trade
• Competition
• Regulation
• Foreign investment
India
• These led to an acceleration in economic
growth.
• Looking at agriculture first
• During the Green Revolution (1966-76)
agricultural output grew more rapidly than in any
other period, yet still never reached an average
of 3 percent per annum
• This is true even when the drought and poor
weather years are dropped.
• Recall the growth in Chinese agriculture was
never below 3 percent.
India
• Variations in rainfall in a monsoon climate is
reinforced by the lack of irritation.
• Irrigation only covered 10 percent of cultivated
area in the 1950s. Even now only 40 percent is
irrigated.
• In the green revolution most of the gains in
yields came from land that was not irrigated –
only 20 percent of gain from rice productivity
increases came from irrigated land.
• Agriculture is still starved for infrastructure,
extension, diversification and post harvest farm
management.
• As we learned the rural sector still has high
poverty rates.
India
• Industry share of Country Sector share of
Industry – percent
output in India is value added
much smaller than in China 66.3
other countries – see Korea 43.2
Table
India 26.0
Indonesia 44.5
Philippines 33.2
Thailand 46.7
Vietnam 39.4
India
• Why?
• High risk and low expected returns from
investment in industry.
• Entry and exit are difficult. Leads to low
level of FDI and domestic investment.
• License raj and lack of competition.
• Labor mobility is limited – hard to fire.
• It is difficult to buy and sell land.
India
• Lack of openness to Country FDI as % Trade as
foreign competition. of GDP ( % of GDP
1998) (2004)
• High tariff barriers – India
average of 30% 0.5 42
compared with 15% in
China and 10% in China 5.0 65
Thailand.
• FDI and trade shares as Malaysia 6.1 221
percent of GDP are low
compared to other
countries – see table Thailand 6.2 136
India
• Infrastructure bottlenecks
• Ports are expensive – puts India at a cost disadvantage
relative to China, Indonesia, Korea and Thailand.
• Rail transport is antique although new highway
connecting Delhi, Calcutta, Chennai (Madras) and
Mumbia (Bombay) will help.
• Energy is expensive – underinvestment and unreliability
resulted in many small inefficient plants.
• Energy costs are 3-3.5% of sales in India – 2.5@ in
China and 2% in Indonesia and Thailand.
India
• Regulations and red tape take up time and cost
money – more than twice as much as in China,
Thailand and Indonesia.
• Customs clearance is slow and bribes required.
• Tax system is complicated and subject to
bribery.
• Few incentives for innovation and improved
efficiency.
• Information technology and communications are
freer and are booming.
India
• Financial sector is becoming more open.
• Still lots of controls by central bank.
• Caps on rural lending and banks have not
moved there.
• Caps on deposit rates and extent of
foreign banks (no local customers)
• Ceilings on interest rates and high reserve
requirements which serve to tax the
banking system.
India
• Investment climate better now despite all
the regulations
• Private investment is nearly double the
rate in the 1980s.
• Exports are still small as a share of GDP
compared with China.
• There are export processing zones but
they are small compared with China.
India
• Human resource development is lagging.
• Women’s education is low, particularly in the
poorest states where nearly half the population
reside.
• More than 50 percent illiteracy for women and
infant mortality over 70 per 1,000 births.
• Population growth also rapid in poorer states.
• Muslims and lower caste Hindus and tribal
people suffer the most.
India
• Issues and challenges facing India
• Higher rates of growth can be attained – will
require more investment in infrastructure.
• Rate of growth in industry has to increase too.
• Regulations have to be relaxed – labor markets,
trade environment, regulation of industry.
• SEZs have to attract more FDI.
• Greater technology transfer and innovation
India
• Regional disparities in income and income
distribution – address poverty in the poorest
states.
• More resources spent on health and education
in these states.
• Agricultural polices should stress water
conservation and small scale irrigation, small
scale enterprises, rural education, extension,
crop diversification.
• More resources should be directed to the sector,
particularly the poorest states.
India
• Industrial policies have been mentioned before
• More flexibility in labor markets
• Better exit and entry for business,
• More openness and greater stress on
competition in foreign markets
• More FDI, greater connectivity for SEZs and
more technology transfer.
• Better infrastructure to support industry including
sites and services in SEZs.
India
• Extension of road network.
• More efficient ports.
• Rail network need more work as do airports.
• Stress should be on major cities and transport
connection initially.
• Shift later on to secondary cities.
• More affordable and reliable power is essential
for Indian industry to be competitive
internationally.
India
• Industry opening up will have to change the mix
of exports more toward large establishments
producing manufactured goods.
• India is far behind China and hasn’t changed the
mix of its exports!!!
• It still has the same share of world exports that it
had 20 years ago!!
• Electrical machinery, appliances, paper and
plastics and auto parts etc. are still on the list of
industries that have to go to the government to
fire workers.
India
Share of World
Exports
Commodity 78/81 78/81 98/00 98/00
China India China India
Textiles 9.1 7.0 29.3 7.7
Leather and 1.5 8.7 14.3 8.0
jewelry
Manufacture 1.1 0.3 18.1 0.3
goods
India
• Financial sector policies have to be relaxed and
financial repression policies scrapped.
• These include directed credits to specific
sectors, restrictions on foreign banks, interest
rate ceilings and high reserve requirements.
• Financial intermediaries other than banks should
be allowed to operated more freely.
• These include savings and loans, insurance
companies and investment banks.
India
• There are a number of environmental issues that
we will discuss next week.
• Population policies should work to control
population growth which will be highest in the
poorest states (40 % of population and 55 % of
population growth by 2015).
• There has to be greater concentration on girls
education to do this. See table on next page
India
Women’s LFPR by Caste as percent of labor force
Employment Scheduled Scheduled Other Others
tribes Castes backward
castes
Inactive 17 20 24 32
Employed 25 24 14 8
Self 31 16 22 16
employed
Extra 26 39 39 43
domestic
work
India
• In India women drop out of the labor force if
family income is high enough to sustain their
lifestyle without working.
• Working for women does not appear as a
superior good. It is an inferior good – consume
less as income rise.
• Therefore emphasis should be on women’s
education so they can make choices that will
lower infant mortality and fertility.
• Also need to enforce child labor laws.
India and China
• China’s industrial growth outstrips India.
• SEZs are the key.
• FDI plus domestic investment.
• Shift from metals to machinery, vehicles and
electrical machinery.
• Refer to table on next page.
• Focus of exports even more dramatic.
• SITC codes 75-77 went from 5.5% to 35 % of
total exports between mid 1980s and 2001-04
India and China
Category % of 1970 1997
total manufactured
goods
Metals 16.8 7.6
Machinery and 14.2 17.5
vehicles
Electrical 4.7 13.2
Machinery
Other 3.0 4.5
Manufactured
goods
India and China
• Foreign sector is main driver of growth
contributing 2/3 of increase in growth.
• Compare this with India.
• Industry provided almost no growth impetus.
• Exports are not dynamic and there is no
underlying strategy for growth.
• Textiles and minerals are still the main exports.
• Manufactured goods are only 5 % of total
exports.
India and China
• What about the future?
• China will keep it up – growing rapidly.
• Environmental problems could slow it down.
• India has the potential to pick up growth.
• Infrastructure, labor market and industrial policy
are still bottlenecks.
• It is possible for industry to match IT dynamism.
• Don’t put your money on it.
India and China
• International trade competition between China
and India is unlikely to accelerate.
• China is firmly established in manufactured
exports and unlikely to compete in international
services.
• India will continue with IT and may start to
compete at low end of manufacturing.
• If policy environment improves could challenge
in exports for higher tech products.
India and China
• Poverty and income distribution.
• China has challenge with income distribution
and disparities between coast and interior.
• Government is addressing by developing
infrastructure inland.
• This will take time.
• India has challenge of discrimination and
poverty of tribes and castes.
• Income distribution also deteriorating in India.
India and China
$1 per day India China
percent in
poverty
1990 46.6 31.5
2000/2002 34.7 12.7
India and China
• Financial sector performance
• Both have repressed financial sectors.
• Heavy government control of ownership, interest
rates, directed credit, nonperforming loans.
• Both countries need further liberalization of this
sector.
• Need to introduce more competition and reduce
government regulations.
• Allow foreign banks and financial instutions.
India and China
• Environmental issues will become more
important for both countries.
• Coal and pollution already a problem.
• More pressure from the west to clean up.
• India’s reliance on biomass should fall,
replaced by commercial energy.
• Water pollution and air pollution in cities
also a problem.
India and China
• Global warming and acid rain will create
more tensions with neighbors and
developed countries.
• Health problems arising from air pollution
will accelerate.
• Carbon emissions from India and China
will exceed rest of world soon.