CULTURE

chapter

CULTURE

3





Each culture has its own forms of individual expression, as this

billboard for United Airlines illustrates.The young woman from Los Angeles

shows off her tongue stud, the South Pacific islander displays a ceremonial

tattooed face.





Culture and Society Social Policy and Culture: Bilingualism

Development of Culture Boxes

around the World SOCIOLOGY IN THE GLOBAL COMMUNITY: Life in

the Global Village

Elements of Culture

SOCIOLOGY ON CAMPUS: A Culture of Cheating?

Culture and the Dominant Ideology

Cultural Variation









53

A sok is a software engineer in

one of the showcase companies

in Silicon Valley, a gleaming edi-

fice of glass and tile. He and his

wife were born in India. Like many of his net-

work of friends, he went to Stanford Univer-

sity to pursue a graduate degree and found

ture—without having to put up with a decay-

ing bureaucracy and failing infrastructure.

They argue gently about whether they really

live in an Indian world. She points out that

while many of their friends are Indian, includ-

ing a recently immigrated cousin, Priyesh still

has to work with many non-Indians.

work in a large company. He stayed in that Sima adds that she has to interact with

company for three years, coding, learning very different cultures in their son’s pre-

American ways, and discovering that political school—where they celebrate Chinese New

hierarchies in American work- Year and Cinco de Mayo. She

places are very different from pauses and then notes that it

those he had known in India. isn’t really too different from

Eager and enthusiastic, he put interacting with all the differ-

his heart and soul into his ent religions and cultures

first project. His teammates back in India. Priyesh scoffs at

were like family. They worked the whole problem. All these

long hours together, eighty to cultural differences don’t

a hundred hours per week in matter to him. When he is at

the crunch times. They went work, it is the technology

to Burgess Park for picnics, that matters. . . .

and loaned each other Priyesh goes back into his

money. It was a heady expe- home office. He makes a

rience. Suddenly, the product practice of telecommuting

on which his project was every day from about six to

based was canceled. His group was broken nine o’clock in the morning. . . . He can, at the

up and his teammates were distributed very least, spend those hours reviewing his e-

among a number of other projects. . . . mail. He gets from fifty to one hundred e-

Priyesh and his wife, Sima, old friends of mails each day. Many are work-related, but

Asok’s, are having breakfast. Sima tells Priyesh others connect him to mailing lists of people

that her relatives were asking if they will go who are interested in technology stock in-

back to India soon. They shake their heads, vestment, or people who like to play Indian

wondering why they would want to go back. music or tennis. They will send each other

She says, “I do not miss India . . . anything In- quick messages to set up meeting times or to

dian I want I have it right here—grocery announce the arrival of a particular artist. He

stores, temples, cultural programs, Hindu also stays in touch with his family in India with

magazines. There are three movie theaters in e-mail, since that is the most convenient way

the Bay Area showing Hindi movies seven to communicate across time zones. (English-

days a week. I only miss my family.” Priyesh re- Lueck 2002:1–3)

flects that here in Silicon Valley he can have all Additional information about this excerpt can be found on the

the good parts of India—the people and cul- Online Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/schaefer6.

54

Culture 55









I this excerpt from the book Cultures@

Silicon Valley by Jan English-Lueck, an an-

thropologist describes the daily lives of

some typical residents of California’s

world-famous center for cutting-edge technologies.

English-Lueck is a professor and chair of the Depart-

Though the high-tech industry has suffered in the

recent economic recession, immigrants are still drawn

to Silicon Valley, and the corporations that reside there

are still developing new technologies with which to in-

tegrate diverse cultures. In the future, the United States

will continue to rely on talented people from around

ment of Anthropology at San Jose State University. the world. In our rapidly globalizing culture, then, un-

Fascinated by the mix of cultures and entrepreneurism derstanding other cultures is vital to our national well-

that powers her region’s high-tech economy, she has being. How do cultures differ and how are they the

spent 10 years doing ethnographic research on the same? How does our culture change as we encounter

software engineers who immigrate from India and Ire- cultures very different from our own? What accounts

land to work in the corporations that invented the In- for cultural variation between and within societies?

formation Age. She sees the community as a micro- And what are the cultural implications of the trend

cosm of globalization, where new technologies toward globalization?

intersect with international business interests and a In this chapter we will study the development of

multicultural, transnational workforce. culture around the world, including the cultural ef-

The Silicon Valley culture revealed by English- fects of the worldwide trend toward globalization. We

Lueck’s painstaking research is a many-layered mosaic will see just how basic the study of culture is to sociol-

of ethnic traditions, corporate values, consumerism, ogy. We will examine the meaning of culture and soci-

and global mass media. The well-educated immigrants ety, as well as the development of culture from its roots

who staff Silicon Valley’s software development de- in the prehistoric human experience to the technolog-

partments maintain close-knit ethnic networks, which ical advances of today. We will define and explore the

provide a sense of stability that is lacking in their high- major aspects of culture, including language, norms,

risk business. They accept the corporate profit motive, sanctions, and values. We will see how cultures de-

which means that their jobs are only as secure as the velop a dominant ideology, and how functionalist and

prospects for the new technologies they develop. They conflict theorists view culture. Our discussion will fo-

consider the demands of learning to live with people cus both on general cultural practices found in all so-

of other nationalities a worthwhile exchange for the cieties and on the wide variations that can distinguish

comfort and efficiency of life in a developed country. one society from another. In the social policy section

And they allow the high-tech gadgets they create to al- we will look at the conflicts in cultural values that

ter the way they live their lives, changing the ways they underlie current debates over bilingualism.

work and communicate with others.









Sometimes people refer to a particular person as “very

CULTURE AND SOCIETY cultured” or to a city as having “lots of culture.” That use of

the term culture is different from our use in this textbook.

Culture is the totality of learned, socially transmitted cus- In sociological terms, culture does not refer solely to the fine

toms, knowledge, material objects, and behavior. It in- arts and refined intellectual taste. It consists of all objects

cludes the ideas, values, and artifacts (for example, DVDs, and ideas within a society, including ice cream cones, rock

comic books, and birth control devices) of groups of music, and slang words. Sociologists consider both a por-

people. Patriotic attachment to the flag of the United trait by Rembrandt and the work of graffiti spray painters

States is an aspect of culture, as is a national passion for to be aspects of culture. A tribe that cultivates soil by

the tango in Argentina. hand has just as much culture as a people that relies

Classroom Tip See “Stimulating Classroom Discussions about Cul- Classroom Tip Do we live in a society and a culture? Have students

tures@Silicon Valley” (Class Discussion Topics). discuss the difference between these two concepts.

Student Alert Note that the use of the term culture is much broader in

everyday speech than in sociology.

Are You What You Eat?





T he foods people eat, along with the customs

they observe in preparing and consuming

their meals, say a great deal about their cul-

ture. In some cultures, such as that of Papua New

lovingly prepared, consumed slowly along with good

conversation and a bottle of wine.To the French and to

gourmets around the world, great chefs are celebrities.

Given their reverence for food, the French would be

Guinea, roast pork is a delicacy reserved for feasts; in most unlikely to participate in a contest designed to see

others it is forbidden food. In U.S. culture, genetically who can gobble down the most hot dogs. In the United

modified food is accepted without much question, but States and Japan, these public events are quite popular.

in Europe it is banned. Because Swedish people put But though the Japanese admire American culture, they

great value on natural, organic foods, 99 percent of stop short at copying the American habit of eating fast

mothers in Sweden breast-feed their infants—a rate food on the street while rushing from one place to an-

much higher than that in the United States. other. The Japanese will purchase food from a street

In some cultures, such as France, fine cuisine is a cul- vendor, but they will not walk around while eating it, be-

tural institution. The French prefer fresh local produce cause doing so would show disrespect for the preparer.









Hong Kong



56

Coney Island, New York

Paris









57

58 Chapter 3





on computer-operated machinery. Each people has a ragtime compositions of Scott Joplin, the poetry of V. S.

distinctive culture with its own characteristic ways of gath- Naipaul, the paintings of Johannes Vermeer, the novels of

ering and preparing food, constructing homes, structuring Jane Austen, and the films of Akira Kurosawa. As we be-

the family, and promoting standards of right and wrong. gin a new millennium, we can transmit an entire book

The fact that you share a similar culture with others around the world via the Internet, clone cells, and pro-

helps to define the group or society to which you belong. long lives through organ transplants. We can peer into the

A fairly large number of people are said to constitute a outermost reaches of the universe or analyze our inner-

society when they live in the same territory, are relatively most feelings. In all these ways, we are remarkably differ-

independent of people outside their area, and participate ent from other species of the animal kingdom.

in a common culture. Metropolitan Los Angeles is more

populous than at least 150 nations, yet sociologists do not Cultural Universals

consider it a society in its own right. Rather, they see it as

part of—and dependent on—the larger society of the All societies have developed certain common practices

United States. and beliefs, known as cultural universals. Many cultural

A society is the largest form of human group. It con- universals are, in fact, adaptations to meet essential hu-

sists of people who share a common heritage and culture. man needs, such as people’s need for food, shelter, and

Members of the society learn this culture and transmit it clothing. Anthropologist George Murdock (1945:124)

from one generation to the next. They even preserve their compiled a list of cultural universals, including athletic

distinctive culture through literature, art, video record- sports, cooking, funeral ceremonies, medicine, marriage,

ings, and other means of expression. If it were not for the and sexual restrictions.

social transmission of culture, each generation would The cultural practices Murdock listed may be univer-

have to reinvent television, not to mention the wheel. sal, but the manner in which they are expressed varies

Having a common culture also simplifies many day- from culture to culture. For example, one society may let

to-day interactions. For example, when you buy an airline its members choose their own marriage partners. An-

ticket, you know you don’t have to bring along hundreds other may encourage marriages arranged by the parents.

of dollars in cash. You can pay with a credit card. When Not only does the expression of cultural universals

you are part of a society, you take for granted many small vary from one society to another; it also may change

(as well as more important) cultural patterns. You assume dramatically over time within a society. Each generation,

that theaters will provide seats for the audience, that and each year for that matter, most human cultures

physicians will not disclose confidential information, and change and expand through the processes of innovation

that parents will be careful when crossing the street with and diffusion.

young children. All these assumptions reflect basic values,

beliefs, and customs of the culture of the United States. Innovation

Language is a critical element of culture that sets hu-

The process of introducing a new idea or object to a cul-

mans apart from other species. Members of a society gen-

ture is known as innovation. Innovation interests sociol-

erally share a common language, which facilitates day-to-

ogists because of the social consequences of introducing

day exchanges with others. When you ask a hardware

something new. There are two forms of innovation: dis-

store clerk for a flashlight, you don’t need to draw a pic-

covery and invention. Discovery involves making known

ture of the instrument. You share the same cultural term

or sharing the existence of an aspect of reality. The find-

for a small, portable battery-operated light. However, if ing of the DNA molecule and the identification of a new

you were in England and needed this item, you would moon of Saturn are both acts of discovery. A significant

have to ask for an “electric torch.” Of course, even within factor in the process of discovery is the sharing of new-

the same society, a term can have a number of different found knowledge with others. By contrast, an invention

meanings. In the United States, grass signifies both a plant results when existing cultural items are combined into a

eaten by grazing animals and an intoxicating drug. form that did not exist before. The bow and arrow, the

automobile, and the television are all examples of inven-

DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURE tions, as are Protestantism and democracy.

AROUND THE WORLD

Globalization, Diffusion, and Technology

We’ve come a long way from our prehistoric heritage. The The Christmas season is in full swing, and the city is

human species has produced such achievements as the aglow with evergreen wreaths, snowmen, and silvery

Let’s Discuss Who teaches a society’s culture? Parents, teachers, the Key Person George Murdock

media, religious and government leaders, peers, and others? Classroom Tip Additional examples of Murdock’s cultural universals in-

clude bodily adornment, calendars, dancing, games, greetings, incest

taboos, hairstyles, language, personal names, religion, and weaning.

Let’s Discuss Why are dancing, hairstyles, and religion cultural univer-

sals? What functions do these examples serve?

Culture 59





not just in the United States, but

throughout the world. One example

of the massive global impact was the

downturn in international tourism,

which lasted for at least two years.

The effects have been felt by people

far removed from the United States,

including African game wardens and

Asian taxi drivers. Some observers

see globalization and its effects as the

natural result of advances in com-

munications technology, particu-

larly the Internet and satellite trans-

mission of the mass media. Others

view it more critically, as a process

that allows multinational corpora-

tions to expand unchecked. We will

examine this issue more fully in

Box 3-1, on page 60 (Chase-Dunn et

al. 2000; Feketekuty 2001; Feuer

In Vietnam, Santa Claus rides a bicycle loaded with gifts. The observance of 1989; Pearlstein 2001; Ritzer 2004b).

Western holidays in non-Western countries is one sign of globalization. As the observance of Western

holidays shows, more and more cul-

tural expressions and practices are

bells. On the street, shoppers hurry past bakery windows crossing national borders and having an effect on the tra-

stocked with tempting holiday confections. Handel’s Mes- ditions and customs of the societies exposed to them. So-

siah is being performed tonight at the music hall. No, this ciologists use the term diffusion to refer to the process by

isn’t New York, London, or Berlin; it’s Beijing. China, the which a cultural item spreads from group to group or so-

country that exports many of the toys that end up under ciety to society. Diffusion can occur through a variety of

the Christmas tree in the United States, has caught the means, among them exploration, military conquest, mis-

holiday spirit. But you won’t find many manger scenes sionary work, the influence of the mass media, tourism,

here, where some people who take the message of Christ- and the Internet.

mas seriously are still persecuted. For the Chinese, Christ- Sociologist George Ritzer coined the term “Mc-

mas is merely a chic Western custom, a welcome chance Donaldization of society” to describe how the principles of

to relax with family and friends (Marquand 2002). fast-food restaurants developed in the United States have

Not just in China, but in Vietnam, South Korea, and come to dominate more and more sectors of societies

the Philippines, the observance of Western holidays is one throughout the world. For example, hair salons and med-

more sign of the rapidly escalating globalization of cul- ical clinics now take walk-in appointments. In Hong Kong,

ture. Globalization is the worldwide integration of gov- sex selection clinics offer a menu of items, from fertility en-

ernment policies, cultures, social movements, and finan- hancement to methods of increasing the likelihood of hav-

cial markets through trade and the exchange of ideas. ing a child of the desired sex. Religious groups—from evan-

While public discussion of globalization is relatively re- gelical preachers on local stations or websites to priests at

cent, intellectuals have been pondering its social conse- the Vatican Television Center—use marketing techniques

quences for a long time. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels similar to those that are used to sell “happy meals.”

warned in The Communist Manifesto (written in 1848) of McDonaldization is associated with the melding of

a world market that would lead to production in distant cultures, through which we see more and more similari-

lands, sweeping away existing working relationships. ties in cultural expression. In Japan, for example, African

Today, developments outside a country are as likely to entrepreneurs have found a thriving market for hip-hop

influence people’s lives as changes at home. For example, fashions popularized by teens in the United States. In

though much of the world was already in recession by Austria, the McDonald’s organization itself has drawn on

September 2001, the terrorist attacks on New York and the Austrians’ love of coffee, cake, and conversation to

Washington, D.C., caused an immediate economic decline create the McCafe, a new part of its fast-food chain. Many

Global View Discussion of diffusion gives instructors and faculty a Global View/Contemporary Culture Note the impact that the mass

chance to introduce additional cross-cultural examples. media have had on cultural diffusion.

Global View See “Cultural Diffusion: Baseball in Japan” (Additional Key Person George Ritzer

Lecture Ideas). Theory Examine the principles of “McDonaldization” from a

functionalist perspective.

Sociology in the Global Community

3-1 LIFE IN THE GLOBAL VILLAGE

industrial countries, at the expense of the ture from other countries, especially the



I

magine a “borderless world” in which

culture, trade, commerce, money, and poor in less developed nations. They con- economically dominant United States. In

even people move freely from one sider globalization to be a successor to the Brazil, for example, a toy manufacturer

place to another. Popular culture is imperialism and colonialism that op- has challenged Barbie’s popularity by de-

widely shared, whether it be Japanese pressed Third World nations for centuries. signing a doll named Susi that looks

sushi or U.S. running shoes, and the Eng- Another criticism of globalization more like Brazilian girls. Susi has a

lish speaker who answers questions on comes from people who feel over- slightly smaller chest, much wider thighs,

the telephone about your credit card ac- whelmed by global culture. The trend set- and darker skin than Barbie. Her

count is as likely to be in India or Ireland ters are likely to be far removed culturally wardrobe includes the skimpy bikinis fa-

as in the United States. In this world, even and spatially from the daily lives of indi- vored on Brazilian beaches as well as a

the sovereignty of nations is at risk, chal- viduals. And when cultural change can soccer shirt honoring the national team.

lenged by political movements and ideol- come from any part of the global village, Brazilians have responded: In Brazil, five

ogies that span nations. no single style can dominate a local com- Susi dolls are sold for every two Barbies.

There is no need to imagine this munity for long. Embedded in the con- Of course, globalization has its posi-

world, for we are already living in the age cept of globalization is the notion of the tive side too. Many developing nations

of globalization. African tribal youngsters cultural domination of developing na- are taking their place in the world of

wear Michael Jordan T-shirts; Thai teens tions by more affluent nations. Simply commerce and bringing in much needed

dance to techno music; American chil- income. The communications revolution

dren collect Pokémon cards. Ethnic ac- helps people to stay connected and gives

cessories have become a fashion state- Even James Bond movies and them access to knowledge that can im-

ment in the United States, and Asian Britney Spears may be seen as prove living standards and even save

martial arts have swept the world. threats to native cultures, if they lives. For example, people suffering from

How did we get to this point? First, illnesses are now accessing treatment

sociologists take note of advances in dominate the media at the programs that were developed outside

communications technology. Satellite TV, expense of local art forms. their own nation’s medical establish-

cell phones, the Internet, and the like al- ment. The key seems to be finding a bal-

low information to flow freely across the ance between the old ways and the new—

world and serve to link global markets. put, people lose their traditional values becoming modernized without leaving

Second, corporations in the industrial and begin to identify with the culture of meaningful cultural traditions behind.

nations have become multinational, with dominant nations. They may discard or

both factories and markets in developing neglect their native language and dress as Let’s Discuss

countries. Business leaders welcome the they attempt to copy the icons of mass- 1. How are you affected by globaliza-

opportunity to sell consumer goods in market entertainment and fashion. Even tion? What items of popular culture

populous countries such as China and James Bond movies and Britney Spears do you enjoy that come from other

India. Finally, these multinational firms may be seen as threats to native cultures, nations? Which aspects of global-

have cooperated with global financial in- if they dominate the media at the expense ization do you find advantageous

stitutions, organizations, and govern- of local art forms. As Sembene Ousmane, and which do you find objection-

ments to promote free trade—unre- one of Africa’s most prominent writers able?

stricted or lightly restricted commerce and filmmakers, noted, “[Today] we are 2. How would you feel if the customs

across national borders. more familiar with European fairy tales and traditions you grew up with

Globalization is not universally wel- than with our own traditional stories” were replaced by the culture or val-

comed. Many critics see the dominance of (World Development Forum 1990:4). ues of another country? How might

“businesses without borders” as benefiting Some societies try to protect them- you try to protect your culture?

the rich, particularly the very wealthy in selves from the invasion of too much cul-





Sources: Dodds 2000; Downie 2000; Giddens 1991; Hansen 2001; Hirst and Thompson 1996; Legrain 2003; Ritzer 2004b; Sernau 2001.









Let’s Discuss Is the United States resistant to the “invasion” of Global View/Theory The Internet and television enter homes through-

cultural characteristics from other societies? out the world, and both are dominated by the English language. Exam-

ine from a conflict perspective.



60

Culture 61





critical observers believe that McDonaldization and glob- ology, stresses the universal aspects of culture. Sociobiol-

alization serve to dilute the distinctive aspects of a soci- ogy is the systematic study of how biology affects human

ety’s culture (Alfino et al. 1998; Ritzer 2002, 2004a). social behavior. Sociobiologists assert that many of the

Technology in its many forms has increased the cultural traits humans display, such as the almost univer-

speed of cultural diffusion and broadened the distribu- sal expectation that women will be nurturers and men

tion of cultural elements. Sociologist Gerhard Lenski has will be providers, are not learned but are rooted in our ge-

defined technology as “cultural information about how to netic makeup.

use the material resources of the environment to satisfy Sociobiology is founded on the naturalist Charles

human needs and desires” (Nolan and Lenski 2004:37). Darwin’s (1859) theory of evolution. In traveling the

Today’s technological developments no longer await pub- world, Darwin had noted small variations in species—in

lication in journals with limited circulation. Press confer- the shape of a bird’s beak, for example—from one loca-

ences, often carried simultaneously on the Internet, tion to another. He theorized that over hundreds of gen-

trumpet the new developments. erations, random variations in genetic makeup had

Technology not only accelerates the diffusion of sci- helped certain members of a species to survive in a par-

entific innovations but also transmits culture. Later, in ticular environment. A bird with a differently shaped

Chapter 16, we will discuss the concern in many parts of beak might have been better at gathering seeds than other

the world that the English language and North American birds, for instance. In reproducing, these lucky individu-

culture dominate the Internet and World Wide Web. Such als had passed on their advantageous genes to succeeding

control, or at least dominance, of technology influences generations. Eventually, given their advantage in survival,

the direction of diffusion of culture. Websites cover even individuals with the variation began to outnumber other

the most superficial aspects of U.S. culture but offer little members of the species. The species was slowly adapting

information about the pressing issues faced by citizens of to its environment. Darwin called this process of adapta-

other nations. People all over the world find it easier to tion to the environment through random genetic varia-

visit electronic chat rooms about daytime television tion natural selection.

shows like All My Children than to learn about their own Sociobiologists apply Darwin’s principle of natural

governments’ policies on day care or infant nutrition. selection to the study of social behavior. They assume that

Sociologist William F. Ogburn (1922) made a useful particular forms of behavior become genetically linked to

distinction between the elements of material and nonma- a species if they contribute to its fitness to survive (van

terial culture. Material culture refers to the physical or den Berghe 1978). In its extreme form, sociobiology sug-

pp. 4–5 technological aspects of our daily lives, in-

gests that all behavior is the result of genetic or biological

cluding food, houses, factories, and raw materials. Nonma-

factors and that social interactions play no role in shaping

terial culture refers to ways of using material objects and

people’s conduct.

to customs, beliefs, philosophies, governments, and pat-

Sociobiologists do not seek to describe individual be-

terns of communication. Generally, the nonmaterial cul-

havior on the level of “Why is Fred more aggressive than

ture is more resistant to change than the material culture.

Jim?” Rather, they focus on how human nature is affected

Consequently, Ogburn introduced the term culture lag to

by the genetic composition of a group of people who

refer to the period of maladjustment when the nonmater-

share certain characteristics (such as men or women, or

ial culture is still struggling to adapt to new material con-

members of isolated tribal bands). In general, sociobiolo-

ditions. For example, the ethics of using the Internet, par-

ticularly issues concerning privacy and censorship, have gists have stressed the basic genetic heritage that all hu-

not yet caught up with the explosion in Internet use and mans share, and have shown little interest in speculating

technology (see the social policy section in Chapter 16). about alleged differences between racial groups or

nationalities (E. Wilson 1975, 1978).

www. Some researchers insist that intellectual interest in so-

Use Your Sociological Imagination mhhe.com

/schaefer6 ciobiology will only deflect serious study of the more sig-

If you grew up in your parents’ generation—without nificant influence on human behavior, the social environ-

computers, e-mail, the Internet, pagers, and cell phones— ment. Yet Lois Wladis Hoffman (1985), in her presidential

how would your daily life differ from the one you lead today? address to the Society for the Psychological Study of Social

Issues, argued that sociobiology poses a valuable challenge

to social scientists to better document their own research.

Sociobiology

Interactionists, for example, could show how social behav-

While sociology emphasizes diversity and change in the ior is not programmed by human biology, but instead ad-

expression of culture, another school of thought, sociobi- justs continually to the attitudes and responses of others.

Key Persons Gerhard Lenski, William Ogburn Classroom Tip See “Biological Influences on Human Behavior” (Addi-

tional Lecture Ideas).

Theory Note the conflict theorists’ concerns about sociobiology.

62 Chapter 3





Certainly most social scientists would agree that symbols for all aspects of culture. It includes speech, writ-

there is a biological basis for social behavior. But there is ten characters, numerals, symbols, and nonverbal ges-

less support for the extreme positions taken by certain tures and expressions. Figure 3-1 shows where the major

advocates of sociobiology. Like interactionists, conflict languages of the world are spoken.

theorists and functionalists believe that people’s behavior Because language is the foundation of every culture,

rather than their genetic structure defines social reality. the ability to speak other languages is crucial to intercul-

Conflict theorists fear that the sociobiological approach tural relations. Throughout the Cold War era, beginning

could be used as an argument against efforts to assist dis- in the 1950s and continuing well into the 1970s, the U.S.

advantaged people, such as schoolchildren who are not government encouraged the study of Russian by develop-

competing successfully (Guterman 2000; Segerstråle ing special language schools for diplomats and military

2000; E. Wilson 2000). advisors who dealt with the Soviet Union. And following

September 11, 2001, the nation recognized how few

skilled translators it had for Arabic and other languages

ELEMENTS OF CULTURE spoken in Muslim countries. Language quickly became a

key not only to tracking potential terrorists, but to build-

Each culture considers its own distinctive ways of han- ing diplomatic bridges with Muslim countries willing to

dling basic societal tasks to be “natural.” But in fact, meth- help in the war against terrorism.

ods of education, marital ceremonies, religious doctrines, While language is a cultural universal, striking differ-

and other aspects of culture are learned and transmitted ences in the use of language are evident around the world.

through human interaction within specific societies. Such is the case even when two countries use the same

Parents in India are accustomed to arranging marriages spoken language. For example, an English-speaking

for their children; parents in the United States leave mar- person from the United States who is visiting London

ital decisions up to their offspring. Lifelong residents of might be puzzled the first time an English friend says “I’ll

Naples consider it natural to speak Italian; lifelong resi- ring you up.” The friend means “I’ll call you on the tele-

dents of Buenos Aires feel the same way about Spanish. phone.”

Let’s take a look at the major aspects of culture that shape

the way the members of a society live: language, norms, Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

sanctions, and values. Language does more than simply describe reality; it also

serves to shape the reality of a culture. For example, most

people in the United States cannot easily make the verbal

Language

distinctions concerning ice that are possible in the Slave

The English language makes extensive use of words deal- Indian culture. As a result, they are less likely to notice

ing with war. We speak of “conquering” space, “fighting” such differences.

the “battle” of the budget, “waging war” on drugs, making The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, named for two

a “killing” on the stock market, and “bombing” an exam- linguists, describes the role of language in shaping our in-

ination; something monumental or great is “the bomb.” terpretation of reality. According to Sapir and Whorf,

An observer from an entirely different and warless culture since people can conceptualize the world only through

could gauge the importance that war and the military language, language precedes thought. Thus, the word

have had in our lives simply by recognizing the promi- symbols and grammar of a language organize the world

nence that militaristic terms have in our language. On the for us. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis also holds that lan-

other hand, in the Old West, words such as gelding, stal- guage is not a given. Rather, it is culturally determined

lion, mare, piebald, and sorrel were all used to describe and encourages a distinctive interpretation of reality by

one animal—the horse. Even if we knew little of that pe- focusing our attention on certain phenomena.

riod in history, we could conclude from the list of terms In a literal sense, language may color how we see the

that horses were important to the culture. Similarly, the world. Berlin and Kay (1991) have noted that humans

Slave Indians of northern Canada, who live in a frigid cli- possess the physical ability to make millions of color dis-

mate, have 14 terms to describe ice, including 8 for dif- tinctions, yet languages differ in the number of colors

ferent kinds of “solid ice” and others for “seamed ice,” they recognize. The English language distinguishes be-

“cracked ice,” and “floating ice.” Clearly, language reflects tween yellow and orange, but some other languages do

the priorities of a culture (Basso 1972; Haviland 2002). not. In the Dugum Dani language of New Guinea’s West

Language is, in fact, the foundation of every culture. Highlands, there are only two basic color terms—modla

Language is an abstract system of word meanings and for “white” and mili for “black.” By contrast, there are 11

Theory Discuss the importance of language to functionalists, interac- Classroom Tip The Old West had many terms for horses, and Arabic

tionists, and conflict theorists. has many terms for types of camels—reflecting the importance of the

Let’s Discuss What does the extensive use of words dealing with war horse in the Old West and the camel in Arabic culture.

say about U.S. culture? Theory The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis draws on the functionalist view.

Global View The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis underscores how language

shapes reality differently in each culture.

FIGURE 3-1



Languages of the World

www.

Mapping Life WORLDWIDE mhhe.com

/schaefer6









1

7 4 3

1 1

2 3

2 2 9

1

8

5

6

2



1

Languages

Indo-European

1 Germanic 6 Indo-Aryan

2 Romance 7 Celtic

3 Slavic 8 Greek 2

4 Baltic 9 Armenian

5 Iranian 1

Eskimo-Aleut Caucasian

1

Native American Sino-Tibetan 1

Hamito-Semitic Paleo-Siberian

2

Niger-Congo Korean

Nilo-Saharan Japanese

Austronesian Burushaski

Australian Austro-Asiatic

Samoyed Vietnamese

Finno-Ugric Thai-Kadai

Basque Papuan

Khosian Dravidian 0 1000 2000 Miles

Ural-Altaic Unpopulated Regions Scale: 1 to 180,000,000

0 1000 2000 3000 Kilometers









Source: J. Allen 2003.





Think About It

Why do you think people in the United States are much less likely to master more than one language than people in other parts of the world?

63

64 Chapter 3





blacklist, while a lie that we think of as somewhat accept-

able is called a white lie?

Language can shape how we see, taste, smell, feel,

and hear. It also influences the way we think about the

people, ideas, and objects around us. Language commu-

nicates a culture’s most important norms, values, and

sanctions to people. That’s why the introduction of a

new language into a society is such a sensitive issue in

many parts of the world (see the social policy section at

the end of this chapter).



Nonverbal Communication

If you don’t like the way a meeting is going, you might

suddenly sit back, fold your arms, and turn down the

corners of your mouth. When you see a friend in tears,

you may give a quick hug. After winning a big game you

probably high-five your teammates. These are all exam-

ples of nonverbal communication, the use of gestures, fa-

cial expressions, and other visual images to communicate.

We are not born with these expressions. We learn

Hand signals have different meanings in different them, just as we learn other forms of language, from peo-

cultures. U.S. film critic Roger Ebert uses the ple who share our same culture. This is as true for the ba-

thumbs-up sign to recommend a new movie, but in sic expressions of happiness and sadness as it is for more

Australia his gesture would be seen as offensive complex emotions such as shame or distress (Fridlund

rather than complimentary. et al. 1987).

Like other forms of language, nonverbal communi-

cation is not the same in all cultures. For example,

basic terms in English. Russian and Hungarian, though, sociological research at the micro level documents that

have 12 color terms. Russians have terms for light blue people from various cultures differ in the degree to which

and dark blue, while Hungarians have terms for two dif- they touch others during the course of normal social

ferent shades of red (Roberson et al. 2000). interactions. Even experienced travelers are sometimes

Feminists have noted that gender-related language caught off guard by these differences. In Saudi Arabia, a

can reflect—although in itself it does not determine—the middle-aged man may want to hold hands with a partner

traditional acceptance of men and women in certain oc- after closing a business deal. The gesture, which would

cupations. Each time we use a term such as mailman, shock an American businessman, is considered a compli-

policeman, or fireman, we are implying (especially to ment in that culture. The meaning of hand signals is

young children) that these occupations can be filled only another form of nonverbal communication that can

by males. Yet many women work as letter carriers, police differ from one culture to the next. In Australia, the

officers, and firefighters—a fact that is being increasingly thumbs-up sign is considered rude (Passero 2002).

recognized and legitimized through the use of such non-

sexist language.

Norms

Language can also transmit stereotypes related to

race. Look up the meanings of the adjective black in dic- “Wash your hands before dinner.” “Thou shalt not kill.”

tionaries published in the United States. You will find dis- “Respect your elders.” All societies have ways of encourag-

mal, gloomy or forbidding, destitute of moral light or good- ing and enforcing what they view as appropriate behavior

ness, atrocious, evil, threatening, clouded with anger. By while discouraging and punishing what they consider to

contrast, dictionaries list pure and innocent among the be improper behavior. Norms are the established stan-

meanings of the adjective white. Through such patterns dards of behavior maintained by a society.

of language, our culture reinforces positive associations For a norm to become significant, it must be widely

with the term (and skin color) white and negative associ- shared and understood. For example, in movie theaters in

ations with black. Is it surprising, then, that a list meant the United States, we typically expect that people will be

to prevent people from working in a profession is called a quiet while the film is shown. Of course, the application

Race/Ethnicity/Gender Explain how language shapes our thoughts and Global View Cross-cultural variations in nonverbal communication

actions about various ethnic and racial groups and about men and women. Classroom Tip See “Graffiti” (Class Discussion Topics).

Classroom Tip See “Sexism in Language—English and Japanese” Classroom Tip Anthropologist Edward Hall has described “distances”

(Additional Lecture Ideas). for various social interactions. See “Conversational Distance” (Additional

Classroom Tip See “Desexing English” (Class Discussion Topics). Lecture Ideas).

Theory Microsociological analysis of communication Let’s Discuss Why is “distance” at an ATM important?

Culture 65





of this norm can vary, depending on the particular film www.

and type of audience. People who are viewing a serious Use Your Sociological Imagination mhhe.com

/schaefer6

artistic film will be more likely to insist on the norm of si- You are a high school principal.What norms would you

lence than those who are watching a slapstick comedy or want to govern the students’ behavior? How might these

horror movie. norms differ from those appropriate for college students?



Types of Norms Acceptance of Norms

Sociologists distinguish between norms in two ways. People do not follow norms, whether mores or folkways,

First, norms are classified as either formal or informal. in all situations. In some cases, they can evade a norm be-

Formal norms generally have been written down and cause they know it is weakly enforced. It is illegal for U.S.

specify strict punishments for violators. In the United teenagers to drink alcoholic beverages, yet drinking by

States, we often formalize norms into laws, which are very minors is common throughout the nation. (In fact,

precise in defining proper and improper behavior. Sociol- teenage alcoholism is a serious social problem.)

ogist Donald Black (1995) has termed law “governmental In some instances, behavior that appears to violate

social control,” meaning that laws are formal norms en- society’s norms may actually represent adherence to the

forced by the state. Laws are just one example of formal norms of a particular group. Teenage drinkers are con-

norms. The requirements for a college major and the forming to the standards of their peer group when they

rules of a card game are also considered formal norms. violate norms that condemn underage drinking. Simi-

By contrast, informal norms are generally under- larly, business executives who use shady accounting

stood but not precisely recorded. Standards of proper techniques may be responding to a corporate culture

dress are a common example of informal norms. Our so- that demands the maximization of profits at any cost,

ciety has no specific punishment or sanction for a person including the deception of investors and government

who comes to school, say, wearing a monkey suit. Making regulatory agencies.

fun of the nonconforming student is usually the most Norms are violated in some instances because one

likely response. norm conflicts with another. For example, suppose that

Norms are also classified by their relative importance you live in an apartment building and one night hear the

to society. When classified in this way, they are known as screams of the woman next door, who is being beaten by

mores and folkways. Mores (pronounced “MOR-ays”) are her husband. If you decide to intervene by ringing their

norms deemed highly necessary to the welfare of a soci- doorbell or calling the police, you are violating the norm

ety, often because they embody the most cherished of “minding your own business,” while at the same time

principles of a people. Each society demands obedience following the norm of assisting a victim of violence.

to its mores; violation can lead to severe penalties. Thus, Even if norms do not conflict, there are always

the United States has strong mores against murder, trea- exceptions to any norm. The same action, under different

son, and child abuse, which have been institutionalized circumstances, can cause one to be viewed as either a hero

into formal norms. or a villain. Secretly taping telephone conversations is

Folkways are norms governing everyday behavior. normally considered illegal and abhorrent. However, it

Folkways play an important role in shaping the daily can be done with a court order to obtain valid evidence

behavior of members of a culture. Society is less likely to for a criminal trial. We would heap praise on a govern-

formalize folkways than mores, and their violation raises ment agent who used such methods to convict an organ-

comparatively little concern. For example, walking up a ized crime figure. In our culture, we tolerate killing an-

“down” escalator in a department store challenges our other human being in self-defense, and we actually

standards of appropriate behavior, but it will not result in reward killing in warfare.

a fine or a jail sentence. Acceptance of norms is subject to change as the po-

In many societies around the world, folkways exist to litical, economic, and social conditions of a culture are

reinforce patterns of male dominance. Various folkways re- transformed. Until the 1960s, for example, formal norms

veal men’s hierarchical position above women within the throughout much of the United States prohibited the

traditional Buddhist areas of southeast Asia. In the sleeping marriage of people from different racial groups. Over the

cars of trains, women do not sleep in upper berths above last half century, however, such legal prohibitions were

men. Hospitals that house men on the first floor do not cast aside. The process of change can be seen today in the

place women patients on the second floor. Even on clothes- increasing acceptance of single parents and growing sup-

lines, folkways dictate male dominance: women’s attire is port for the legalization of marriage between same-sex

hung lower than that of men (Bulle 1987). couples (see Chapter 12).

Classroom Tip Have students describe norms in classroom interac- Classroom Tip For a dramatic example of norm violation, see “Socially

tions between students and professors. Approved Cannibalism” (Additional Lecture Ideas).

Reel Society See Norms in the Topic Index. Classroom Tip See “Smoking” (Class Discussion Topics).

Contemporary Culture Ask students about the norms governing Inter- Classroom Tip See “Conflicting Cultures” (Additional Lecture Ideas).

net dating. Gender Impact of the gay and lesbian movement in changing social

Gender Differential treatment of males and females in Buddhist cultures norms

66 Chapter 3





Sanctions are penalties and re-

wards for conduct concerning a so-

cial norm. Note that the concept of

reward is included in this definition.

Conformity to a norm can lead to

positive sanctions such as a pay

raise, a medal, a word of gratitude,

or a pat on the back. Negative sanc-

tions include fines, threats, impris-

onment, and stares of contempt.

Table 3-1 (opposite) summa-

rizes the relationship between

norms and sanctions. As you can

see, the sanctions that are associated

with formal norms (those that are

written down and codified) tend to

be formal as well. If a coach sends

too many players onto the field, the

team will be penalized 15 yards. The

Cockfighting, anyone? It’s legal only in New Mexico, Louisiana, and

driver who fails to put money in the

Oklahoma (shown here), but practiced behind closed doors elsewhere in

the nation. What does this situation tell us about social norms?

parking meter will receive a ticket

and have to pay a fine. But sanctions

for violations of informal norms

can vary. The college graduate who

goes to the bank interview in shorts

When circumstances require the sudden violation of will probably lose any chance of getting the job; on the

long-standing cultural norms, the change can upset an other hand, he or she might be so brilliant that bank offi-

entire population. In Iraq, where Muslim custom strictly cials will overlook the unconventional attire.

forbids touching by strangers for men and especially for The entire fabric of norms and sanctions in a culture

women, the war that began in 2003 has brought numer- reflects that culture’s values and priorities. The most

ous daily violations of the norm. Outside important cherished values will be most heavily sanctioned; matters

mosques, government offices, and other facilities likely to regarded as less critical will carry light and informal

be targeted by terrorists, visitors must now be patted sanctions.

down and have their bags searched by Iraqi security

guards. To reduce the discomfort caused by the proce- Values

dure, women are searched by female guards and men by

male guards. Despite that concession, and the fact that Though we each have our own personal set of stan-

many Iraqis admit or even insist on the need for such dards—which may include caring or fitness or success in

measures, people still wince at the invasion of their per- business—we also share a general set of objectives as

sonal privacy. In reaction to the searches, Iraqi women members of a society. Cultural values are these collective

have begun to limit the contents of the bags they carry or conceptions of what is considered good, desirable, and

simply to leave them at home (Rubin 2003). proper—or bad, undesirable, and improper—in a cul-

ture. They indicate what people in a given culture prefer

as well as what they find important and morally right (or

Sanctions

wrong). Values may be specific, such as honoring one’s

Suppose a football coach sends a 12th player onto the field. parents and owning a home, or they may be more gen-

Imagine a college graduate showing up in shorts for a job eral, such as health, love, and democracy. Of course, the

interview at a large bank. Or consider a driver who neglects members of a society do not uniformly share its values.

to put any money into a parking meter. These people have Angry political debates and billboards promoting con-

violated widely shared and understood norms. So what flicting causes tell us that much.

happens? In each of these situations, the person will receive Values influence people’s behavior and serve as crite-

sanctions if his or her behavior is detected. ria for evaluating the actions of others. The values,

Student Alert Emphasize that sanctions can be positive (e.g., a pay Classroom Tip See “Youthful Values” (Class Discussion Topics).

raise, a bigger office, a medal, a pat on the back) as well as negative. Theory Functionalist analysis of the values of a culture

Reel Society See Sanctions in the Topic Index.

Culture 67





2003 (see Figure 3-2). In contrast, the value that has

Table 3-1 Norms and Sanctions shown the most striking decline in endorsement by stu-

dents is “developing a meaningful philosophy of life.”

Norms Sanctions While this value was the most popular in the 1967 survey,

Positive Negative endorsed by more than 80 percent of the respondents,

it had fallen to ninth place on the list by 2003, when it

Formal Salary bonus Demotion was endorsed by less than 40 percent of students entering

college.

Testimonial dinner Firing from a job

During the 1980s and 1990s, support for values hav-

Medal Jail sentence ing to do with money, power, and status grew. At the same

time, support for certain values having to do with social

Diploma Expulsion

awareness and altruism, such as “helping others,” de-

Informal Smile Frown clined. According to the 2003 nationwide survey, only 39

percent of first-year college students stated that “influ-

Compliment Humiliation

encing social values” was an “essential” or “very impor-

Cheers Belittling tant” goal. The proportion of students for whom “helping

to promote racial understanding” was an essential or very

important goal reached a record high of 42 percent in

1992, but fell to 31 percent in 2003. Like other aspects of

norms, and sanctions of a culture are often directly re- culture, such as language and norms, a nation’s values are

lated. For example, if a culture highly values the institu- not necessarily fixed.

tion of marriage, it may have norms (and strict sanctions) Recently, cheating has become a hot issue on

that prohibit the act of adultery or make divorce difficult. college campuses. Professors who take advantage of

If a culture views private property as a basic value, it will

probably have stiff laws against theft and vandalism.

The values of a culture may change, but most remain FIGURE 3-2

relatively stable during any one person’s lifetime. Socially

Life Goals of First-Year College Students -

shared, intensely felt values are a fundamental part of our ity re

in the United States, 1966–2003 secur

lives in the United States. Sociologist Robin Williams a ncial r goal Fin ula

a pop ege

(1970) has offered a list of basic values. It includes 100 mains coll

tering

achievement, efficiency, material comfort, nationalism, of en

90 Develop a meaningful nts.

Percentage who identify goal as









equality, and the supremacy of science and reason over stude

philosophy of life

very important or essential









80

faith. Obviously, not all 290 million people in this coun-

70

try agree on all these values, and we should not look on

such a list as anything more than a starting point in defin- 60

ing the national character. Nevertheless, a review of 27 50

different attempts to describe the “American value sys- 40

tem,” including the works of anthropologist Margaret 30

Mead and sociologist Talcott Parsons, revealed an overall Be very well-

20 Help to promote

similarity to the values identified by Williams (Devine off financially

10 racial understanding

1972).

0

Each year more than 276,000 entering college stu-

1966 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2003

dents at 413 of the nation’s four-year colleges fill out a

questionnaire about their attitudes. Because this survey Sources: UCLA Higher Education Research Institute, as reported in Astin

focuses on an array of issues, beliefs, and life goals, it is et al. 1994; Sax et al. 2003:27.

commonly cited as a barometer of the nation’s values.

The respondents are asked what values are personally im- Think About It

portant to them. Over the last 36 years, the value of “be- Why do you think values have shifted among college

ing very well-off financially” has shown the strongest gain students in the last few decades? Which of these values is

in popularity; the proportion of first-year college stu- important to you? Have your values changed since

dents who endorse this value as “essential” or “very September 11, 2001?

important” rose from 44 percent in 1967 to 74 percent in

Web Resource Encourage students to try the crossword puzzle in the Classroom Tip See “Reading Culture in National Geographic” (Addi-

student center of the Online Learning Center (www.mhhe.com/ tional Lecture Ideas).

schaefer6).

Key Person Robin Williams

Key Persons Margaret Mead, Talcott Parsons

68 Chapter 3





computerized services than can identify plagiarism, Gramsci (1929), but it did not gain an audience in the

such as the search engine Google, have been shocked to United States until the early 1970s. In Karl Marx’s view, a

learn that many of the papers their students hand in capitalist society has a dominant ideology that serves the

are plagiarized in whole or in part. Box 3-2 examines interests of the ruling class.

the shift in values that underlies this decline in From a conflict perspective, the dominant ideology

academic integrity. has major social significance. Not only do a society’s most

Another value that has begun to change recently, powerful groups and institutions control wealth and

not just among students but among the public in gen- property; even more important, they control the means

eral, is the right to privacy. Americans have always of producing beliefs about reality through religion, edu-

valued their privacy and resented government intru- cation, and the media. Feminists would also argue that if

sions into their personal lives. In the aftermath of the all a society’s most important institutions tell women that

terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, however, many they should be subservient to men, this dominant ideol-

citizens called for greater protection against the threat ogy will help to control women and keep them in a sub-

of terrorism. In response, the U.S. government broad- ordinate position.

ened its surveillance powers and increased its ability to A growing number of social scientists believe it is

monitor people’s behavior without court approval. In not easy to identify a “core culture” in the United States.

2001, shortly after the attacks, Congress passed the Pa- For support, they point to the lack of consensus on

triot Act, which empowers the Federal Bureau of Inves- national values, the diffusion of cultural traits, the

tigation to access individuals’ medical, library, student, diversity within our culture, and the changing views of

and phone records without informing them or obtain- young people (look again at Figure 3-2). Yet there is no

ing a search warrant. We will discuss the ambivalence way of denying that certain expressions of values have

Americans felt about increased government surveillance greater influence than others, even in so complex a soci-

and the threat it posed to people’s privacy in the social ety as the United States (Abercrombie et al. 1980, 1990;

policy section in Chapter 16. Robertson 1988).





CULTURE AND THE CULTURAL VARIATION

DOMINANT IDEOLOGY

Each culture has a unique character. Inuit tribes in north-

Both functionalist and conflict theorists agree that cul- ern Canada, wrapped in furs and dieting on whale blubber,

ture and society reinforce each other, but for different have little in common with farmers in Southeast Asia, who

reasons. Functionalists maintain that stability requires a dress for the heat and subsist mainly on the rice they grow

consensus and the support of society’s members; thus the in their paddies. Cultures adapt to meet specific sets of cir-

need for strong central values and common norms. This cumstances, such as climate, level of technology,

view of culture became popular in sociology beginning in population, and geography. This adaptation to different

the 1950s. It was borrowed from British anthropologists conditions shows up in differences in all elements of cul-

who thought that the function of all cultural traits was to ture, including norms, sanctions, values, and language.

stabilize a culture. From a functionalist perspective, a cul- Thus, despite the presence of cultural universals such as

tural trait or practice will persist if it fulfills functions that courtship and religion, great diversity exists among the

society seems to need or contributes to overall social sta- world’s many cultures. Moreover, even within a single na-

bility and consensus. This view helps to explain why tion, certain segments of the populace develop cultural pat-

widely condemned social practices such as prostitution terns that differ from the patterns of the dominant society.

p. 14 continue to survive.

Conflict theorists agree that a common culture may Aspects of Cultural Variation

exist, but they argue that it serves to maintain the privi-

leges of certain groups. Moreover, while protecting their Subcultures

own self-interests, powerful groups may keep others in Rodeo cowboys, residents of a retirement community,

a subservient position. The term dominant ideology workers on an offshore oil rig—all are examples of what

describes the set of cultural beliefs and practices that sociologists refer to as subcultures. A subculture is a seg-

helps to maintain powerful social, economic, and politi- ment of society that shares a distinctive pattern of mores,

cal interests. This concept was first used by Hungarian folkways, and values that differs from the pattern of the

Marxist Georg Lukacs (1923) and Italian Marxist Antonio larger society. In a sense, a subculture can be thought of as

Theory Functionalist view of culture and why certain cultural traits per- Web Resource Encourage students to listen to the audio clip when

sist over time they visit the student center in the Online Learning Center at

Theory Conflict view of how a common culture maintains the privileges www.mhhe.com/schaefer6. They can hear Richard Schaefer, the au-

of some groups and keeps others subordinate thor of the text, discuss the concept of dominant ideology.

Theory Contrast feminist view to functionalist view of cultural traits. Theory Compare functionalist and conflict views concerning cultural

variation.

Sociology on Campus

3-2 A CULTURE OF CHEATING?

dent cheating reflects widely publicized



O

n November 21, 2002, after issuing Integrity estimates that at most schools,

several warnings, officials at the U.S. more than three quarters of the students instances of cheating in public life, which

Naval Academy seized the computers engage in some form of cheating. Students have served to create an alternative set of

of almost 100 midshipmen suspected of not only cut passages from the Internet values in which the means justify the end.

downloading movies and music illegally and paste them into their papers without When young people see sports heroes,

from the Internet. Officers at the school citing the source; they share questions and authors, entertainers, and corporate ex-

may have taken the unusually strong ac- answers on exams, collaborate on assign- ecutives exposed for cheating in one form

tion to avoid liability on the part of the ments they are supposed to do independ- or another, the message seems to be

U.S. government, which owns the com- ently, and even falsify the results of their “Cheating is OK, as long as you don’t get

puters students were using. But across the laboratory experiments. Worse, many pro- caught.” More than proctoring of exams

nation, college administrators have been fessors have become inured to the prob- or reliance on search engines to identify

trying to restrain students from down- lem and have ceased to report it. plagiarism, then, educating students

loading pirated entertainment for free. To address what they consider an about the need for academic honesty

The practice is so widespread, it has been alarming trend, many schools are rewrit- seems to reduce the incidence of cheat-

slowing down the high-powered com- ing. “The feeling of being treated as an

puter networks colleges and universities Cheating is considerably less adult and responding in kind,” says Pro-

depend on for research and admissions. fessor Donald McCabe of Rutgers Uni-

Illegal downloading is just one aspect common at schools with versity, “it’s clearly there for many stu-

of the growing problem of copyright vio- honor codes than at schools dents. They don’t want to violate that

lation, both on campus and off. Now that trust.”

without honor codes.

college students can use personal com-

puters to surf the Internet, most do their Let’s Discuss

research online. Apparently, the tempta- ing or adopting new academic honor 1. Do you know anyone who has en-

tion to cut and paste passages from web- codes. According to the Center for Aca- gaged in Internet plagiarism? What

site postings and pass them off as one’s demic Integrity, cheating on tests and pa- about cheating on tests or falsifying

own is irresistible to many. Surveys done pers is considerably less common at laboratory results? If so, how did

by the Center for Academic Integrity schools with honor codes than at schools the person justify these forms of

show that from 1999 to 2001, the percent- without honor codes. Cornell, Duke, and dishonesty?

age of students who approved of this type Kansas State University are just three of a 2. Even if cheaters aren’t caught, what

of plagiarism rose from 10 percent to 41 growing number of schools that are insti- negative effects does their academic

percent. At the same time, the percentage tuting or strengthening their honor codes dishonesty have on them? What ef-

who considered cutting and pasting from in an attempt to curb student cheating. fects does it have on students who

the Internet to be a serious form of cheat- This renewed emphasis on honor and are honest? Could an entire college

ing fell from 68 percent to 27 percent. integrity underscores the influence of or university suffer from students’

Other forms of cheating are becoming cultural values on social behavior. Ob- dishonesty?

rampant, as well. The Center for Academic servers contend that the increase in stu-





Sources: Argetsinger and Krim 2002; Center for Academic Integrity 2004; R. Murray Thomas 2003; Zernike 2002.









a culture existing within a larger, dominant culture. The what the dip, dish, and tailpipe are expected to do (see

existence of many subcultures is characteristic of complex Figure 3-3, page 70).

societies such as the United States. Argot allows insiders—the members of the subcul-

Members of a subculture participate in the dominant ture—to understand words with special meanings. It also

culture while at the same time engaging in unique and establishes patterns of communication that outsiders

distinctive forms of behavior. Frequently, a subculture can’t understand. Sociologists associated with the interac-

will develop an argot, or specialized language, that distin- tionist perspective emphasize that language and symbols

guishes it from the wider society. For example, if you were offer a powerful way for a subculture to feel cohesive and

to join a band of pickpockets you would need to learn maintain its identity.

Let’s Discuss Have students note cultural variations they have experi- Classroom Tip See “Professional Football Players as a Subculture”

enced in their travels or upon first visiting the United States, if they are (Additional Lecture Ideas).

from abroad.



69

70 Chapter 3





movement as a reflection of in-

equity based on race, gender, and

disability status. Conflict theorists

also argue that subcultures some-

times emerge when the dominant

society unsuccessfully tries to sup-

press a practice, such as the use of

illegal drugs.



Countercultures

By the end of the 1960s, an exten-

sive subculture had emerged in the

United States, composed of young

people turned off by a society they

believed was too materialistic and

technological. This group included

primarily political radicals and

“hippies” who had “dropped out” of

mainstream social institutions.

Cultures vary in their taste for films. Europeans and North Americans These young men and women re-

enjoyed the exotic aspects of Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (shown jected the pressure to accumulate

here), but it was not well received in China. Audiences there found it slow-

more and more cars, larger and

paced, and they were especially annoyed by the clumsy Mandarin spoken

larger homes, and an endless array

by actors more used to Cantonese roles.

of material goods. Instead, they

expressed a desire to live in a cul-

ture based on more humanistic val-

Music fans often form subcultures dedicated to a ues, such as sharing, love, and coexistence with the

particular type of music or musician. Recently a subcul- environment. As a political force, this subculture op-

ture called Phishheads, after the Vermont jam rock band posed the United States’ involvement in the war in Viet-

Phish, has emerged. The group is reminiscent of the nam and encouraged draft resistance (Flacks 1971;

Deadheads who devote themselves to the Grateful Dead. Roszak 1969).

Subcultures develop in a number of ways. Often a

subculture emerges because a segment of society faces

problems or even privileges unique to its position. Sub- FIGURE 3-3

cultures may be based on common age (teenagers or old

people), region (Appalachians), ethnic heritage (Cuban The Argot of Pickpockets

Americans), occupation (firefighters), or beliefs (deaf ac-

tivists working to preserve deaf culture). Certain subcul-

tures, such as computer hackers, develop because of a

shared interest or hobby. In still other subcultures, such as

that of prison inmates, members have been excluded

from conventional society and are forced to develop

alternative ways of living.

Functionalist and conflict theorists agree that varia-

tion exists within a culture. Functionalists view subcul-

tures as variations of particular social environments and

as evidence that differences can exist within a common

culture. However, conflict theorists suggest that varia-

tions often reflect the inequality of social arrangements

within a society. A conflict perspective would view the

challenge to dominant social norms by African American

activists, the feminist movement, and the disability rights Source: Gearty 1996.



Classroom Tip See “The Skinhead Counterculture” (Additional Lecture

Ideas).

Classroom Tip Another example of a counterculture is the “survival-

ists,” who see nuclear war as inevitable and have, in some cases, cre-

ated armed camps to defend themselves from city dwellers after a nu-

clear attack.

Culture 71





When a subculture conspicuously and deliberately backward, and primitive to refer to other societies. What

opposes certain aspects of the larger culture, it is known “we” believe is a religion; what “they” believe is supersti-

as a counterculture. Countercultures typically thrive tion and mythology.

among the young, who have the least investment in the It is tempting to evaluate the practices of other cul-

existing culture. In most cases, a 20-year-old can adjust to tures on the basis of our own perspectives. Sociologist

new cultural standards more easily than someone who William Graham Sumner (1906) coined the term ethno-

has spent 60 years following the patterns of the dominant centrism to refer to the tendency to assume that one’s

culture (Zellner 1995). own culture and way of life represent the norm or are su-

In the wake of the terrorist attacks of September 11, perior to all others. The ethnocentric person sees his or

2001, people around the United States learned of the ex- her own group as the center or defining point of culture

istence of terrorist groups operating as a countercul- and views all other cultures as deviations from what is

ture within their country. This was a situation that gen- “normal.” Westerners who think cattle are to be used for

erations have lived with in Northern Ireland, Israel and food might look down on India’s Hindu religion and cul-

the Palestinian territory, and many other parts of the ture, which views the cow as sacred. Or people in one cul-

world. But terrorist cells are not necessarily fueled only ture may dismiss as unthinkable the mate selection or

by outsiders. Frequently people become disenchanted child-rearing practices of another culture.

with the policies of their own country, and a few take Conflict theorists point out that ethnocentric value

very violent steps. judgments serve to devalue groups and to deny equal op-

portunities. Psychologist Walter Stephan notes a typical

Culture Shock example of ethnocentrism in New Mexico’s schools. Both

Anyone who feels disoriented, uncertain, out of place, or Hispanic and Native American cultures teach children to

even fearful when immersed in an unfamiliar culture may look down when they are being criticized by adults, yet

be experiencing culture shock. For example, a resident of many “Anglo” (non-Hispanic White) teachers believe that

the United States who visits certain areas in China and you should look someone in the eye when you are being

wants local meat for dinner may be stunned to learn that criticized. “Anglo teachers can feel that these students are

the specialty is dog meat. Similarly, someone from a strict being disrespectful,” notes Stephan. “That’s the kind of

Islamic culture may be shocked upon first seeing the misunderstanding that can evolve into stereotype and

comparatively provocative dress styles and open displays prejudice” (Goleman 1991:C8).

of affection that are common in the United States and Ethnocentric value judgments have also compli-

various European cultures. cated U.S. efforts at democratic reform of the Iraqi

All of us, to some extent, take for granted the cultural

practices of our society. As a result, it can be surprising

and even disturbing to realize that other cultures do

not follow our way of life. The fact is that customs that

seem strange to us are considered normal and proper

in other cultures, which may see our own mores and

folkways as odd.

www.

Use Your Sociological Imagination mhhe.com

/schaefer6



You arrive in a developing African country as a

Peace Corps volunteer. What aspects of a very different

culture do you think would be the hardest to adjust to?

What might the citizens of that country find shocking

about your culture?







Attitudes toward Cultural Variation Cultures change. Fashions we once regarded as unacceptable—such

as men wearing earrings and people wearing jeans in the

Ethnocentrism workplace—or associated with fringe groups (such as men and

Many everyday statements reflect our attitude that our women with tattoos) are now widely accepted.These countercultural

own culture is best. We use terms such as underdeveloped, practices have been absorbed by mainstream culture.



Let’s Discuss Have our norms changed as a result of the terrorist at- Classroom Tip See “Conflicting Cultures” (Additional Lecture Ideas).

tacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon? Web Resource Encourage students to take the multiple-choice quiz in

Global View Note cultural variation in the United States, China, Islamic the student center of the Online Learning Center (www.mhhe.com/

cultures, India, and Africa. schaefer6). Remind them that they will receive instant feedback for in-

Classroom Tip See “Cross-Cultural Interaction” (Class Discussion correct answers.

Topics).

72 Chapter 3







Table 3-2 Major Theoretical Perspectives on Culture

summingUP





Functionalist Conflict Interactionist

Perspective Perspective Perspective



Norms Norms reinforce societal Norms reinforce patterns Norms are maintained

standards of dominance through face-to-face

interaction



Values Values are collective Values may perpetuate Values are defined and

conceptions of what is social inequality redefined through social

good interaction



Culture and society Culture reflects a society’s Culture reflects a society’s A society’s core culture is

strong central values dominant ideology perpetuated through daily

social interactions



Cultural variation Subcultures serve the Countercultures question Customs and traditions are

interests of subgroups; the dominant social order; transmitted through

ethnocentrism reinforces ethnocentrism devalues intergroup contact and

group solidarity groups through the media







government. Before the 2003 war in Iraq, U.S. planners Cultural Relativism

had assumed that Iraqis would adapt to a new form of While ethnocentrism evaluates foreign cultures using the

government in the same way the Germans and Japanese familiar culture of the observer as a standard of correct

did following World War II. But in the Iraqi culture, behavior, cultural relativism views people’s behavior

unlike the German and Japanese cultures, loyalty to from the perspective of their own culture. It places a pri-

the family and the extended clan comes before patriot- ority on understanding other cultures, rather than dis-

ism and the common good. In a country in which almost missing them as “strange” or “exotic.” Unlike ethnocen-

half of all people, even those in the cities, marry a first p. 44 trism, cultural relativism employs the kind

or second cousin, citizens are predisposed to favor of value neutrality in scientific study that Max Weber saw

their own kin in government and business deal- as so important.

ings. Why trust a stranger from outside the family? Cultural relativism stresses that different social con-

What Westerners would criticize as nepotism, then, is texts give rise to different norms and values. Thus, we

actually an acceptable, even admirable, practice to Iraqis must examine practices such as polygamy, bullfighting,

(J. Tierney 2003). and monarchy within the particular contexts of the cul-

Functionalists, on the other hand, point out that eth- tures in which they are found. While cultural relativism

nocentrism serves to maintain a sense of solidarity by does not suggest that we must unquestionably accept

promoting group pride. Denigrating other nations and every cultural variation, it does require a serious and un-

cultures can enhance our own patriotic feelings and belief biased effort to evaluate norms, values, and customs in

that our way of life is superior. Yet this type of social sta- light of their distinctive culture.

bility is established at the expense of other peoples. Of An interesting extension of cultural relativism is

course, ethnocentrism is hardly limited to citizens of the referred to as xenocentrism. Xenocentrism is the belief

United States. Visitors from many African cultures are that the products, styles, or ideas of one’s society are infe-

surprised at the disrespect that children in the United rior to those that originate elsewhere. In a sense, it is a re-

States show their parents. People from India may be verse ethnocentrism. For example, people in the United

repelled by our practice of living in the same household States often assume that French fashions or Japanese elec-

with dogs and cats. Many Islamic fundamentalists in the tronic devices are superior to their own. Are they? Or are

Arab world and Asia view the United States as corrupt, people unduly charmed by the lure of goods from exotic

decadent, and doomed to destruction. All these people places? Such fascination with overseas products can be

may feel comforted by membership in cultures that in damaging to competitors in the United States. Some U.S.

their view are superior to ours. companies have responded by creating products that

Key Person William Graham Sumner Theory Functionalists argue that ethnocentrism promotes solidarity and

Classroom Tip See “Hostages to Tourism” (Additional Lecture Ideas). group pride.

Race/Ethnicity Ethnocentrism in New Mexico’s schools in treatment of Classroom Tip See “Teaching Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativity”

Hispanic and Native American students (Class Discussion Topics).

Theory Conflict view of ethnocentrism as contributing to denial of equal Let’s Discuss Should our laws be changed to accommodate cultural

opportunities diversity?

Culture 73





sound European, such as Häagen-Dazs ice cream (made from an ethnocentric point of view or through the lens of

in Teaneck, New Jersey). Conflict theorists are most likely cultural relativism—has important consequences in the

to consider the economic impact of xenocentrism in the area of social policy. A hot issue today is the extent to

developing world. Consumers in developing nations fre- which a nation should accommodate nonnative language

quently turn their backs on locally produced goods and speakers by sponsoring bilingual programs. We’ll take a

instead purchase items imported from Europe or North close look at this issue in the next section.

America (Warner Wilson et al. 1976).

Table 3-2 summarizes the major sociological per-

spectives on culture. How one views a culture—whether









SOCIAL POLICY and

CULTURE

Bilingualism



The Issue deed, 32 different languages are each spoken by at least

In Sri Lanka, Tamils seek to break away from the Sin- 200,000 residents of this country (Bureau of the Census

halese-speaking majority. Romanian radio announces 2003d; Shin and Bruno 2003).

that in areas where 20 percent of the people speak Hun- Schools throughout the world must deal with in-

garian, bilingual road and government signs will be coming students who speak many different languages.

posted. In schools from Miami to Boston to Chicago, Do bilingual programs in the United States help these

administrators strive to deliver education to their Cre- children to learn English? It is difficult to reach firm

ole-speaking Haitian students. All over the world, na- conclusions because bilingual programs in general vary

tions face the challenge of how to deal with residential so widely in their quality and approach. They differ in

minorities who speak a language different from that of the length of the transition to English and in how long

the mainstream culture. they allow students to remain in bilingual classrooms.

Bilingualism refers to the use of two or more lan- Moreover, results have been mixed. In the years since

guages in a particular setting, such as the workplace or California effectively dismantled its bilingual education

schoolroom, treating each language as equally legiti- program, reading and math scores of students with lim-

mate. Thus, a teacher of bilingual education may in- ited English proficiency rose dramatically, especially in

struct children in their native language while gradually the lower grades. Yet a major overview of 17 different

introducing them to the language of the host society. If studies, done at Johns Hopkins University, found that

the curriculum is also bicultural, it will teach children students who are offered lessons in both English and

about the mores and folkways of both the dominant cul- their home languages make better progress than similar

ture and the subculture. To what degree should schools children who are taught only in English (Slavin and

in the United States present the curriculum in a language Cheung 2003).

other than English? This issue has prompted a great deal

of debate among educators and policymakers. Sociological Insights

For a long time, people in the United States demanded

The Setting conformity to a single language. This demand coincided

Languages know no political boundaries. Despite the por- with the functionalist view that language serves to unify

trayal of dominant languages in Figure 3-1 (page 63), mi- members of a society. Immigrant children from Europe

nority languages are common in many nations. For ex- and Asia—including young Italians, Jews, Poles, Chi-

ample, Hindi is the most widely spoken language in India, nese, and Japanese—were expected to learn English

and English is used widely for official purposes, but 18 once they entered school. In some cases, immigrant

other languages are officially recognized in the nation of children were actually forbidden to speak their native

about 1 billion people. According to the 2000 Census, 47 languages on school grounds. Little respect was granted

million residents of the United States over the age of to immigrants’ cultural traditions; a young person

five—that’s about 18 percent of the population—speak a would often be teased about his or her “funny” name,

language other than English as their primary language. In- accent, or style of dress.

Race/Ethnicity The debate over bilingualism in the United States Global View Highlight the different ways in which other cultures have

grows out of the many languages spoken here. responded to language variations.

Theory Bilingualism is examined from a functionalist and conflict view. Web Resource Encourage students to try the interactive activities in

Student Alert Indicate the relationship between the social policy topic the student center of the Online Learning Center

and concepts presented in the chapter: dominant ideology, ethno- (www.mhhe.com/schaefer6). They will be required to complete 73

centrism, subcultures, and so on. an assignment in the “foreign” language of Pig Latin.

74 Chapter 3





Recent decades have seen challenges to this pattern

of forced obedience to the dominant ideology. Beginning

in the 1960s, active movements for Black pride and eth-

nic pride insisted that people regard the traditions of all

racial and ethnic subcultures as legitimate and impor-

tant. Conflict theorists explain this development as a case

of subordinated language minorities seeking opportuni-

ties for self-expression. Partly as a result of these chal-

lenges, people began to view bilingualism as an asset. It

seemed to provide a sensitive way of assisting millions of

non-English-speaking people in the United States to

learn English in order to function more effectively within

the society.

The perspective of conflict theory also helps us to

understand some of the attacks on bilingual programs.

Many of them stem from an ethnocentric point of view,

which holds that any deviation from the majority is bad.

This attitude tends to be expressed by those who wish to

stamp out foreign influence wherever it occurs, espe-

cially in our schools. It does not take into account that

success in bilingual education may actually have benefi-

cial results, such as decreasing the number of high

school dropouts and increasing the number of Hispan-

ics in colleges and universities.





Policy Initiatives

Bilingualism has policy implications largely in two ar-

eas: efforts to maintain language purity and programs

to enhance bilingual education. Nations vary dramati- In this Native American school at Acoma Pueblo,

cally in their tolerance for a variety of languages. China New Mexico, children are learning to read and write

continues to tighten its cultural control over Tibet by in their native language as well as in English.

extending instruction of Mandarin, a Chinese dialect,

from high school into the elementary schools, which

will now be bilingual along with Tibetan. Even more Canada. While special laws like this one have advanced

forceful is Indonesia, which has a large Chinese-speak- French in the province, dissatisfied Québécois have tried

ing minority; public display of Chinese-language signs to form their own separate country. In 1995, the people

or books there is totally banned. By contrast, nearby of Quebec voted to remain united with Canada by only

Singapore establishes English as the medium of instruc- the narrowest of margins (50.5 percent). Language and

tion but allows students to take their mother tongue as language-related cultural areas both unify and divide this

a second language, be it Chinese, Malay, or Tamil nation of 32 million people (Krauss 2003; Schaefer 2004).

(Farley 1998). Policymakers in the United States have been some-

In many nations, language dominance is a re- what ambivalent in dealing with the issue of bilingual-

gional issue—for example, in Miami or along the Tex- ism. In 1965, the Elementary and Secondary Education

Mex border, where Spanish speaking is prevalent. A par- Act (ESEA) provided for bilingual, bicultural education.

ticularly virulent bilingual hot spot is Quebec, the In the 1970s, the federal government took an active role

French-speaking province of Canada. The Québécois, as in establishing the proper form for bilingual programs.

they are known, represent 83 percent of the province’s However, more recently, federal policy has been less sup-

population, but only 25 percent of Canada’s total popu- portive of bilingualism, and local school districts have

lation. A law implemented in 1978 mandated education been forced to provide an increased share of funding for

in French for all Quebec’s children except those whose their bilingual programs. Yet bilingual programs are an

parents or siblings had learned English elsewhere in expense that many communities and states are unwilling

Classroom Tip See “Bilingualism” (Class Discussion Topics). Global View Conflict over separatism in Quebec

Culture 75



FIGURE 3-4



States with Official English Laws

www.

Mapping Life NATIONWIDE mhhe.com

/schaefer6





WA

NH

MT ND VT ME

OR MN

ID WI MA

SD NY RI

WY MI

PA CT

IA NJ

NV NE

UT IN OH

IL DE

CA CO MD

KS WV VA

MO KY DC

NC

TN

AZ NM OK AR SC

MS AL GA

TX

AK LA



HI FL



States with Official

English Laws





Source: U.S. English 2004.





to pay for and are quick to cut back. In 1998, voters in Let’s Discuss

California approved a proposition that all but eliminated 1. Have you attended a school with a number of students

bilingual education: it requires instruction in English for for whom English is a second language? If so, did the

1.4 million children who are not fluent in the language. school set up a special bilingual program? Was it effec-

In the United States, repeated efforts have been made tive? What is your opinion of such programs?

to introduce a constitutional amendment declaring Eng- 2. The ultimate goal of both English-only and bilingual

lish the official language of the nation. A major force be- programs is for foreign-born students to become profi-

hind efforts to restrict bilingualism is U.S. English, a na- cient in English.Why should the type of program stu-

tionwide organization founded in 1983 that now claims dents attend matter so much to so many people? List

to have 1.7 million members. Its adherents say they feel all the reasons you can think of for supporting or op-

like strangers in their own neighborhoods, aliens in their posing such programs.What do you see as the primary

own country. By contrast, Hispanic leaders see the U.S. reason?

English campaign as a veiled expression of racism. 3. Besides bilingualism, can you think of another issue that

Despite such challenges, U.S. English seems to be has become controversial recently because of a clash

making headway in its efforts to oppose bilingualism. By of cultures? Analyze the issue from a sociological point

2004, 27 states had declared English to be their official of view.

language (see Figure 3-4). The actual impact of these

measures, beyond their symbolism, is unclear.



www.

GETTING INVOLVED mhhe.com

/schaefer6





To get involved in the debate over bilingualism, visit this the Online Learning Center as well; it provides survey

text’s Online Learning Center, which offers links to rel- data on U.S. public opinion regarding this issue.

evant websites. Check out the Social Policy section on





Let’s Discuss Should all states have official English laws?

Classroom Tip See “Using Humor” (Class Discussion Topics).

76 Chapter 3





CHAPTER RESOURCES



Summary

Culture is the totality of learned, socially transmitted 6. Sociologists distinguish between norms in two

customs, knowledge, material objects, and behavior. This ways, classifying them either as formal or informal

chapter examines the basic elements that make up a cul- or as mores or folkways.

ture, social practices common to all cultures, and varia- 7. The formal norms of a culture will receive the

tions that distinguish one culture from another. heaviest sanctions; informal norms will carry light

sanctions.

1. A shared culture helps to define the group or soci-

8. The dominant ideology of a culture is the set of

ety to which we belong.

cultural beliefs and practices that help to maintain

2. Anthropologist George Murdock compiled a list of

powerful social, economic, and political interests.

cultural universals, or general practices found in

9. In a sense, a subculture can be thought of as a

every culture, including marriage, sports, cooking,

small culture that exists within a larger, dominant

medicine, and sexual restrictions.

culture. Countercultures are subcultures that de-

3. Human culture is constantly expanding through

liberately oppose aspects of the larger culture.

the process of innovation, which includes both

10. People who measure other cultures by the standard

discovery and invention.

of their own engage in ethnocentrism. By contrast,

4. Diffusion—the spread of cultural items from one

cultural relativism is the practice of viewing peo-

place to another—has fostered globalization. But

ple from the perspective of their own culture.

people resist ideas that seem too foreign, as well as

11. The social policy of bilingualism calls for the use

those they perceive as threatening to their own val-

of two or more languages, treating each as equally

ues and beliefs.

legitimate. It is supported by those who want to

5. Language, an important element of culture,

ease the transition of non-native language speakers

includes speech, written characters, numerals, and

into a host society, but opposed by those who ad-

symbols, as well as gestures and other forms of

here to a single cultural tradition and language.

nonverbal communication. Language both de-

scribes culture and shapes it.



Critical Thinking Questions

1. Select three cultural universals from George Mur- culture with which you are familiar. Describe the

dock’s list (see page 58) and analyze them from a norms, values, argot, and sanctions evident in that

functionalist perspective. Why are these practices subculture.

found in every culture? What functions do they 3. In what ways is the dominant ideology of the

serve? United States evident in the nation’s literature,

2. Drawing on the theories and concepts presented in music, movies, theater, television programs, and

this chapter, apply sociological analysis to one sub- sporting events?



Key Terms

Argot Specialized language used by members of a Cultural universal A common practice or belief found

group or subculture. (page 69) in every culture. (58)

Bilingualism The use of two or more languages in a Culture The totality of learned, socially transmitted

particular setting, such as the workplace or school- customs, knowledge, material objects, and behavior.

room, treating each language as equally legitimate. (55)

(73) Culture lag A period of maladjustment when the non-

Counterculture A subculture that deliberately opposes material culture is still struggling to adapt to new

certain aspects of the larger culture. (71) material conditions. (61)

Cultural relativism The viewing of people’s behavior

from the perspective of their own culture. (72)

Culture 77





Culture shock The feeling of surprise and disorienta- Law Governmental social control. (65)

tion that people experience when they encounter cul- Material culture The physical or technological aspects

tural practices that are different from their own. (71) of our daily lives. (61)

Diffusion The process by which a cultural item Mores Norms deemed highly necessary to the welfare

spreads from group to group or society to society. of a society. (65)

(59) Nonmaterial culture Ways of using material objects,

Discovery The process of making known or sharing as well as customs, beliefs, philosophies, govern-

the existence of an aspect of reality. (58) ments, and patterns of communication. (61)

Dominant ideology A set of cultural beliefs and prac- Norm An established standard of behavior maintained

tices that helps to maintain powerful social, eco- by a society. (64)

nomic, and political interests. (68) Sanction A penalty or reward for conduct concerning

Ethnocentrism The tendency to assume that one’s a social norm. (66)

own culture and way of life represent the norm or are Sapir-Whorf hypothesis A hypothesis concerning the

superior to all others. (72) role of language in shaping our interpretation of real-

Folkway A norm governing everyday behavior whose ity. It holds that language is culturally determined. (62)

violation raises comparatively little concern. (65) Society A fairly large number of people who live in the

Formal norm A norm that has been written down and same territory, are relatively independent of people

that specifies strict punishments for violators. (65) outside it, and participate in a common culture. (58)

Globalization The worldwide integration of govern- Sociobiology The systematic study of how biology af-

ment policies, cultures, social movements, and finan- fects human social behavior. (61)

cial markets through trade and the exchange of ideas. Subculture A segment of society that shares a distinc-

(59) tive pattern of mores, folkways, and values that dif-

Informal norm A norm that is generally understood fers from the pattern of the larger society. (68)

but not precisely recorded. (65) Technology Cultural information about how to use

Innovation The process of introducing a new idea or the material resources of the environment to satisfy

object to a culture through discovery or invention. human needs and desires. (61)

(58) Value A collective conception of what is considered

Invention The combination of existing cultural items good, desirable, and proper—or bad, undesirable,

into a form that did not exist before. (58) and improper—in a culture. (66)

Language An abstract system of word meanings and Xenocentrism The belief that the products, styles, or

symbols for all aspects of culture; includes gestures ideas of one’s society are inferior to those that origi-

and other nonverbal communication. (62) nate elsewhere. (72)





TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES



www.

mhhe.com Internet Connection

/schaefer6





Note: While all the URLs listed were current as of the 2. Our society recently developed a new set of norms

printing of this book, these sites often change. Please check to govern behavior on the Internet. Are you

our website (www.mhhe.com/schaefer6) for updates, familiar with these rules? Test your knowledge of

hyperlinks, and exercises related to these cites. appropriate behavior on the Net by exploring the

Netiquette site (www.albion.com/netiquette/

1. One of the more interesting examples of argot

index.html).

comes from the prison subculture. To see an

extensive glossary of terms used by prison inmates,

visit the Other Side of the Wall (www.prisonwall.

org) and select “Prisoner’s Dictionary.”

78 Chapter 3







Online Learning Center with PowerWeb



In this chapter you have learned that language is the line Learning Center (www.mhhe.com/schaefer6) re-

foundation of every culture. For a long time, people in quires you to use a “foreign” language to do the activity.

the United States demanded conformity to a single lan- You will be taught a simple language called Pig Latin.

guage. More recently, however, we have seen challenges to Give it a try and see whether or not you feel competent

this forced obedience to our dominant ideology. One of completing the exercise in this “foreign” language.

the interactive exercises in the student center of the On-





Reel Society Interactive Movie CD-ROM 2.0



Reel Society 2.0 can be used to spark discussion about the following topics from this

chapter:

• Cultural Universals

• Norms