Crouching Tiger Hidden Langur

Tiger Crouching Langur World Bank Support to Biodiversity Conservation in East Asia and the Pacific Hidden A Portfolio Review November 2004 Cover photo: Kho Muong Village, Pu Luong Nature Reserve Vietnam (photo by Frank Momberg) A Portfolio Review November 2004 Crouching Tiger, Langur: Hidden World Bank Support to Biodiversity Conservation in East Asia and the Pacific This report was prepared for the World Conservation Congress in Bangkok in November 2004 to provide a review of World Bank Group support for biodiversity conservation in East Asia and the Pacific Region from 1999-2004. It was prepared by Valerie Hickey, Priya Mathur, Andrew Murray, and Tony Whitten with generous input and helpful comments from Robin Broadfield, Phillip Brylski and Sirinun Maitrawattana (EASEN), Susan Shen (EASRD), Kathy MacKinnon and David Bonnardeaux (ENV), Sam Keller, Richard Caines and Jeffrey Liebert (IFC), under the guidance of Teresa Serra and Magda Lovei. This paper is a contribution to the ongoing review of the biodiversity portfolio of the World Bank Group. It is a work in progress and has not been formally cleared by World Bank management. This publication is available online at www.worldbank. org/biodiversity Photo credits are listed separately under each photograph. The World Bank Washington, D.C. Table Of Contents Foreword Abbreviations and Acronyms Biodiversity in East Asia and the Pacific Portfolio Overview Introduction Methods Portfolio Analysis and Overview Key Themes Strengthening Parks and Protected Area Systems Mainstreaming Biodiversity in the Production Landscape Building Coalitions for Conservation Challenges Useful Websites Bibliography Annexes Annex 1. World Bank Biodiversity Projects in EAP Since 1999 Annex 2. World Bank Non-Lending Activities in EAP Since 1999 Annex 3. Grants disbursed by the CEPF in EAP i ii 1 11 17 33 37 38 40 42 45 This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. Foreword T he East Asia and the Pacific Region covers a remarkable proportion of the world’s biodiversity. Spanning as it does the Palearctic, Oriental, and Australasian bio-geographical regions, it has a richness and diversity of species that are found in few other regions of the world. It encompasses the centers of origin for many important and widespread crops including rice, sugar cane, citrus and soybean, to name but a few. People rely on biodiversity for food, shelter and other inputs to their livelihoods. Biodiversity also boosts economic growth by contributing to trade and foreign exchange earnings. The region’s charismatic fauna, its stunning forests, coral reefs, and rich coastal areas offer recreation and inspiration for a large number of people. Since 1988 the World Bank has supported numerous activities to promote biodiversity conservation, including the preparation of biodiversity strategies, action plans, and studies. Since 1999, the World Bank has managed an active portfolio of $300 million in grants and loans to support conservation in the region. The portfolio focuses on conserving wildlife and wild lands in protected areas, mainstreaming biodiversity conservation in the production landscape, and using biodiversity conservation as a tool to al- leviate poverty at the rural frontier. These efforts are generating many promising results, but also highlight significant challenges. Investments in biodiversity conservation and the control of ever expanding agricultural frontiers, illegal logging and wildlife trade are often hampered by weak governance structures – institutional weaknesses, a poorly informed civil society and oftentimes a lack of political will. Though many and varied, the threats facing biodiversity in the region are not insurmountable. A strategic approach is required to find long term solutions. Raising awareness, supporting alliances with civil society, and working with governments on policy and institutional reform are important ways the World Bank is supporting efforts to stem the tide of biodiversity loss. This report reviews this experience and is meant to stimulate discussion, share knowledge, and contribute to learning from experience. As governments and civil society alike become more aware of the importance of biodiversity for economic growth and poverty alleviation, there is hope that the rich forests, fauna and flora of East Asia and the Pacific will remain a major asset for improving the quality of people’s lives and opportunties for future generations. Teresa Serra Director, Environment and Social Development East Asia and Pacific Region i ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ARC BNPP BSAP CEPF CI COREMAP DGF EA EAP ENSO FFI FLEG FLUPAM GEF GoL GISP IBRD ICDP IDA IFC INFORM IUCN JV KCMI MDG MHA MPA MSP NGO NNT NPA OED PA PHKA SEMFOP TNC UNESCO WBCSD WBG WCPA WCS WSSD WWF YEP Alliance for Religions and Conservation Bank Netherlands Partnership Programme Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Critical Ecosystems Partnership Fund Conservation International Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Program Development Grant Facility Environmental Assessment East Asia and Pacific Region El Nino Southern Oscillation Fauna and Flora International Forest Law and Governance Project Forest and Land Use Planning, Allocation and Management Global Environment Facility Government of Lao Global Invasive Species Programme International Bank for Reconstruction and Development Integrated Conservation and Development Project International Development Association International Finance Corporation Indonesia Forest and Media Project World Conservation Union Joint Venture Komodo National Park Collaborative Management Initiative Millennium Development Goal Millions of Hectares Marine Protected Area Medium Sized Project Non-Governmental Organization Nakai Nam Theun National Protected Area Operations Evaluation Department Protected Area Indonesian Conservation Department Social and Environmental Management Framework and Operational Plan The Nature Conservancy United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization World Business Council for Sustainable Development World Bank Group World Commission on Protected Areas Wildlife Conservation Society World Summit on Sustainable Development World Wide Fund for Nature Yunnan Environment Project ii Section I: Biodiversity in East Asia and the Pacific Biodiversity In East Asia And The Pacific T he East Asia and Pacific (EAP) region includes three of the world’s eight biogeographic areas– the Indomalayan, Oceanian and Palearctic realms. It is home to part of the world’s highest mountain range, its second largest rainforest complex and more than half of its coral reefs. The habitats in the region are among the most diverse in the world (Box 1), ranging from tropical forests and grasslands to desert steppes and remarkable caves, together with coastal and marine environments and other wetlands of international importance. However, the rich biodiversity of the region is under serious threat. Since people have occupied virtually the entire land surface for thousands of years, the region’s biodiversity is the result of a long history of interaction between mankind and nature. Similarly, the threats to the region’s biodiversity are largely anthropogenic. As the region’s population exploded in the twentieth century, agricultural expansion converted forests and grasslands into cultivated land; deforestation and forest fires reduced the forest area, and have made remaining forests more fragmented and degraded; pollution, overfishing and draining of wetlands irrevocably altered the freshwater and marine landscapes; and unsustainable resource use coupled with illegal demand for wildlife products have emptied the forests and seas of their riches. As a result, the region has lost 95 percent of its primary forests; individual countries have lost 70-90 percent of their original wilderness; and deforestation continues to accelerate the seemingly inexorable fragmentation and loss of ter- restrial and aquatic habitats. Degradation of water, air and land at the rural frontier is putting at risk resource-dependent economies and local livelihoods. Resource degradation is also exacerbating local poverty and intensifying local and cross-border conflicts. Protected areas have been one key element of the approach to conserve biodiversity in EAP. The history of their establishment differs between countries, with some now having well established systems, and others with systems which are relatively new. However, while protected areas exist in most countries, many of them are not effectively conserving biodiversity on the ground. Monitoring coastal wetlands in the Berbak National Park, South Sumatra, Indonesia (photo by Wetlands International, Indonesia) 2 Crouching Tiger, Hidden Langur: Box 1. The Region’s foremost and most threatened center of biodiversity Indonesia is the world’s most biologically diverse country. Although it covers only 1.3 percent of the earth’s land surface, it includes: 10 percent of the world’s flowering plant species; 12 percent of the world’s mammal species; 16 percent of all reptile and amphibian species; 17 percent of the world’s bird species; and, 25 percent or more of the world’s fish species. In fact, Indonesia ranks first in the world for species richness for mammals (515 species, 36 percent endemic); first for swallowtail butterflies (121 species, 44 percent endemic); third for reptiles (600+ species); fourth for birds (1519 species, 28 percent endemic); fifth for amphibians (270 species); and, seventh for flowering plants. Indonesia’s great expanse of territorial waters and the richness of the Indo-West Pacific seas further add to the country’s biodiversity. The extensive reef systems in the deep clear seas off Sulawesi, Maluku and Papua are among the world’s richest in species of corals, fishes and other reef organisms. An estimated 40 million people are directly dependent on biodiversity for livelihood and food security in Indonesia. Twelve million people live in and around its forests and many more are dependent on its coastal resources. Since the mid-1990s, there has been a dramatic increase in attention to biodiversity at the national level as well as among donors. Many of the actions identified as priorities in the first national Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (BSAP) have been implemented, and the government has recently completed the second BSAP after an extensive series of consultations. However, one to two million hectares of forest are still being lost annually to illegal logging and encroachment, and the many and varied attempts to stem this hemorrhage to any significant extent have so far failed. Economic Growth and Impacts on Biodiversity Recent economic performance in EAP has been strong, with regional growth in GDP exceeding six percent over the last 12 months; growth prospects continue to look good for the future. The region’s dynamism is creating more personal wealth and higher standards of living than ever before; but economic growth has, as elsewhere, brought environmental degradation. As a result, the region is failing to strike a balance between economic growth and environmental protection. Economic growth has increased demand for natural resources such as land and non-timber forest resources. For example, EAP is now a center for consumption of wildlife derivatives, ranging from tiger bone medicines to shark fin cuisine. The region is also a key supplier to the international wildlife market, both legal and illegal. Much of the demand arises from the practice of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), which uses natural plant, mineral and animal-based ingredients. TCM dates back at least 3,000 years and is an indispensable part of Chinese cultural heritage. For many centuries, tiger bone was a preferred treatment for joint ailments like arthritis, while rhino horn has been used to treat fever, convulsions and delirium. Bile from bear gall bladders is used to treat a variety of ailments, from inflammation to bacterial infections. Although alternatives are available, and many species used in TCM are now protected by national and international laws, illegal trade and poaching have increased to crisis levels as TCM’s popularity has expanded, supported by the rise in personal wealth, and the status gained by con- 3 Biodiversity in East Asia and the Pacific suming rare and exotic species. In addition to their purported curative properties, wildlife derivatives are in demand for exotic cuisine, clothing, trophies and accessories. This has led to unsustainable levels of exploitation for many of the region’s most charismatic, and endangered species. The result is the phenomenon of increasingly silent forests across the region, empty of the wildlife that makes them unique. The Disappearing Tide of Marine Biodiversity Several years have passed since the Conference of the Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity met in Jakarta in 1995 and adopted the Jakarta Mandate, which reaffirmed the critical need for the immediate conservation of endan- gered marine biodiversity. In EAP, marine and coastal biodiversity is rapidly disappearing. For example, Indonesia has the most biologically rich coral reefs in the world, with the greatest diversity of reef fish (around 1,650 species) and 60 percent of the world’s hard coral species (480 species). According to conservative estimates, not only are these reefs diverse, they are also incredibly productive and the fisheries they support provide livelihoods for 67,500 coastal villages throughout the country. However, despite having over 50 percent of the reefs in East Asia (not including unmapped reefs in remote areas, and subsurface reefs), with a total area of 5,100,000 hectares, the last decade has seen this resource become increasingly degraded through overexploitation and poor management. Many of the reefs have been exposed to unsustainable levels of fishing pressure and inappropriate harvesting techniques (including bombs and cyanide) for some time. Consequently catch rates Box 2. Marine Biodiversity The Pacific is the world’s largest ocean and one of the global centers of marine biological diversity. Coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass beds and other coastal ecosystems are vital to biological diversity and productivity but are being degraded by the impacts of coastal development, overexploitation and pollution. Furthermore, the WSSD targets, agreed in Johannesburg in 2002 and reaffirmed during the fifth World Parks’ Congress (2003), set out the need for the establishment and improved management of networks of marine protected areas by 2012 to address problems such as the declines in marine harvests, wildlife and habitats-based management and protection of marine biodiversity. Samoa exemplifies this situation with severe pressures on coastal marine biodiversity and complex economic and social issues underlying these pressures. A large component of Samoa’s coastal marine biological diversity is critically threatened. The goal of the Samoa Marine Biodiversity Protection and Management project was to provide for the protection and sustainable use of threatened coastal marine biodiversity in Samoa by empowering local communities in the Aleipata and Safata Districts of Upolu Island to effectively protect and manage coastal marine biological diversity and help them achieve sustainable use of marine resources. The project protected critical sites for marine biological diversity, including coral reefs, mangroves and seagrass areas, within the core zones of large multiple-use marine protected areas (MPAs) in the Aleipata and Safata Districts. It demonstrated a model and innovative districtlevel approach to community- conservation of marine biodiversity. that has wider application in Samoa, the Pacific Islands region, and globally by developing a solid foundation of local decision-making, management planning, monitoring and review, capacity building and partnerships with Government and the private sector. 4 Crouching Tiger, Hidden Langur: are now much lower than they once were. The only way to recover coral reef productivity, and secure coastal livelihoods, is to protect critical habitats and improve fisheries management. There is a growing body of empirical evidence suggesting that marine reserves can provide a workable system to rejuvenate depleted fish stocks; such an approach can be particularly effective when the resource is managed collaboratively with different resource users to form a multi-purpose Marine Protected Area (Box 2). Working in Freshwater Ecosystems EAP was the first region within the World Bank to highlight the plight of freshwater biodiversity (Kottelat and Whitten 1996); since then there has been a steady improvement in the attention that it has received in environmental assessments (Box 3). Lakes, rivers, cave waters, and areas of swamps and peatland are all threatened by dams, irrigation works, and non-point sources of pollutants that change ecosystem structure and quality. While there is a lack of reliable data on the extent of wetland loss worldwide, experts estimate that in 1985 alone, wetland drainage for intensive agriculture caused a 50 percent loss of wetlands throughout Asia. Box 3. Freshwater Biodiversity Fish are a good proxy for freshwater biodiversity in general, but in many parts of the region the freshwater fish are poorly known. For example, until about five years ago, only 203 native fish species were known to exist in northern Vietnam. However, a few World Bank-financed surveys raised this to 268, an increase of over 30 percent (Kottelat, 2001). Similarly, in 1986 the total number of fishes known from Lao PDR was 211. However between 1995 and 2001, as a result of a series of surveys undertaken, mainly for the environmental assessments of proposed hydroelectric dams, this number was more than doubled to 456. Many of the additions were of species already known from neighboring countries, but about 100 of them were new to science. Some are now generating considerable economic benefits at the local level. Despite these advances, other species such as crabs, clams, snails, and turtles which are of considerable importance to poor riparian people are very poorly known, although it is almost certain that many are severely threatened. The Lake Dianchi basin, which lies just south of Kunming in southern China. It is home to 24 indigenous fish species, at least 11 of which are endemic, and dozens of endemic mollusc and crustacean species. However, since the 1950s some 31 fish and a variety of plant species have been introduced into the water body. These alien species now compete with indigenous species for food and living space. Other problems include declining water quality (due to high phosphorus and nitrogen resulting in eutrophication) and the loss of natural habitats. The Kunming Institute of Zoology in cooperation with the provincial government is seeking to restore and manage habitats around the lake in order to secure the conservation of the remaining endemic species of Lake Dianchi and its lower tributaries. This will be achieved by providing suitable breeding habitat for indigenous species, comprehensively surveying the biological environment of the Lake and its immediate tributaries, establishing a program to monitor lake quality improvements, and improving public awareness of the Lake region’s unique biological environment. 5 Biodiversity in East Asia and the Pacific It is now clear that multiple habitat changes can have a cumulative impact on freshwater species, and there is evidence of widespread and often severe decline in freshwater biodiversity. External factors affecting freshwater biodiversity include: habitat loss resulting from withdrawal of water for human use (e.g. drainage, sediment quarrying, impoundment, flood control); changes in habitat condition as a direct or indirect effect of human activities, including competition or predation by introduced non-native species; direct exploitation (including drainage for forestry and agriculture, and mosquito control, dredging and stream channelization for navigation and flood protection; filling for solid waste disposal, roads; conversion for aquaculture/mariculture; discharges of pesticides, herbicides, nutrients from domestic sewage and agricultural runoff and sediment; groundwater extraction); and, natural causes such as subsidence, sea-level rise, drought, erosion, hurricanes and other natural phenomena. Logging the Trees and Losing the Forests EAP’s forest biodiversity faces grave threats. Unsustainable and often illegal logging, forest fires, poor management and poorer planning have created an anarchic forestry sector that has largely emphasized production and extraction over protection (Box 4). With the notable exception of China, whose forest areas are growing through reforestation, countries in EAP are losing at least 0.6 percent of their forest cover per year, almost 3 times the global rate (World Bank 2004b). In Indonesia for example, over 1-2 million hectares of forest were lost annually over the last 20 years1. High rates of deforestation were exacerbated during 1997 and 1998 when many parts of Indonesia were engulfed by drought and fire. Nearly ten million hectares of land were burned, exposing around 20 million people across Southeast Asia to a shroud of air pollution. While a prolonged dry season caused by the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) climatic condition Burnt out forest areas, Indonesia (photo by The World Bank) contributed to the spread of the fires, they were mainly caused by human activity. In particular, plantation companies and big businesses lit many fires to clear land as cheaply and quickly as possible. Only one percent of the fires were attributed to natural causes. Economic losses from these fires were estimated at $9 - $10 billion. Moreover, many environmental costs were never included in this estimate, most especially the deaths of a large number of endangered species (e.g. orangutans and proboscis monkeys), and the destruction of the last intact lowland forests in Indonesia. One cause of declining forest cover regionally is as a result of increased demand from China. China has been a forest-deficit country for over 50 years. Consequently, Chinese per capita consumption of forest products has been among the 1 CIFOR, 2004 6 Crouching Tiger, Hidden Langur: world’s smallest and, until recently, was supplied primarily from domestic sources. Over the last 10 years, China’s rapid economic development, increased integration in the world economy (particularly, world wood economy), and, at least arguably, tighter controls on domestic forest exploitation has catapulted the country from being the seventh ranking importer of wood to the second and the top importer of logs. Because of the management vacuum in the forestry sector outside of China, and the consequent pervasiveness of illegal logging in supplying countries, virtually any increase in international trade volumes becomes controversial. Already a net wood importer, China is turning increasingly to international sources of raw material, a process that continues, and one which threatens the integrity of forests through EAP (World Bank 2004b). Finding New Avenues of Engagement While burgeoning economic and population pressures threaten the biodiversity in EAP, its value, and the importance of the ecosystem services it supports, is increasingly being realized. As a result, public demand for a better quality of life is forcing governments to re-evaluate na- Box 4. Disappearing Forests In Vietnam, about 19 million hectares – 58 percent of the country’s land area – is classified as ‘forest land’ although much of this has no forests. Only 9.7 million hectares comprises natural forests and regenerating bush land. Plantations – almost all of exotic species – contribute an additional 1.6 million hectares, while the remaining 11.3 million hectares consists of scattered trees, bamboo groves, shrubs and grasses. The quality of Vietnam’s forest is a major cause for concern, with rich and closed-canopy forest rapidly disappearing, and medium-quality forests steadily diminishing. Currently, closed canopy forests make up only 13 percent of the total forested area, while poor and regenerating forests make up 55 percent. The chances of full regeneration are rapidly decreasing with the increasing isolation of the rich natural forest patches. Plantation forests, on the other hand, have almost doubled from 0.7 million ha in 1990 to 1.6 million ha in 2000. Forest Area Year Forest cover (%) Forest area (mha) of which: Mature and regenerating natural forests and bamboo groves (mha) Plantation (mha) 11.1 0.1 9.3 0.6 8.4 0.7 8.3 1.1 9.7 1.6 1976 33.8 11.2 1985 30.0 9.9 1990 27.6 9.2 1995 28.3 9.3 2000 34.4 11.3 Area (million hectares) Figure 1. Composition Changes of Natural Forests in Vietnam 10 8 6 4 2 0 1990 2000 Poor/open/regenerating forests - Classes IIIa1, IIIa2, IIa, IIb Medium quality/partially-closed forest - Class IIIb Rich/closed forest - Class IV 7 Biodiversity in East Asia and the Pacific tional environmental policies and priorities. For example, as nature tourism is becoming an important source of foreign exchange for many of the region’s countries, the importance assigned to biodiversity in national dialogues has increased. One result of these changes has been the increased involvement of local communities in conservation. Biodiversity is increasingly seen to provide tangible benefits for local and national stakeholders. As local communities become stewards of the resources upon which they depend, a new generation of champions is born. In addition to the growing importance of biodiversity resources locally, the region has become a frontier for working in previously ignored habitats (Box 5), and in the search for species new to science. Over the last decade four large mammals have been newly described from the region; one, an entirely new and enigmatic genus – the Saola (Hardcastle et al. 2004). In the aquatic realm over 20 new species of freshwater fish were discovered during just one month of surveys in Lao PDR (Kottelat 2000, 2001b). During just two weeks of surveying some 80 new species of land snail were uncovered. There is no doubt that there are many more species waiting to be discovered, but capacity and bureaucratic constraints limit the number of surveys that can be undertaken. The possibility of new species continues to draw experts from within the region and around the world, and as new discoveries are made, support is being generated to combat the loss of the existing wildlife and wilderness. There is still hope that species will not become extinct before they can be documented, understood and assessed. Garra cyrano is one of nearly 100 new species of fishes discovered in the last few years in Lao PDR. The function of the peculiar snout is unknown but its mouth below the snout is a modified sucking disk which allows it to maintain position in the fast flowing rivers in which it lives (photo by Maurice Kottelat) 8 Crouching Tiger, Hidden Langur: Box 5. Working in Karst Biodiversity Karst biodiversity, found in limestone ecosystems, is not well understood. In 1999 the World Bank published a book highlighting the status and threats to limestone ecosystems throughout EAP (Vermeulen and Whitten 1999). Karst landscapes in EAP have exceptional biological and geological diversity with high ecological and cultural value, yet are rarely appreciated and are under-represented in both national protected area networks and the Bank’s conservation investment portfolio. Biodiversity in the region’s limestone ecosystems is amongst the most restricted in terms of habitat space – the crabs, fish and snails that live in or on limestone appear to have a total global range of less than 100 square meters. Limestone biodiversity comprises both species outside the limestone hills that survive due to the abundance of calcium carbonate, enduring dry soil conditions, and species that have adapted to the dark, still world of caves and fissures. Apart from the results of work done by a few specialists in the more accessible cave systems in Vietnam and China, very little is known about these species. Extinctions of limestone-restricted species have been recorded through careless exploitation of limestone, and the status of other species, some with significant economic value (especially pollinating bats), is perilous. This publication has been used to generate and consolidate interest in limestone ecosystems; for example, there is now a limestone karst landscape conservation project in Vietnam and one under preparation in China, dialogue with the World Business Council’s Sustainable Cement Initiative (see www.wbcsd.org/cement and www.ifc.org/ifcext/enviro.nsf/Content/cement1) and leading cement companies, and the IFC has been discussing issues that revolve around their increased concern over threats to limestone biodiversity. Remarkable karst topography of Phou Hin Poun, a protected area in Lao PDR supported by the FOMACOP project. Such limestone areas harbor a wealth of range-restricted species (photo by Tony Whitten) 9 Portfolio Overview Panda in forest, Wolong, China (photo by J & K MacKinnon) 10 Section II: Portfolio Overview Portfolio Overview The EAP Biodiversity Portfolio iodiversity protection is an important element of the Bank’s mission and Environment Strategy (Box 6). The World Bank Group is the largest single international funding source for biodiversity projects globally. Since 1988 the total World Bank Group financing for biodiversity-related initiatives globally has reached $2.5 billion, leveraging a similar amount of co-financing. World Bank Group financing include loans, credits, and grants through the International Bank for B Reconstruction and Development (IBRD); the International Development Association (IDA); the Global Environment Facility (GEF); and the International Finance Corporation (IFC). The total Bank lending for biodiversity conservation in EAP amounts to $450 million since 1988. Another $200 million has been leveraged in co-financing. The scale of this investment shows the World Bank’s ongoing commitment to biodiversity conservation, which is a significant part of its sustainable development agenda. Box 6. Biodiversity in the Bank’s Environment Strategy The conservation and sustainable use of natural ecosystems and biodiversity are critical condition for the World Bank’s mission to help alleviate poverty and support sustainable development in the East Asia and the Pacific Region (EAP). They are, therefore, important elements of the Bank’s Environment Strategy, which calls for: • Improving the quality of life – health, livelihood and security of people – by enhancing environmental conditions. • Enhancing the quality of growth by strengthening the policy, institutional and regulatory framework for sustainable environmental management. • Protecting the quality of the regional and global commons by addressing cross-boundary, regional, and global environmental issues. The Strategy, which builds on Bank experience in environmental assistance from the past sixteen years, also proposes a number of biodiversity-related initiatives. Important among these is the emphasis on mainstreaming biodiversity conservation into planning processes, and working across national boundaries to scale up results at the level of the ecosystem and counteract cross-border threats. This is especially important for illegal wildlife trade, which is increasingly seen as undermining investments in biodiversity throughout the region. 12 Crouching Tiger, Hidden Langur: Analyzing the Portfolio This review focuses on the period 1999 - 2004, during which the World Bank’s active portfolio in EAP amounted to $300 million, with another $120 leveraged through co-financing2. Projects are classified in the portfolio by financial year of approval. All projects that were approved as of June 30, 2004 are included in this review. The source of funding, whether World Bank (loans, credits or grants) or co-financing from nonWorld Bank sources, was noted for each project. Where there was more than one source of World Bank financing in a project these were assessed separately to avoid double counting (Annex). Co-financing amounts include contributions from borrower governments, local beneficiaries, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), bilateral donors, regional development banks and United Nations agencies. As in previous reviews, biodiversity costs were determined by itemizing each activity component (World Bank 2000). For each project, figures have been estimated for total project cost, total biodiversity costs (World Bank financing plus associated co-funding), and World Bank biodiversity funding. The World Bank has supported biodiversity through the establishment and strengthening of protected areas and the provision of support to activities such as taxonomy that establish a scientific basis for doing conservation. The World Bank’s investments have also targeted mainstreaming biodiversity conservation in local production landscapes and in other World Bank investments, and reducing illegal activities that are undermining conservation success. Finally, investments have been used strategically to build constituencies for conservation both at the local and regional level, by raising awareness among the general public, working with partners and finding non-traditional allies whose message and ours coincide. Annex 1 provides a listing, by country, of all biodiversity projects in EAP that have been active in the period 19992004, with a breakdown of their funding. 2 Portfolio Analysis Lending Trends3 Over the 1999–2004 period, the World Bank approved 48 projects in full or partial support of biodiversity conservation in EAP, ranging from GEF-supported projects to IBRD and IDA projects (Figure 2), committing a total of $300 million new funds to biodiversity (Figure 3). Of this investment 82 percent has been used to support projects focusing exclusively on biodiversity conservation, while 18 percent of these funds have been spent mainstreaming biodiversity objectives into projects with different primary objectives. These projects benefit nine countries, and one is a regional initiative. Figure 2. Total WBG biodiversity commitments in EAP (1999 – 2004) 150 USD (Millions) 100 50 0 GEF EA (3) GEF MSP (11) GEF Reg (13) IBRD (9) IDA (10) Figure 3. World Bank and co-financing commitments for biodiversity in EAP, 1999 – 2004 120 100 USD millions 80 60 40 20 0 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Total WBG Investments Co-financing If we look at funds actually spent during the period 1999-2004, both as part of projects which In order to capture information on efforts to mainstream biodiversity in other projects and sectors, this analysis includes projects where the main objective was to support biodiversity, as well as projects where biodiversity was protected as a mitigation measure and an offset for environmental impacts resulting from other Bank-financed projects. 3 Includes loans, credits, and grants. 13 Portfolio Overview had been approved prior to the review period, and from newly committed funds, the total amount of funds spent in the region since 1999 amounts to $135 million4. co-financing (Figure 6), while IBRD-financed projects have had more notable success, due in large part to the greater availability of government funds and capacity to manage and monitor these monies in IBRD countries. Figure 5. Total Biodiversity Investment by Region (1988 – 2004) 1000 800 USD millions Cross-Regional Comparisons Lending for biodiversity in EAP is a significant part of the World Bank’s overall biodiversity portfolio, representing 18 percent of the Bank’s total biodiversity investments. Only in the Africa and Latin America and Caribbean Regions is this figure higher (Figure 4). Figure 4. WBG Biodiversity Investments Globally Bank Investments Co-financing 600 400 200 0 AFR EAP ECA MNA LAC SAR 11% 22% Figure 6. Percentage of Co-financing in the EAP biodiversity portfolio (1999 – 2004) AFR EAP ECA MNA LAC SAR 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% IDA IBRD GEF 39% 3% 7% 18% WBG Investments Co-financing Co-financing The leveraging effect of biodiversity investments in EAP has not been as significant as in other regions. Africa, the region most successful at leveraging funds, achieves a ratio of 1:1, while the ratio for EAP is less than 1:0.5, the lowest for all World Bank regions (Figure 5). This is a reflection of the low baseline funding available for biodiversity from governments in the region, the shortage of donor funds, the scarcity of effective international, regional and local non-government organizations, as well as the limited capacity of governments and civil society to apply for, manage and monitor sources of funds. GEF projects have been the least successful at leveraging The GEF portfolio As a major Implementing Agency for the GEF, the World Bank administers GEF grants for biodiversity conservation through ‘Enabling Activities’ (such as capacity assessments, action planning), Medium Sized Projects (MSPs) and Full Sized Projects. Since 1999, EAP’s GEF portfolio amounts to $180 million, of which GEF provides $138 million in grants (and the remainder comes from co-financing). This investment supports 27 projects in nine countries and one regional initiative, including three enabling activities, 11 Medium Sized Projects and 13 Full Size Projects. 4 This analysis assumes that funding commitments were spent evenly on an annual basis during the life of each project.. These funds have leveraged significant co-financing of $120 million, resulting in a total investment portfolio that exceeds $440 million since 1999 (when one includes funds being spent and funds committed). This figure includes funding specifically for biodiversity and additional funding spent on other activities that also support the long-term conservation of biodiversity. 14 Crouching Tiger, Hidden Langur: Figure 7. GEF Funding (1999-2004) 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Figure 8. Total WBG Investments by Country (1999-2004) Regular EA C hi na PN G Sa m oa C am bo di a In do ne si a M on go lia La o Ph ilip V ie tn am R pi ne s PD USD (Millions) MSP 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 on al G a In do ne si a C am bo di a PD R M on go lia m oa es hi n PN La o R Ph Vi et na Vietnam USD (Millions) C eg i pi n The GEF Full Sized projects represent the largest single source of funding for biodiversity in the region, accounting for 92 percent of the GEF biodiversity portfolio. In addition, MSPs and Enabling Activities are very important in IDA countries in terms of relative amount of funding, especially Mongolia, Samoa and Vietnam (Figure 7). MSPs, which are grants of up to $1 million, may be executed by agencies other than a government; in the EAP region these agencies are primarily international conservation NGOs. The MSP portfolio has been used to help capacity-constrained countries tackle threats, take advantage of singular opportunities and expedite the delivery of management interventions where government capacity is weak. This portfolio contains some of the most innovative projects. In Indonesia, where systemic difficulties have constrained the number of GEF regular grants, MSPs have been used opportunistically to bridge the gap. Mainstreaming Biodiversity Projects that seek to mainstream biodiversity into other World Bank projects and programs have received only a small percentage of the total funding for biodiversity. However, biodiversity funding has been strategically used to leverage results in infrastructure projects. Identifying projects in which to mainstream biodiversity has largely been opportunistic, and often depends on whether the project is supporting activities close to any critical natural habitats. Only in PNG has mainstreaming resulted in more than 25 percent of the total World Bank investment in projects with biodiversity activities (Figure 9). Elsewhere in the region, projects that attempted to mainstream biodiversity allocated less than 10 percent of total World Bank funding on the biodiversity component of the project. Figure 9. Mainstreaming Biodiversity in EAP 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Cambodia China Indonesia Lao PDR Papua New Guinea Philippines Distribution of Portfolio The EAP biodiversity portfolio covers all the major ecosystem types. The World Bank is supporting biodiversity projects in all of the region’s hotspots identified by Conservation International (CI), and in most of the Global 200 ecoregions highlighted as conservation priorities in EAP by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). Indonesia and China received the majority of the World Bank’s investments from all sources of financing (Figure 8), totaling almost $200 million, reflecting the diverse nature of the former, the absorptive capacity in the latter, and the scale and urgency of threats in both. Biodiversity Investments Total WBG Investments Since 1988, China, Lao PDR and the Philippines have identified more than one project where a biodiversity component was added to mainstream conservation. This does not necessarily indicate a failure in identifying opportunities, 15 ilip Sa m Portfolio Overview but rather (a) a reluctance by the governments to borrow for biodiversity needs, and (b) the bulk of the project sites located away from natural habitats where biodiversity investments are most effective. Non-Lending Services In addition to the portfolio of projects described above, the World Bank has been able to mobilize trust funds endowed by donor governments for supporting research and other non-lending services for biodiversity conservation in EAP. During the period under review, several mil- lion dollars have been allocated for analysis and research. This has led to a number of pioneering reports, for example, on limestone and freshwater biodiversity in Halong Bay, the use of biological indicators in the monitoring of water in Shanghai, the assessment of competition between wild and domestic grazers in the Gobi desert, and reviews of illegal wildlife trade. Trust funds have also helped to underwrite a series of local language field guides, and to support the World Bank-WWF Forest Alliance. A list of all non-lending services in EAP supported by the World Bank since 1999 is given in Annex 2. The Corpse flower or Amorphophallus titanum is found in central Sumatra and the world’s tallest flowering structure. Its tuber grows for a decade or more and then flowers once with the flower lasting just two days. It is pollinated by small beetles (photo by Tony Whitten) 16 Section III: Key Themes Key Themes T he World Bank is supporting biodiversity projects in all of the region’s Hotspots as identified by Conservation International and in most of the Global 200 eco-regions highlighted as conservation priorities by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). The World Bank biodiversity portfolio in EAP includes a range of initiatives promoting the conservation and sustainable use of natural resources and more equitable sharing of the benefits derived from biodiversity. Since 1999 the majority of projects have included components that build capacity and support the establishment of a scientific basis for conservation in the country. The World Bank’s support for biodiversity conservation projects in EAP has three major threads: (i) supporting protected areas as key refuges for the region’s wildlife and wilderness; (ii) mainstreaming biodiversity conservation in productive landscapes; and (iii) building coalitions of support to scale-up results. A common feature across all is the effort made to achieve conservation success through participatory processes that balance the needs of biodiversity with the development needs of local communities. Lantana camara, a pretty but pernicious invasive alien (photo by Tony Whitten) conservation. In order to better achieve this, the World Bank has nuanced its approach to protected areas in EAP by focusing on how to balance conservation with development needs. Establishing new protected areas. The World Bank has supported the establishment of new PAs throughout EAP, the upgrading of provincial protected areas to national level, and the strengthening and extension of existing protected area systems in a number of countries, including Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR and Vietnam. In Vietnam, the World Bank is working to gazette the limestone forests of Ngoc Son which lie between Vietnam’s oldest national park, Cuc Phuong, and Pu Luong Nature Reserve, all three of which are located in the largest and best limestone range in northern Vietnam. The critically endangered primate Delacour ’s Langur is just one of the threatened species that will benefit Bolstering the building blocks of biodiversity Building on the stated objectives of the Bank’s corporate Environment Strategy and its Environment Strategy for EAP, the World Bank continues to seek new ways to help protect important ecosystems as refuges for biodiversity, and to strengthen protected areas as cornerstones for 18 Crouching Tiger, Hidden Langur: from this new protected area. In Indonesia, the Greater Berbak-Sembilang Integrated Wetlands Conservation Project was set up to gazette the new Sembilang National Park (205,750 hectares), which adjoins Berbak National Park. This park includes the largest tracts of swamp forest and some of the most important mangroves in western Indonesia. To identify suitable areas for support, the World Bank has sought to improve its methodologies over the last few years, with improved data gathering and analytical tools and increasing empha- sis on participatory processes that include key stakeholders. To achieve this, the World Bank is supporting: (i) a detailed participatory planning process that takes customary rights into account; (ii) adaptive management; and, (iii) the creation of incentives for the inhabitants and neighbors of protected areas to participate in their conservation. This broad partnership with local stakeholders is enabling the World Bank to strengthen the management of protected areas, and reduce pressures on them (see Box 7). Dusky Langur, Sam Roi Yot National Park, Thailand (photo by David Bonnardeaux) 19 Key Themes Box 7. Strengthening China’s Protected Area Systems The World Bank’s Nature Reserves Management Project was the country’s first large scale conservation initiative. It was created to support biodiversity conservation and improve the condition of a number of reserves. It achieved considerable success, being rated ‘Highly Satisfactory’ by the Bank’s independent evaluation office, and paved the way for further (ongoing) biodiversity work in China. The project incorporated international experience and best practice to prepare and implement nature reserve management plans, improve field level site protection, improve capacity of staff and introduce co-management activities. In addition, a competitive small research grant was established to support applied research linked to management interventions throughout the nature reserve system nationally. The project also piloted the establishment of a wildlife corridor to link two core zones of a nature reserve in order to enhance its biodiversity. This corridor helped to actualize the concept, and set an important precedent by becoming the first formally recognized biodiversity corridor in China. In addition, it supported the restructuring of a forest-logging enterprise into a nature reserve, by providing alternative employment for a significant number of forestry workers outside of the forest enterprise, and reorienting the management objectives for the site towards biodiversity conservation. This turned out to be a key aspect of the project as it provided valuable experience for the Chinese government on how to handle the substantial nationwide forestry unemployment following the 1998 natural forest logging ban. By its close in 2002, all nine participatory nature reserve management plans had been approved by the responsible provincial governments and were under implementation. Changqing Nature Reserve had been established, timber harvesting has been scaled back and workers redeployed to more environmentally sustainable employment. The process serves still as a land-use conflict resolution model for other parts of China. At Wuyishan Nature Reserve, a wildlife corridor was been established to link its three core zones, and a tourism plan was prepared. Three other reserves will use this as a model. Eight communities in or near the nature reserves were developing community co-management plans to test the new, more participatory approach to nature reserve management. In-service staff training of nature reserve staff was well underway and the management information system was fully operational. The World Bank’s on-going Sustainable Forestry Development Project has a major component on nature reserves (GEF grant $16.3 million), which sequed from the project above, and is applying lessons learned from it. It is allowing similar activities to occur in seven more highpriority, globally-significant forested nature reserves. The latest initiative to strengthen nature reserves in China is occurring at the provincial level, in Guangxi Autonomous Region - an innovative approach. This project is focused on a landscape approach to conservation, working in clusters of sites rather than in single nature reserves. In addition, the project is mainstreaming biodiversity conservation in the production landscape by integrating with forestry plantation and watershed management components in a larger World Bank project in order to enhance the conservation of areas of global biodiversity significance that lie outside of nature reserves and improve local livelihoods in areas adjacent to the reserves in order to reduce pressures on them. 20 Crouching Tiger, Hidden Langur: Strengthening the management of existing protected areas. In addition to gazetting new protected areas, the World Bank is also focusing on the need to strengthen the management of existing protected areas and ‘paper parks’. The EAP portfolio already includes a number of projects designed to strengthen parks in tropical and monsoon forests (Cambodia, Indonesia); coastal forests and mangroves; montane habitats (China) and threatened coastal wetlands and freshwater habitats (China, Mongolia, Vietnam). In Cambodia for example, the Biodiversity and Protected Areas Management Project (BPAMP) aims to strengthen the management of Virachey National Park and use this experience as a demonstration site to build new capacity in the Ministry of Environment. The World Bank / WWF Alliance for Forest Conservation and Sustainable Use is working to complement this project by strengthening the legal systems that govern Cambodia’s protected areas. A draft protected areas law has been produced and discussed at a series of consultation workshops. This document is now the subject of discussion at the ministerial level and has already served to raise the profile of protected areas at local, provincial and national levels. In many countries, including Cambodia and Lao PDR, such protected area programs are explicitly linked to sustainable livelihoods and improved resource management for local communities. As part of this effort, the World Bank-WWF Forest Alliance together with IUCN have produced a Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool (Stolton et al. 2003) which features a scorecard by which the effectiveness of protected area management can be measured and monitored. This has been translated into a number of the region’s languages and is being used consistently in World Bank projects and across some national PA networks. The Tool covers planning, budgets, relationships with local government and surrounding communities, facilities and equipment, staffing, visitor facilities, and monitoring. Supporting taxonomy. Taxonomy has a foundational role in the scientific underpinning of biodiversity conservation and protected area Forest dependent children, Cambodia (photo by Valerie Hickey) 21 Key Themes management (see Box 8). However, the science is in crisis, in developed and developing countries alike, with many of the world’s specialists retiring before their ranks are refilled by young scientists. Supporting taxonomic work has proven to be a challenge, but nonetheless the World Bank has found opportunities to do so. The World Bank’s Global Overlays project focused on freshwater biodiversity in the context of the Vietnamese National Hydropower Study. There was a perception that because two books had already been published on the fishes of northern Vietnam, a fair knowledge of this fauna was already available. Unfortunately, this was far from true, and the fish fauna of Vietnam was one of the most poorly known in the world. Fish tax- onomy in the country is still in its infancy and the number of published books and papers on this fauna is roughly the same as what had been published on European fishes several hundreds of years ago. Fieldwork in northern Vietnam led to a generously illustrated report (Kottelat, 2001a), which provides a basis for identification. The numerous nomenclatural and taxonomic problems that were identified on the basis of the work is an indication of the desperate need for critical analysis of this fauna by trained specialists with transnational experience. The report has shown itself to be an essential reference for those undertaking surveys, especially as part of environmental assessments for any project affecting water in the area. Box 8. Building the Scientific Foundation for Conservation. A $7 million GEF grant, disbursed over six years enabled the unique and priceless collections of the Bogor Herbarium and Zoology Museum outside Jakarta to benefit from a much needed upgrade. Under this project, implemented by the Biology Research and Development Centre of the Indonesian Institute of Sciences, the condition of specimens was stabilized, storage conditions were improved, a database was established, and the skills and experience of the staff were upgraded. Transformations at the Bogor Zoology Museum included: • All specimens were rehabilitated, moved and re-housed in a large purpose-built museum, donated by the Government of Japan – a dramatic contrast to the dark, dank rooms of the old museum. The new collection halls have state-of-the-art environmental control systems, with air conditioning system, dehumidifiers, hygroscopic wall panels, and state of the art storage systems. • The use of toxic chemicals for preservation has been replaced with drying and freezing technology, which has made preservation work much safer. • Eight staff and two ‘new blood’ recruits took higher degrees (two PhDs and eight Masters) in taxonomy. • Collection Managers have received tailored management training on short-term courses in various leading museums around the world. • Eight specialists from different countries developed a mentoring relationship with the museum to help organize parts of the collection and impart their experience. Interns from university herbaria across the country have been hosted in the Herbarium and Museum from three-six months. This has stimulated interest in, and attention to, the roles of collections in biodiversity conservation and established firm relationships among national specialists. The project also facilitated an innovative and exciting publication program, mainly of Indonesian-language field-guides to promote biodiversity awareness. 22 Crouching Tiger, Hidden Langur: Sumatran tiger, Panthera tigris, ‘Lemon’ caught by an infrared camera trap in Kerinci-Seblat National Park, October 2004. (photo by Matt Linkie) Mainstreaming biodiversity conservation Notwithstanding the focus on protected areas, the World Bank recognises the interdependencies that connect conservation with development that go beyond the boundaries of gazetted protected areas. As a result, the World Bank is increasingly focusing on mainstreaming biodiversity conservation in its development projects and priorities, to leverage biodiversity results in the broader landscape. Safeguarding biodiversity and natural habitats. All World Bank projects are subjected to a review of the manner in which the project activities might trigger any of the World Bank’s ten safeguard policies. These Operational Policies provide a key tool for integrating environmental considerations into the planning, development, and implementation of World Bank projects and programs. These policies are important because the impacts of development programs and economic adjustment measures must be carefully formulated to avoid negative impacts on the environment. The safeguards review process occurs at key stages in project development and is used to ensure that environmental and social considerations are integrated into project design, and risks are appropriately managed. The environmental review process can lead to significant de23 sign improvements, better environmental outcomes, and more sustainable projects. Examples include ensuring adequate attention was being paid to management of a World Heritage Site; seeking protection and management of an interesting coastal wetland; and, proper protection and monitoring of a wetland in Inner Mongolia. The policy that directly relates to biodiversity is policy on Natural Habitats (OP4.04) (see Box 9). OP4.04 states that, “the World Bank does not support projects involving the significant conversion of natural habitats unless there are no feasible alternatives for the project, and comprehensive analysis demonstrates that overall benefits from the project outweigh the environmental costs”. Furthermore, “The World Bank supports, and expects borrowers to apply, a precautionary approach to natural resource management to ensure opportunities for environmentally sustainable development”. In this policy, natural habitats are understood as assemblages of native species not unduly modified by human activities, but the World Bank gives special attention to ‘critical natural habitats’, or areas of natural habitat which are either existing, officially proposed or traditionally-recognized protected areas, or sites identified on ‘supplemental lists’. These lists are based on consensus-based authoritative assessments of conservation needs in peer-reviewed literature, and gray literature Key Themes written by NGO publications, such as the country-by-country sourcebooks on protected areas and the compilations of Important Bird Areas produced by BirdLife International. Indeed the World Bank is assisting the completion of these books in East Asia, including supporting their translations into local and national languages. The manner in which biodiversity was handled in environmental assessments completed for World Bank projects has sometimes been disappointing; as a result, a Biodiversity and Environmental Assessment Toolkit was prepared to address this problem and to save time in the review process. This web-based toolkit has been translated into several of the region’s languages to better enable local consultants to improve the quality of their work. The policy on natural habitats has recently been complemented by the revised Operational Policy on Forestry, which places increased emphasis on managing forest ecosystems, certifying sustainable management, supporting dependent peoples, and on issues of governance and participation. Box 9. World Bank Group’s Safeguard Policies Operational Policy on Natural Habitats seeks to ensure that World Bank-supported infrastructure and other development projects take into account the conservation of biodiversity, as well as the numerous environmental services and products which natural habitats provide to human society. The policy strictly limits the circumstances under which any Bank-supported project can damage natural habitats (land and water areas where most of the native plant and animal species are still present). Specifically, the policy prohibits Bank support for projects which would lead to the significant loss or degradation of any Critical Natural Habitats, whose definition includes those natural habitats which are either: • legally protected, • officially proposed for protection, or • unprotected but of known high conser vation value In other (non-critical) natural habitats, Bank supported projects can cause significant loss or degradation only when (i) there are no feasible alternatives to achieve the project’s substantial overall net benefits; and (ii) acceptable mitigation measures, such as compensatory protected areas, are included within the project. Juvenile Kloss Gibbon one of the four primate species endemic to the Mentawai Islands, West Sumatra (photo by Tony Whitten) Integrating conservation and development. Many EAP countries have to cope with severe competition for space because of high population densities, notably the Philippines (260 people/ sq km), Vietnam (240 people/sq km) and China (132 people/sq km). These levels of population density exacerbate the rate of habitat conversion for agriculture and make it harder to set areas aside for conservation purposes. Given these 24 Crouching Tiger, Hidden Langur: constraints, the conservation community is focusing on opportunities to extend conservation practices beyond the borders of protected areas, by promoting sustainable use in the broader landscape, and by integrating local communities into conservation initiatives. Projects using the latter approach have been called Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDP). Within an ICDP, participation and equity issues are important elements affecting the way communities interact with protected areas. Notwithstanding, it is often especially difficult to be fair and effective in targeting communities and individuals for development activities. Should one target the main offenders responsible for biodiversity loss (buy cooperation), provide benefits to those who are protecting the forest (reward good behavior), or target the poorest of the poor (poverty alleviation). Many projects try to do all three. If successful, local communities will become owners of the conservation project and facilitate its success; if not, conservation outcomes can be delayed, made more difficult and even gainsaid by local communities (MacKinnon, 2001). A key challenge for the World Bank is to help find ways to promote development that facilitates both biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation, linking environmental protection to sustainable livelihoods. However, there is a need for clear conservation goals and objectives. Merging conservation and social objectives often leads to loosely defined objectives, with different, and sometimes conflicting, expectations among stakeholders. Improving livelihoods is a key development objective and may foster support for conservation initiatives, but it will do little to ensure the viability of a protected area if the primary threat comes from new roads, agricultural policies or poor law enforcement. Development opportunities associated with key conservation areas are enabling local communities to break out of the poverty trap and develop alternative livelihoods consistent with conservation objectives. Finding and exploiting such linkages across the World Bank investment portfolio will provide opportunities for mainstreaming biodiversity into national and regional sustainable development agendas. Is the ICDP approach an effective or appropriate model for protected area management (see Box 10)? Experience suggests that ICDP is an effective tool “only sometimes” and “under some circumstances”. Often conservation and development are conflicting agendas and projects have unrealistic and contradictory goals, with different stakeholders having very different expectations. Development assistance must be linked to conservation behavior in order to achieve the conservation objectives. Combating illegal activities. The EAP region has a significant problem with illegal trade in timber products and wildlife, most notably endangered species. Detailed statistics on the scale of these activities are not generally available but there is evidence, especially in particular locations, that this trade is having serious negative consequences for the region’s environment and development prospects (World Bank 2004b). In- Lilium pumillum, a flower from the Mongolian steppe (photo by Tony Whitten) 25 Key Themes Box 10. The Use of Integrated Conservation Development Projects The World Bank and many other organizations have been learning lessons about the strengths and weaknesses of ICDPs and how to implement these projects. While there are some examples of successful ICDP initiatives, there are other cases that highlight the potential pitfalls. While most ICDPs in the region have been local efforts to relieve pressure on reserves the urgency of the situation makes “scaling up” an important question. However, some of the problems associated with scale were encountered with the Kerinci-Seblat National Park project, which was an attempt to apply the ICDP approach to one of the largest protected areas in East Asia. One lesson that has been demonstrated by recent experience is the need to start at a small scale with modest (achievable) commitments. The World Bank supported Kerinci-Seblat project set out an ambitious program of activities. Yet, in spite of the use of state of the art techniques, the project has not been able to achieve its goals. Initiatives included detailed spatial planning, work with logging concessions, strengthened park management, development of alternative livelihood opportunities for local communities, establishment of an inter-provincial steering committee, and the application of the ecosystem approach to park management. However, it became clear that it was not the small-scale illegal activities of local communities that were the greatest threat to the protected area, and that the perfectly legal government development activities (such as road, logging and mining concessions, and land conversion) were a much greater threat. In the Kerinci-Seblat case, regional development strategies continue to threaten park integrity, with proposed road developments and mining concessions, which will lead to problems with poaching, agriculture and access to loggers. The required political commitment requires an awareness among policy makers of the values derived from protected areas, including ecosystem services such as watershed protection, and protection against natural disasters such as floods and landslides. deed, in many cases illegal activities are ongoing within high profile protected areas with a mandate to conserve these resources. Animal and plant species threatened by illegal trade include bears, tortoises, turtles, pangolins (scaly anteaters), deer, large cats, and orchids (see Box 11). For example, it is estimated that 10 million live turtles are supplied annually to southern China, decimating populations in the Mekong region. In Thailand alone, the last three years have seen the confiscation of 22,000 pangolins; if one includes the number traded that were not confiscated, this represents a very significant proportion of the remaining population. However, when effective procedures – focusing on a combination of enforcement and alternatives – are put in place, wildlife populations can be effectively monitored and managed, and supply to this illegal industry can be cut off. Identifying the social and economic drivers of illegal trade has many complex causes rooted in social, economic, cultural and political structures; similarly, the solution needs to be nuanced to address these different factors. Therefore the region has adopted a broad strategy, including a focus on (i) strengthening law enforcement, (ii) designing economic incentives, (iii) increasing public infrastructure investment, (iv) providing research and technical assistance, and (v) improving education. 26 Crouching Tiger, Hidden Langur: Box 11. Combating the Illegal Trade in Wildlife Mongolia is home to the world’s largest mountain sheep, the argali (Ovis ammon). These animals are greatly sought by foreign hunters because of their impressive size and long, spiraling horns. Yet, argali are declining in Mongolia primarily due to an increase in poaching for meat and horns (to trade with China), predation by domestic guard dogs, and competition with domestic livestock. Government figures estimated 50,000 argali in Mongolia in 1975 and 60,000 animals in 1985, but only 13-15,000 in 2001. Despite being listed as a threatened species both in Mongolia and internationally, argali trophy hunting remains legal in Mongolia and the number of licenses has been increasing, with 80 licenses offered in 2004. A lucrative business, trophy hunting companies offer hunts for $25-50,000. Controversy surrounds this program, as manifested by growing local opposition, accusations of corruption by the media, and a U.S. lawsuit. To be sustainable, hunting programs must be well managed and have the support of local communities. Neither currently occurs in Mongolia. Although legally required, no management plan for argali presently exists. Population surveys are too infrequent and localized to inform managers about specific areas in a timely manner. Critically undermining management capacity are legal mandates that rely heavily upon local governments without providing the necessary funding, tools, or training. Finally, despite laws for investment of trophy hunting fees in conservation of the resource, current practices deny local communities and conservation efforts the benefit of revenues. As a result, some local officials are working to eliminate trophy hunting from their territories. Still, trophy hunting licenses are increasing even as poaching also continues to increase. Redressing these problems requires reforming argali trophy hunting and population management to ensure: (i) openness and transparency, including external review and oversight; (ii) a mix of top-down and bottom-up authority that enjoys local support; and, (iii) active and adaptive argali conservation and management, including anti-poaching enforcement, using funds generated by trophy hunters. Source. Reading et al. 2004. Building public awareness and public support Attempts to protect biodiversity are often undermined by a general lack of political and public commitment to conservation, reflected in the weakness of many conservation agencies and the lack of adequate financing for protected area management. This weakness makes it difficult for protected area managers to challenge other government agencies over actions and regional development plans that may affect protected areas. Political upheaval, decentralization and the breakdown of law and order exacerbate the problems. 27 The World Bank understands that an informed constituency and a wider appreciation for the value of biodiversity are necessary conditions in order to garner support for its conservation. The World Bank has therefore taken an active role in raising awareness and disseminating best practice on environment education and biodiversity conservation. Indeed many World Bank publications (World Bank, 1998a, 1998b, 2001a, 2001b, and Wells 1999) have helped governments, NGOs and the academic community to think more strategically about conservation. For example the Environment Monitor series and associated activities have become popular awareness-raising tools in EAP, and provide environmental analysis for many countries in an Key Themes Illegally cut timber still forms a large proportion of the timber used in the wood industry in Indonesia (photo by The World Bank) accessible, reader-friendly format. To complement its bid to raise awareness, many World Bank projects are working with key partners in the EAP region to provide support to environment activities (see Box 12). Many of these activities are designed to strengthen environmental management skills and enable governments and civil society to better identify, implement, and manage protected areas, and to mainstream biodiversity conservation in the wider landscape. Raising broad public awareness. At the grassroots level, education and social marketing are key components of many World Bank biodiversity projects. These initiatives are most effective when based on an understanding of people’s environmental attitudes and often require culturally adapted and creative solutions. While developing a basis of support for biodiversity issues, it is important to recognize the need for a mechanism to translate sentiment into action. The World Bank promotes the use of Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (BSAPs) to make this link between awareness and action. The World Bank has helped with these official plans, written to comply with the CBD, in China and Indonesia. The first Indonesian BSAP was written in 1993 and many of its proposed actions were financed. The second Indonesian BSAP was recently developed by Indonesians, and was driven by a broad consultation process including many stakeholder discussions. An example of Bank initiatives to raise awareness of forest issues is given in Box 10. Other Bank projects addressing awareness issues include a GEF project executed by BirdLife International-Indonesia, in the Sangihe-Talaud islands, which has created strong support for a rare endemic bird and its habitats through colorful campaigns, church sermons and local radio shows designed to build pride in local biodiversity. Another campaign, released during the first phase of COREMAP, used a cartoon coral polyp and other characters to discuss the importance of coral reefs to Indonesia. It is however, rather difficult to measure the conservation benefit of such campaigns. A study was undertaken in Lao PDR to analyze the relationships between personal experiences and environmental perception. The findings showed that environmental attitudes were predominantly determined by gender, early experience, and upbringing, while factors such as education level, religion and employment seemed to have much less of an influence (World Bank 2004a). 28 Crouching Tiger, Hidden Langur: Box 12. Creating a Constituency for Conservation. Indonesia is experiencing massive forest losses; it is estimated that some 18 million hectares of Indonesia’s forest were lost between 1985-1997, and deforestation has recently been occurring at a rate of some 2.5 million hectares a year. Forest loss has been most significant in the accessible lowland forests, which are the most biodiverse, and has even occurred in well-known protected areas. A major constraint that has continually undermined efforts to stimulated political action to protect Indonesia’s forests is the lack of popular support for these actions. The 18 month Indonesia Forest and Media Project (INFORM), was developed by a consortium of the largest conservation NGOs with Conservation International taking the lead in execution. The project was designed to address this constraint and enhance the long-term social and political foundations for forest conservation. The INFORM project was both foundational and complementary to other activities designed to address the overall Indonesian forestry crisis (e.g., policy dialogue, programs and projects), and to address locality-specific interventions. The INFORM campaign worked to create a local and regional enabling environment in which these other activities were more likely to succeed. It worked closely with a USAID-financed project executed by GreenCOM, which focused over the same period on illegal logging. This project will work to impart upon Indonesian stakeholders an appreciation of: (i) the significance and urgency of forest loss in Indonesia and its implication, (ii) how it will affect them personally (e.g., reduced quality of life, diminished option and existence values, etc.), and (iii) how they can actively participate in a process to stop forest destruction and move toward more equitable and sustainable forest management. Surveys undertaken early in the project found that the general public was fairly aware of the existence of forest loss – but they had little idea of its scale and seriousness or its economic implications. The campaign materials, which included radio talk shows, press briefings, journalist training, and public service advertisements, therefore focused on informing the public about these issues. The project was implemented in part during the run-up to the parliamentary and presidential elections and TV, radio, magazine and newspaper advertisements were used to try to give forest issues a higher profile. Working in local languages. It has been said that “people will only protect what they love and can love only what they know”. Recognizing the truth of this statement the World Bank has been providing support to NGOs, academics and government agencies for the production and dissemination of local-language field guides. These guides make biodiversity information easily accessible to students, environmental assessment professionals and to the broader public and help to build a constituency for conservation. Indeed the World Bank is looking for ways to enable NGOs and academic institutions to create and disseminate these tools on a regional basis. It worked with the Indonesian Institute of Sciences through the Indonesia Biodiversity Collections project, to produce 15 such field guides covering a wide range of fauna and flora. Additional grants through the World Bank-Netherlands Partnership Program have resulted in a total of 60 titles in Asia and Africa with the majority being in East Asia, covering taxa from snails to mammals, and orchids to mangrove trees. Engaging new partners. The World Bank has sought out new partners to improve conservation outcomes, ranging from the private sector to mainstream religions (see Box 13). Until re- 29 Key Themes cently the major religions have played a relatively low key role in the environmental debate, however recent work is showing that they have the potential to be a powerful advocate for the environment. Environmental stewardship can be taught from the scriptures, and faiths can easily justify taking leadership in the initiation of practical conservation projects. Furthermore faiths can communicate with their members about individual responsibilities to preserve natural systems. There may be many opportunities to engage sector or civil society leaders in order to encourage sustainable practices within their spheres of influence. The EAP Faiths and Forests Initiative has sought to engage religions in six countries across the region by: (i) encouraging people of faith to engage in direct conservation action as an expression of their teachings; (ii) giving religious leaders the opportunity to participate in stakeholder discussions and, through this, to improve the design and sustainability of investment projects and the content of policy documents; (iii) undertaking theological investigations of environmental issues and their practical implications; (iv) publishing appropriate materials; and, (v) facilitating faith-based public advocacy on conservation and interfaith dialogues. The approaches are described in a book produced under the Initiative (Palmer and Finlay, 2003). The Faiths and Forests Initiative has supported a conference on Buddhism and the Environment for monks and NGOs from Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and Myanmar, practical field- and temple-based projects in Thailand and Cambodia, agro-forestry in two Catholic parishes in Timor Leste and in Protestant areas of Sulawesi and Sumatra, a Declaration on the Environment by the major faiths in Indonesia, and the production of a handbook on theology and ecology in Papua New Guinea. This handbook is among the first books to be written entirely by Papuans in pidgin and attracted a high media profile, which in turn increased the profile of the environment in PNG. Building partnerships. The World Bank is by no means the only institutional agency concerned with biodiversity issues in the region, and it is committed to working cooperatively with diverse partners to realize the objectives of better conservation and biodiversity management. By increasing its engagement with stakeholder groups the World Bank and its projects will benefit from a wider range of experiences. By increasing the level of inclusion in the decision making process the World Bank will be able to increase the success of its operations. Strategic long-term partnerships play a key role in conservation of biodiversity in the EAP region. For example there is extensive collaboration between the World Bank and a host of international NGOs through the GEF MSP portfolio. These activities include work by BirdLife International (Indonesia and Vietnam), Conservation International (Indonesia), IUCN (Samoa and Vietnam), TNC (Indonesia), FFI (Indonesia and Vietnam), Wetlands International (Indonesia), WWF (Vietnam and Indonesia), and WCS (Lao PDR). In addition to partnering with international civil society, the World Bank continues to establish partnerships with national and local institutions, both public, private and non-governmental. To complement site-based partnerships, the World Bank also supports strategic partnerships designed to tackle specific threats throughout the region. The World Bank-World Wildlife Fund Alliance was established to respond to the continued depletion of the world’s forest biodiversity, the loss of forest-based goods and services essential for sustainable development, and the resulting severe impacts on the livelihoods of the rural poor. The Alliance is working with governments, the private sector, and civil society to help create new protected areas and is seeking to promote the use of independently certified management systems. The Alliance has also supported the development of two protected area tools: (i) the Rapid Assessment and Prioritization Methodology, which analyzes the status of a PA system, and (ii) the Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool, which measures the effectiveness of protected areas using a range of indicators (see Box 14). 30 Crouching Tiger, Hidden Langur: Box 13. Engaging the Private Sector The Ha Tien Plain is situated in Kien Giang province, in the southwest corner of Viet Nam. The seasonally inundated grasslands, which cover much of the area, are of high conservation value particularly for large water bird species including the globally endangered Sarus crane. Over the past decade, the grasslands have been the victim of blanket land use designations and the resulting monocultures have destroyed 98% of the Plain’s natural habitat. It has also made the population over-reliant on single agricultural commodities that have routinely failed to provide adequate economic Sarus cranes, Ha Tien Plain, Vietnam (photo by International returns to the majority. A much more ‘bal- Crane Foundation) anced portfolio’ is required ó a multi-use model based on sustainable management principles and which improves income security for all, including the minority groups such as the Khmer. Using in part a grant from the World Bank’s 2003 Development Marketplace, and in partnership with Holcim Vietnam (an IFC portfolio company which operates a cement plant in the region) and the International Crane Foundation, the IFC aims to develop and subsequently demonstrate the benefits of multi-use land management. The initiative was a pioneer for Vietnam: the first instance of drawing together the private, financial and NGO sectors with local government representatives in order to find solutions to the perceived conflict between economic and conservation priorities. The project has produced a land use and ecosystem composition survey for the Ha Tien Plain, and two plans for detailed feasibility studies at the priority conservation sites of Hon Chong and Phu My, the latter proposal incorporating a poverty alleviation strategy for the predominantly Khmer community which inhabit the area and this has become the main focus because of its ‘triple bottom line’, namely to (1) double household income in the Phu My commune, (2) benefit the Khmer minority in the area and (3) to safeguard the last remaining habitat of its kind in the Mekong Delta. Leveraging support. The World Bank assisted Conservation International with the establishment of the Critical Ecosystems Partnership Fund (CEPF), an international funding partnership between Conservation International, the World Bank, the GEF, the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation and the Japanese Government, which together are providing $125 million in grant funding and technical assistance to conservation efforts in biodiversity hotspots. The 31 fund’s grants are awarded to civil society groups and are relatively small ($100,000-300,000), but they have enabled a range of important activities to be undertaken. Grants are awarded only after an Ecosystem Profile has been written, discussed among stakeholders and specialists, and approved by the CEPF Board. Three ecosystem profiles have so far been approved for EAP, SW China (Hengduan Mountains), the Philippines, and the Sumatra portion of the Sundaland ‘hot- Key Themes spot’, while approvals for Indo-Burma and Polynesia are imminent. A list of grants and grantees over $25,000 is given in Annex 3. Box 14. Working in Strategic Partnerships The World Bank – WWF Alliance supports the following activities in EAP: Strengthening the protected area network in China. An Alliance project is being implemented to apply an adapted version of the Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool to around 120 national level reserves. Supporting sustainable forestry in Lao PDR. The Alliance is assisting Village Forestry Associations achieve group certification, by helping identify and address weaknesses before assessment. Where common management plans can be implemented group certification is the most efficient option. Drafting a protected areas law for Cambodia. In 1993 the Cambodian government set aside 18 percent of the nation’s forestlands as protected areas, but the country lacks sufficient legislation to effectively manage these areas. The alliance has been supporting efforts to address this group and has created expert groups who have helped draft a proposed Protected Areas Law. Surveying Cambodia’s Biodiversity. A survey, in the Siem Pang district, has documented the rich biodiversity of the area and the ecology of a number of globally threatened species. These included the White Shouldered Ibis, Giant Ibis, Black-necked stork, Sarus Crane, Lesser Adjunct, and mammals such as Bateng and Eld’s deer. It is hoped that the results will enable the government to identify habitats of importance and account for them in plans for teak plantations. Supporting FLEG. The alliance is providing technical support to the Forests, Law, and Environmental Governance process. This has included the production of a report on Technologies for wood tracking, which looks at systems and technologies that can be used to trace week from its source to its final use. The alliance is also working in Indonesia to help prioritize options to strengthen forest law enforcement. Source: World Bank WWF Alliance, Annual Report 2003. 32 Section IV: Remaining Challenges Remaining Challenges D espite a wide range of models and conservation initiatives, and a large and expanding biodiversity portfolio supported by the World Bank and other development partners in EAP, biodiversity in the region still faces many threats. Efforts by the conservation community and major development agencies will not be sufficient, on their own, to address all of these threats. A major challenge for the future is thus to mainstream biodiversity concerns and actions into government policies, regular development assistance and poverty alleviation programs by promoting positive synergies, while minimizing the negative impacts to biodiversity of potentially harmful investments. Throughout the region, despite some progress, key challenges remain. Priority areas of focus are the following: 1. Confirm and demonstrate political will – Governments in EAP have made commitments on biodiversity issues through their ratification of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the passing of legislation, but a major test of their commitment to address conservation issues will be whether the central and regional governments are willing or able to take strong actions against, for example illegal loggers, especially in protected areas. This is an essential step to make area-based conservation efforts effective. In some countries such illegal activities have links to powerful interest groups and unless and until these can be reined in, many of the donor investments will be comprised. In this respect it is important that the international community continues to provide technical assistance and policy dialogue to leverage change in this situation. 2. Increase public awareness and knowledge of biodiversity facts and issues - Stemming current unsustainable forest management and biodiversity loss will require a change in attitudes and behavior at all levels of society. Changing the behavior of policy and decision makers will require a stronger and better informed civil society, fully aware of the environmental and social costs of biodiversity loss. This will require: • Targeted awareness programs aimed at different audiences and stakeholders to expand understanding of the multiple benefits of biodiversity and PAs, including watershed values and other ecosystem services; • Capacity building of local NGOs/civil society, local universities to monitor the status of PAs and other biodiversity and disseminate information; • Development of national/local school and university curricula, promoting biodiversity and environmental economics; • Development of materials to be used by faith groups linking their scriptures to biodiversity conservation; • Dissemination of information informally, through multiple media, to develop a conservation constituency e.g. field guides, theatre, newspapers, building on current successful conservation campaigns at individual PAs. 3. Bring biodiversity into project and sectoral planning - Article 6b of the Convention on Bio- 34 Crouching Tiger, Hidden Langur: Macrochlamys sp.n., a newly discovered snail seemingly endemic to the Sangkulirang Peninsula, East Kalimantan (photo by Jaap Vermeulen) logical Diversity emphasizes the need to integrate, as far as possible, and appropriate, the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity into relevant sectoral or cross–sectoral plans, programs and policies. This involves developing sustainable land use strategies, adopting appropriate policies and programs, and removing perverse economic incentives that fail to recognize that biodiversity conservation is a vital aspect of sustainable development. At national, provincial and district levels, the countries will need to: • Integrate PAs and protected forests into agreed provincial and district spatial plans • Encourage land use and agricultural policies that promote maintenance and regeneration of forests with plantations restricted to already cleared and critical lands. • Increase capacity of the agencies charged with controlling environmental impacts to address green issues both nationally and locally and emphasize impacts on PAs and biodiversity. • Develop programs to determine the economic benefits of environmental services and widespread dissemination of this information at the local level. • Link block grants for local development to environmental performance at the district and provincial level. It is increasingly recognized that where countries have the institutional capacity to assess and manage environmental risks across all sectors, projects are more sustainable and achieve greater development outcomes. Therefore, the World Bank has been supporting efforts to develop country capacity in areas such as environmental screening, risk assessment, strategic environmental assessment, monitoring, and evaluation. It has also helped government agencies at various administrative levels to mainstream considerations into sectoral decisionmaking processes. 4. Strengthen the protected area network - There is a need to consolidate and further strengthen the national PA network through: • Strengthening protection and management of existing PAs • Rationalizing PA systems that are too large to be financially sustainable • Establishing additional PAs of high biodiversity value to improve representative- 35 Remaining Challenges • • • • ness of the PA systems, focusing on identified proposed priority areas and especially threatened lowland forests Testing new management models for PAs and buffer areas, involving local communities, NGO partnerships, private sector and local government Identifying new and additional financing mechanisms for recurrent costs of priority PAs within the national system (e.g. carbon funds, environmental taxes for ecosystem services, visitor fees) Encouraging provinces to provide support for reserves of local importance to supplement the national parks and other nationally important areas Training on conservation laws and enforcement issues to members of the judiciary and local police forces to ensure better enforcement and prosecution of illegal activities 6. Account for the long-term costs of conservation interventions - Most protected areas and many biodiversity conservation programs do not have adequate funding to achieve their stated goals. There are many reasons for this situation, but one major obstacle can be seen in the tendency of conservation professionals to focus on their traditional strengths of park protection and biological sciences and avoid the critical role of financial management and planning. To offset this imbalance, more focus must be put on: • Mainstreaming funding for biodiversity into government budgets; • Accurately estimating the full and long term cost of designing, implementing and monitoring biodiversity interventions prior to beginning a project and agreeing on a suite of activities; • Assessing the available resources to fund activities over the long term and prioritizing interventions accordingly; • Finding innovative ways to generate long term and stable sources of revenue that do not require a large amount of up-front investment; • Diversifying revenue generation to reduce risks; • Using financial mechanisms as a programmatic tool to transform the unsustainable exploitation of natural resources into sustainable livelihood activities; and • Maintaining back-office administrative and financial operations to effectively manage and monitor expenditures and revenues. Notwithstanding, the World Bank has an ever growing portfolio of investments, tools and partners aimed to conserve biodiversity in East Asia and the Pacific region. Hopefully, they will change the outcome for wildlife, wilderness and the people who depend on the goods and services biodiversity provides. 5. Build a strong local constituency for PA and forest management - Ultimately biodiversity and protected areas will survive only if there is strong local ownership. With devolution of many resource management decisions there is an increasing need to: • Support block grant incentive schemes linked to environmental performance indicators to encourage local government support for high biodiversity areas, especially in those areas with large national parks within their boundaries; • Support adoption of downstream user fees or ‘green taxes’ to generate revenues from PAs for ecosystem services provided e.g. downstream fees for water use; • Build local, provincial and national capacity to monitor and evaluate status of PAs and biodiversity and to feed information back into management decisions; • Improve consultative forest boundary demarcation processes and involve local communities in demarcating boundaries and assuming responsibility for protecting forests. 36 Crouching Tiger, Hidden Langur: USEFUL WEBSITES Organization Alliance for Religions and Conservation (ARC) ASEAN Regional Center for Biodiversity Conservation ASEAN Review of Biodiversity & Environmental Conservation Bibliography on Conservation of Biodiversity Biodiversity and Conservation: A Hypertext Book by Peter J. Bryant, 2001 Biodiversity Conservation Information System (BCIS) Biodiversity Conservation Network Biodiversity Information Network BirdLife Indochina BirdLife Indonesia BirdLife International – Asia Center for International Earth Science Information Network China Biodiversity Database Conservation International Conservation International – Indonesia Critical Ecosystems Partnership Fund Ecology, Biodiversity and the Environment - Virtual Library FFI Asia-Pacific Food and Agriculture Organization Global Biodiversity Forum Global Environment Facility IUCN – Asia Biodiversity Program Kerinci National Park Plant Resources of South East Asia Synopsis of the Mammalian Fauna of the Philippine Islands The Nature Conservancy The World Conservation Union TNC Asia Pacific UNEP-World Conservation Monitoring Centre United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) WCS Asia World Bank Biodiversity site World Bank Faiths and Environment site World Resources Institute World Wildlife Fund (WWF) WWF China WWF Indochina WWF Indonesia Website address www.arcworld.org www.arcbc.org www.arbec.com.my www.apec.umn.edu/faculty/spolasky/ darwin.bio.uci.edu/~sustain/bio65/Titlpage.htm www.biodiversity.org/ www.bcnet.org life.csu.edu.au/bin21/ www.birdlifeindochina.org www.birdlife-indonesia.org www.birdlife.net/worldwide/regional/asia/index.html www.ciesin.org/ www.chinabiodiversity.com www.conservation.org www.conservation.or.id www.cepf.net conbio.net/vl/ www.fauna-flora.org/around/asia_pacific/asia_pacific.html www.fao.org/biodiversity www.wri.org/biodiv/gbf www.gefweb.org www.rbp-iucn.lk/bpsp www.kerinci.org www.proseanet.org www.fmnh.org/philippine_mammals www.tnc.org www.iucn.org www.nature.org/wherewework/asiapacific www.unep-wcmc.org www.unep.ch wcs.org/sw-around_the_globe/Asia www.worldbank.org/biodiversity www.worldbank.org/faithsandenvironment www.wri.org www.wwf.org or www.panda.org www.wwfchina.org www.wwfindochina.org www.wwf.or.id 37 BIBLIOGRAPHY BirdLife International. 2001. Sourcebook of Existing and Proposed Protected Areas in Vietnam. Birdlife International and Forestry Institute of Planning and Investment, Hanoi. Center for International Forestry research (CIFOR). 2004. Generating Economic Growth, Rural Livelihoods, and Environmental Benefits from Indonesia’s Forests. CIFOR, Bogor. FAO statistics: http://www.fao.org/forestry/foris/webview/forestry2/index.jsp?siteId=5621&sitetree Id=22027&langId=1&geoId=38 Hardcastle, J., Cox S., Nguyen Thi Dao, and Grieser Johns, A. 2004. Rediscovering the Saola. WWF, Hanoi. Kottelat, M. and T. Whitten 1996. Freshwater Biodiversity in Asia with Special Reference to Fish. World Bank Technical Paper No. 343, The World Bank, Washington D.C. Kottelat, M. 2000. Diagnoses of the a new genus and 64 new species of fishes from Laos. J. Sth Asian Natural History, 5: 37-82. _______. 2001a. A Preliminary Checklist of the Fishes Known or Expected to Occur in Northern Vietnam with Comments on Systematics and Nomenclature. The World Bank, Washington D.C. _______. 2001b. The Fishes of Laos. Wildlife Heritage Trust, Colombo. MacKinnon, K. 2001. ICDPs: Working with parks and people. Parks, 11. Palmer, M. and Finlay, V. 2003. Faith in Conservation: New Approaches to Religions and the Environment. The World Bank., Washington D.C. Reading, R. P, Wingard, J. R. and Amgalanbaatar, S. In press. Trophy Hunting of Argali Sheep (Ovis ammon) in Mongolia: An Example of Unsustainable Legal and Illegal Hunting and Trade Stolton, S., Hockings, M., Dudley, N., MacKinnon, K, and Whitten, T. 2003. Reporting Progress in Protected Areas: A Site-Level Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool. World Bank-WWF Forest Alliance, Washington, D.C. Vermeulen, J. and Whitten, T. 1999. Biodiversity and Cultural Heritage in the Management of Limestone Resources: Lessons from East Asia. The World Bank, Washington D.C. Wells, M. et al. 1999. Investing in Biodiversity: A review of Indonesia’s Integrated Conservation and Development Projects. The World Bank, Washington D.C World Bank. 1998a. Community-managed Programs in Forestry: A Synthesis of Good Practices. World Bank, Washington, D.C. _______. 2000. Supporting the Web of Life: The World Bank and Biodiversity. A Portfolio Update. World Bank, Washington, D.C. 38 _______. 2001a. Indonesia: Environment and natural resource management in a time of transition. World Bank, Washington, D.C. _______. 2001b. Making Sustainable Commitments. An Environment Strategy for the World Bank. World Bank, Washington, D.C. _______. 2001b. Vietnam Environment Monitor. World Bank, Washington, D.C. _______. 2004a. Lao PDR Environment Monitor. World Bank, Washington, D. C. _______. 2004b. East Asia Region Forestry Strategy: Confronting the Management Vacuum. World Bank, Washington, D.C. 39 Annexes Annex 1. World Bank Biodiversity Projects in EAP that had begun or have been under implementation since 1999 Country Project Name FY Source of money Total ($ millions) Total Bio-diversity ($ millions) 1.10 3.00 1.91 16.00 1.86 26.85 8.30 3.00 5.50 11.4 15.00 32.20 4.10 8.70 0.74 0.44 1.60 World Bank Bio-diversity ($ millions) 0.98 2.75 1.91 16.00 1.00 11.75 8.30 1.99 3.71 7.2 15.00 19.20 4.10 6.90 0.74 0.44 0.73 Cambodia Forest Concession Management and 2000 IDA Control Project Cambodia Biodiversity and Protected Areas Management Project Cambodia Biodiversity and Protected Areas Management Project China China China China China EAP Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Sustainable Forestry Development (Natural Forest Protection) Lake Dianchi Freshwater Biodiversity Restoration Project Sustainable Forestry Development I Gansu and Xinjiang Pastoral Development Gansu and Xinjiang Pastoral Development Mekong River Commission Water Utilization Project Biodiversity Collectinos Kerinci Seblat ICDP Kerinci Seblat ICDP Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Project (COREMAP) Coral Reef Management and Rehabilitation Project (COREMAP) Conservation of Elephant Landscape in Aceh Province, Sumatra Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan - IBSAP The Greater Berbak-Sembilang Integrated Coastal Wetlands Conservation Project 2001 GEF REG 2001 IDA LIL 2002 GEF REG 2002 GEF MSP 2002 IBRD 2003 GEF REG 2003 IBRD 2000 GEF REG 1994 GEF REG 1996 GEF REG 1996 IBRD 1998 GEF REG 1998 IBRD 2000 GEF MSP 2000 GEF EA 2001 GEF MSP 5.42 3 1.91 16 1.86 214.58 10.5 98.72 16.3 11.4 15 32.2 4.1 8.7 0.742 0.44 1.5992 Indonesia Indonesia Sangihe-Talaud Forest Conservation 2002 GEF MSP Indonesia Forests and Media Project 2002 GEF MSP (INFORM) 1.14 1.23 1.14 1.23 0.82 0.94 40 Crouching Tiger, Hidden Langur: Indonesia Indonesia Lao PDR Lao PDR Lao PDR Lao PDR Mongolia Coral Reef Management and Rehabilitation Project (COREMAP II) Coral Reef Management and Rehabilitation Project (COREMAP II) Wildlife and Protected Areas Conservation Forest Management and Conservation District Upland Development and Conservation Sustainable Forestry for Rural Development Project Assessment of Capacity Building Needs and Country Specific Priorities in Biodiversity 2004 IBRD/IDA 74.6 2004 GEF REG 1994 GEF REG 1994 IDA 1999 IDA LIL 2003 IDA 2000 GEF EA 7.5 5 15.3 2.25 16.45 0.23 74.60 7.50 5.00 7.75 2.25 1.10 0.22 56.20 7.50 5.00 4.35 2.00 0.66 0.2 Mongolia Biodiversity Loss and Permafrost 2001 GEF MSP Melt in Lake Hovsgol National Park Project Conservation of the Eg-Uur Watershed National Biodiversity Strategy, Action Plan and Report Forestry and Conservation 2003 GEF MSP 1999 GEF EA 0.829 0.41 0.41 Mongolia Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Samoa Vietnam 2.03 0.182 0.50 0.18 0.50 0.18 2002 GEF REG 17.3 17.30 17.30 Forestry and Conservation 2002 IBRD 38.5 19.25 6.25 Conservation of Priority Protected Areas Community Based Resource Management Mindanao Rural Development/ Coastal Resource Conservation Mindanao Rural Development Land Administration and Management Asian Conservation Foundation Marine Biodiversity Protection and Management Forest Protection and Rural Development 1994 GEF REG 1998 IBRD 2000 GEF REG 2000 IBRD 2001 IBRD LIL 2004 GEF REG 1999 GEF MSP 1998 IDA 22.86 67.5 1.3 39.7 10.35 16.9 1.1 32.39 22.86 33.75 1.30 0.99 2.54 1.90 1.10 32.39 20.00 25.00 1.30 0.68 1.18 1.60 0.90 21.51 41 Annexes Vietnam Vietnam Vietnam Vietnam Coastal Wetlands Protection and Development Hon Mun Marine Protected Area Pilot Project 2000 IDA 2001 GEF MSP 65.6 2.17 1.306 2 15.00 2.17 1.31 2.00 7.27 1.00 0.75 1.00 Conservation of Pu Luong-Cuc Phu- 2001 GEF MSP ong Limestone Landscape Hai Van Range Green Corridor 2003 GEF MSP Annex 2. World Bank Non-Lending Activities in EAP Since 1999 Country Cambodia Cambodia Cambodia China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China China Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia FY 2003 2004 2004 2001 2001 2002 2002 2002 2003 2003 2003 2003 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2000 2002 2002 2002 2002 2003 2003 Name ENVIRONMENT MONITOR FOREST SECTOR NOTE POVERTY AND SOCIAL IMPACT ANALYSIS OF LAND WATER STRATEGY STUDY ENVIRONMENTAL SECTOR UPDATE PPIAF: CHINA--REGULATORY FRAMEWORK WEST-EAST ENERGY TRANSFERS COUNTRY WATER RESOURCES ASSISTANCE STRATEGY CHINA PUBLIC DISCLOSURE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSISTANCE ENVIRONMENT COUNCIL - TASK FORCE LIVESTOCK NOTE AIR POLLUTION/ACID RAIN CONTROL FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT AND POLLUTION REFORM OF FORESTRY ADMINISTRATION SYSTEM POP ENHANCEMENT CAPACITY FOR PCB MANAGEMENT ESTABLISHING LONG TERM ENERGY SECURITY ROADMAP TOWARDS A LAND POLICY REFORM LESSONS FROM THE TFESSD STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM GRASSLAND NOTE FORESTRY POLICY DIALOGUE FOREST POLICY DEVELOPMENT & SOCIAL OUTREACH DECENTRALIZED ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT AND ENFORCEMNT CLEAN AIR PROGRAM PPIAF INDONESIA WATER SUPPLY ENVIRONMENT MONITOR FOREST POLICY DIALOGUE AND STRATEGY 42 Crouching Tiger, Hidden Langur: Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Lao PDR Lao PDR Lao PDR Lao PDR Lao PDR Mongolia Mongolia Mongolia Mongolia Mongolia Mongolia Mongolia Mongolia Mongolia Pacific Islands Pacific Islands Pacific Islands Pacific Islands Palau 2003 2003 2003 2003 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2001 2002 2004 2005 2005 2002 2003 2003 2003 2003 2004 2004 2004 2005 2002 2003 2005 2005 2004 NSS-FORESTRY COMPONENT BIODIVERSITY STRATEGY & ACTION PLAN CGI (INDONESIA) INDONESIA-MINING CGI INTERIM CGI LOCAL ENVIRONMENT MONITORING WATER RESOURCE PROTECTION CONSULTATION: PRIVATE POWER INVESTORS DECENTRALIZATION AND ENVIRONMENT FOREST POLICY STRATEGY WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION POVERTY AND THE ENVIRONMENT FOREST AND FLEG INITIATIVES WATER USER RIGHTS ANALYSIS REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN YOGYAKARTA SUPPORT TO PRSP LAO FOREST POLICY NOTE LAO CPAR FY02 SSR/CEM RURAL STRATEGY ENVIRONMENT MONITOR MONGOLIA ENERGY STRATEGY BIODIVERSITY CAPACITY BUILDING ENVIRONMENT MINE MONITORING MONGOLIA FY03 CG MEETING FORESTRY SECTOR POLICY NOTE ENERGY STUDY ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 2004 MINING REVIEW OF ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIAL POLICIES IN MINING CODE OF ENVIRONMENTAL PRACTICE PACIFIC ISLANDS ADAPTATION PROGRAM CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM PACIFIC RISK MANAGEMENT AND ADAPTATION EL NINO RISK MANAGEMENT 43 Annexes Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines PNG PNG PNG Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Regional Thailand Thailand Thailand Thailand Vietnam Vietnam Vietnam Vietnam Vietnam Vietnam Vietnam Vietnam 2000 2002 2002 2003 2003 2003 2004 2005 2005 2005 2005 2005 2002 2002 2003 1999 2000 2002 2002 2002 2003 2004 2004 2004 2004 2004 2005 2005 2000 2004 2004 2005 2002 2002 2003 2003 2004 2004 2004 2005 RENEWABLE ENERGY CAPACITY BUILDING IN SOCIAL & ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT ENVIRONMENT MONITOR ON AIR QUALITY COUNTRY WATER RESOURCES ASSISTANCE STRATEGY STRENGTHENING ENVIRONMENT ENFORCEMENT ENVIRONMENT MONITOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF MINING PEM 05 POPS MANAGEMENT SEMI-ANNUAL SAFEGUARDS FORUM ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT(WATERSHED) ENVIRONMENT MONITOR ‘04 BIODIVERSITY STRATEGY AND ACTION PLAN ENVIRONMENTAL STRATEGY PNG ENVIRONMENT MONITOR - DISSEMINATION ENVIRONMENT COMPONENTS PROJECTS REGIONAL STUDY FOR NATURAL GAS REGIONAL GAS STUDY POVERTY-ENVIRONMENT NEXUS MAINSTREAMING ENV IN PRSP AND PER REGIONAL CLEAN AIR INITIATIVE CLEAN AIR (AIR QUALITY) INITIATIVE LAND POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION FAITHS AND ENVIRONMENT INCORPORATION OF RELIGIONS IN BIODIVERSITY WB/WWF/ALLIANCE REG ENVIRONMENT STRATEGY MEKONG REGION WATER ASSISTANCE STRATEGY LAND-USE ENVIRONMENT MONITOR COUNTRY DEVELOPMENT PARTNERSHIP-ENVIRONMENT ENVIRONMENT MONITOR ‘04 NATIONAL SECTOR STRATEGY FOR CDM METROPOLITAN ENVIRONMENTAL IMPR.PROG. REVIEW OF ENVIRONMENTAL, SOCIAL FRAMEWORK ENVIRONMENT SECTOR SUPPORT VIETNAM POVERTY ASSESSMENT IMPLEMENTING THE LAW ON WATER RESOURCES PPIAF:VIETNAM GAS LEGAL FRAMEWORK ENVIRONMENT MONITOR 44 Crouching Tiger, Hidden Langur: Annex 3. Grants (over US$25,000) disbursed by the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund in EAP. Hotspot China China China China China China Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Project Building Best Biodiversity Conservation Strategies Establishing Partnerships for Lasting Conservation Refining Conservation Outcomes for the Southwest China Hotspot Asian Conservation Awareness Program- China Capacity Building for Newly Established Nature Reserves Grantee Conservation International Conservation International Conservation International WildAid Conservation International Grant 651,863 350,117 323,478 250,295 202,867 47,269 690,585 589,783 Establishing Database on Mammals and Birds of Sichuan Academy of ForSichuan and Chongqing estry Anti-Poaching Patrols in Sumatra’s Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park International Rhino Foundation Conserving the Northern Sumatra Conservation Conservation International Corridor (NSC) Facilitate the Establishment of the Tesso Nilo Conservation Forest Conservation Management 319,318 301,902 260,440 250,000 233,874 227,180 222,220 215,729 186,674 Conservation of the Bukit Barisan Selatan Land- WCS scape in Sumatra Strategy for Protecting Resources in the Gunung WildAid Leuser Ecosystem Conservation of the Orangutan in the Northern Sumatra Corridor Conservation of Sumatra Tiger in Tesso Nilo/ Bukit Tigapuluh Landscape Strengthen Community Forest Management in the Seulawah Ecosystem Nanggroe Aceh Darussaleam (NAD) Policy Initiative Planning Grant CEPF Support of Local Partners in Sumatra Building the Capacity of NGOs in Sumatra’s Tesso Nilo Secure the Tesso Nilo Conservation Landscape CEPF Conservation Strategy Preparatory Work in Sumatra Red List Assessment and Management of Reptiles and Freshwater Fish Conservation Concession Approach on Sumatra’s Siberut Island A Strategy for Management at Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park Conservation International WWF Yayasan Rumpun Bambu Conservation International Conservation International WWF Indonesia Conservation Management 165,050 Conservation International Conservation International Conservation International WCS 142,891 101,198 92,841 65,970 45 Annexes Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Investigations into Three Forest Concessions in the Seulawah Ecosystem Yayasan Ekowisata Aceh 58,420 49,432 46,274 32,085 1,000,000 480,227 458,385 311,564 162,500 122,976 101,775 68,803 64,532 27,200 25,565 Use of Forest Resources in Riau: A Look at Legal WWF & Illegal Employment IncorporatingConservation into Riau’s Provincial Spatial Planning Process Economic Analysis of Forest Concessions in Tesso Nilo, Sumatra Emergency Action for Threatened Species Yayasan Kaliptra Conservation International Haribon Foundation Protected Area Management of the Sierra Madre Conservation International Biodiversity Corridor Palawan Strategy Development Project Community Enforcement Initiative to Stop Poaching in Palawan Strengthening Corporate Support for Biodiversity Conservation CEPF Conservation Strategy Preparatory Work CEPF Grant Facilitation in the Philippines Conservation International Env Legal Assistance Center First Philippine Conservation Conservation International Conservation International Creating a New PA for the Palawan Mantalinga- Conservation International han Range Forests Launch of the PBCPP and the National Geographic July 2002 Issue Linkages Between Biodiversity, Ecosystem Health and Human Health Finalization of the Implementing Rules of the Wildlife Act Conservation International University of Western Ontario Conservation International 46